4/23/13

Updates on improving refractory lining service life | Hydrocarbon Processing | March 2011

COPYING AND DISTRIBUTING ARE PROHIBITED WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE PUBLISHER

Updates on improving refractory lining service life

03 .01 .2 01 1 | Mait y , M. , SABIC Technology Centre, Jubail, Saudi Arabia

T ips help m aintenance and operations care and m aintain refractory products in high-tem perature operations Key words: The hy drocarbon processing industry (HPI) utilizes high-temperature conditions and relies on the performance of refractory lining for v arious furnaces and v essels. The total installed cost of refractories in HPI facilities is negligible compared to the total cost of the entire complex . Howev er, refractory lining is v ery important and it play s a critical role in the total performance, profitability and reliable operation of the plant. There are sev eral instances of refractory lining non-performances and premature failures resulted in unplanned emergency shutdown. We will discuss common problems and failures encountered in HPI facilities and some remedial measures to follow.

Background.
In the HPI, refractories are mostly installed on fired heaters, hy drogen reformers, ammonia primary and secondary reformers, cracking furnaces, incinerators, process gas boilers, cataly tic cracking units, coke calciner, sulfur furnaces, utility boilers, air heaters, ducting, stacks, etc. Some of the listed equipment operate under high pressure, and operating temperature can v ary from v ery low to v ery high (approx imately 500C to 1 ,600C). Refractories play a critical role for the total performance and reliable operation of high-temperature processing units. Refractories can be the controlling factor in the success or failure of a furnace and v essels serv ice life, as well as the safe and profitable operation of the plant. Most HPI facilities operate under continuous operating mode and will run for sev eral y ears before a scheduled shutdown for maintenance or turnaround. Therefore, the prime objectiv e here is equipment reliability . Also, in the HPI, the time between shutdowns and maintenance outages is increasing with the implementation of stringent quality control and prev entiv e maintenance programs. The shutdown period is usually short in duration and is planned primarily for mechanical ov erhaul. The life and durability of refractory lining should not be the determining factor in the frequency and duration of shutdowns. In spite of its importance, refractories are, in many cases, neglected, misunderstood and abused, and the uncared for refractory can cause sev eral problems during regular plant operations. The unex pected problems can cause an emergency shutdown or require longer maintenance time to rectify both the damages in the refractory lining as well as mechanical damages to unit equipment. Also, the sudden failure of the lining can pose a significant risk and threat to plant safety . Therefore, it is important for HPI facilities to optimize the lining reliability and performance in v arious applications. It may be possible to minimize refractory related problems and reduce unnecessary ex penses by introducing sound engineering practices, following prov en guidelines and sharing practical ex periences while designing the lining and selecting construction materials, installation methods, etc. This article will discuss sev eral common problems and failures of refractory lining and highlight important considerations to mitigate such problems.

Common problems and failures.

The performance of any lining in a furnace is considered to be reasonable when similar serv ice liv es are achiev ed on a regular basis. Premature lining failure may be defined as one that does not achiev e normal or av erage performance and serv ice life. The furnaces and v essels in the HPI do not consume the refractory with corrosiv e liquid metal, slag, abrasion, impact, etc., which are common in metallurgical furnaces. Refractory lining problems and failures are mainly due to thermo-mechanical stresses, erosion and chemical attack. The most common refractory problems as ex perienced in the HPI are: Hot spots (higher casing temperature) Ex cessiv e cracking Spalling of lining (thermal, mechanical, structural) Erosion and thinning of lining Chemical attack/corrosion from process gases (such as hy drogen, carbon monox ide, sulfur diox ide, alkalies), flue gases (sulfur, sodium, v anadium), steam, etc. Acid-gas dew-point corrosion of refractory and metallic parts Partial melting and degradation of lining Ex cessiv e shrinkage and dev elopment of gaps Anchor failure and detachment of lining from wall Failure of metal liner ov er refractory Ex plosiv e spalling during dry out Mechanical damages. The ex tent of damages and failures may v ary equipment to equipment. Sometimes the problems appear within a short time of operation or during commissioning, and this can become a major concern. Most processing industries handle highly combustible hy drocarbons. Therefore, lining problems in critical pressure v essels and boilers are a major concern and, in many cases, causes immediate shutdown to av oid any accidents. HPI processing plants are complicated inv olv ing continuous chain reactions in the interconnected network of reactors, v essels and pipelines. Any problem in any particular v essel due to a refractory problem can result in a complete shutdown of the unit and/or the entire facility . Here are some of the common ex amples of refractory damage (Figs. 1 1 2). The reduction in lining thickness in the cataly tic cracking unit is caused either by cracking and spalling due to heav y thermal shock or erosion by cataly st particles and subsequent hot spot or partial ex posure of shell plate. Also, mechanical damage in the cy clones due to erosion of the lining and plate may disturb the unit operation. Failure of the lining due to inadequate anchor sy stem is v ery common for all kinds of lining. Ex plosiv e spalling may be caused during the initial dry out due to uncontrolled heating.

www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/Article/2780144/Updates-on-improving-refractory-lining-service-life.html

1/8

4/23/13

Updates on improving refractory lining service life | Hydrocarbon Processing | March 2011

Fig. 1. Ty pical refractory lining failuresCrack in castable lining.

Fig. 2. Ty pical refractory lining failuresCastable wall detached.

Fig. 3. Ty pical refractory lining failuresRoof lining collapse.

www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/Article/2780144/Updates-on-improving-refractory-lining-service-life.html

2/8

4/23/13
Fig. 4. Ty pical refractory lining failuresCastable damage and anchors ex posed.

Updates on improving refractory lining service life | Hydrocarbon Processing | March 2011

Fig. 5. Ty pical refractory lining failuresLoose bricks hanging.

Fig. 6. Ty pical refractory lining failuresCF module fallen from roof.

Fig. 7 . Ty pical refractory lining failuresCasing plate corrosion with perforation.

Differential mov ement of the shell and lining due to a mismatch in ex pansion behav ior, uncontrolled heating-cooling, mechanical stresses, etc., can cause v arious problems in the lining. In many cases, localized hot spots or high temperatures are controlled by steam impingement to reduce the casing temperature and continue plant operation. Reductions in thermal efficiency , as well as associated risks and plant safety , are major concern for such cases.

Failure analysis and corrective actions.

Refractory -lined equipment function as a sy stem. There are sev eral interacting phy sical and chemical effects that may be ongoing, progressiv e, cy clic, etc., that will definitely control the performance of refractory . Therefore, in most of the cases, it may be v ery difficult to conclude a single reason for nonperformance and premature failure of the lining. Also, there are numerous precommissioning factors related to design, material selection, installation, etc., as ex plained prev iously that directly

www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/Article/2780144/Updates-on-improving-refractory-lining-service-life.html

3/8

4/23/13
affect performance.

Updates on improving refractory lining service life | Hydrocarbon Processing | March 2011

In some cases, the poor quality material or installation workmanship of the refractory may contribute to the problem. But it is also possible that a good quality refractory or installation can giv e unsatisfactory performance because of a combination of other factors. The analy sis of any refractory problem should consider numerous factors and identify the main root cause for the problems and select appropriate recommendations. Identify ing the actual reason of non-performance for the lining is a difficult task, and this inv olv es sy stematic study and analy sis of the problem. Rev iews of background information particularly design engineering, quality and source of material, installation procedures and records, operational records, post-serv ice inspection and maintenance history are important for the root-cause analy sis. Awareness of the operational parameters and potential degradation mechanisms that can lead to failure of the lining is essential to understand the problems and remedial measures. A thorough sy stem analy sis should result in a better understanding of the v arious factors that control the performance of the lining and y ield in sound basis for correctiv e remedial measures and actions. Therefore, clues and relev ant facts of failure should be gathered, analy zed, ex plored and studied to make a meaningful conclusion. Collecting samples and selectiv e laboratory testing should be part of the failure analy sis, if required. Important factors responsible for the performance of the lining are briefly ex plained here.

Important factors governing refractory lining performance.

Whenev er there are some problems in lining, we mostly conclude that either the refractory material was bad or the installation was poor. Howev er, in reality , the problems are probably due to a combination of multiple factors and may not be solely just one factorpoor installation or inferior refractory quality . Clients as well as the project contractors, suppliers and others dont alway s recognize that their actions and ov ersights can directly affect the performance of the lining. To address the problems associated with refractories, it is necessary to recognize the main factors that are inv olv ed and contribute refractory related problems. These factors are: Design of furnaces/v essels Design of refractory lining and detail engineering Selection of refractory materials and specification Quality of refractory materials Installation of lining Curing, startup and maintenance of lining Operation practices Inspection and maintenance practices. It is important to giv e attention to these listed factors to av oid and minimize unex pected and premature failure or problems of lining. Design of furnace/v essels. The performance and stability of the refractory lining depends on the structural design of the furnace and its configuration. Sometimes adequate attention is not giv en to the refractory lining and its engineering related issues during early plant equipment design and detail engineering. One of the most common observ ations is that the refractory designers or specialists are inv olv ed at the final stage of project implementation or during installation. This may lead to sev eral compromises with refractory -lining design and engineering practices as there is limited scope for change in v essel design, operating conditions and the process to reduce the impact of these factors on lining performance. The problem of refractory lining may be due to insufficient combustion v olume. The heat released within the sy stem is more than absorbed by the process and is dissipated through walls or ex hausted with flue gases. In such cases, there are possibilities of the lining approaching the flame temperature and causing sev eral problems. The burner ty pe, its design, location, flame shape, possibilities of flame impingement, flowing pattern of flue gases, etc., may affect the lining. In many cases, limited v essel dimensions, inaccessibility and complicated configuration restricts the best lining practices during initial construction as well as subsequent maintenance and repair. Design of refractory lining and detail engineering. The design and detail engineering of the lining for a furnace and v essel should be done on the basis of careful analy sis of serv ice conditions, av ailability of refractory materials, thickness requirements, anchorage, ease of installation and future repair and maintenance. Adequate knowledge on operating conditions that are activ esuch as temperature, pressure, chemical attack, thermal shock, abrasion, erosion, furnace gas composition, mechanical mov ement, v ibration, etc.should be v ery useful for the optimum lining design and selection of refractory . Chemical attack may occur from gases such as steam, hy drogen, carbon monox ide, alkalies, sulfurous gases, etc.; these acid gases can initiate v arious problems in the lining, which are ex plained in the literature. All of the important operating factors and any other criteria specific to the process under consideration should be v erified for their possible effect on the performance of the lining. Thermal calculation is essential for any lining to ensure design casing temperature, temperature gradient in the wall and heat losses. Thermo-mechanical FEM analy sis may be carried out for critical v essels and load bearing refractory structures to predict temperatures, stresses and displacements in the lining. The FEM analy sis is a reliable tool to inv estigate the spalling mechanisms and to dev elop way s on improv ing the lining behav ior. Anchors are used for almost all ty pes of refractory applications. These are mostly metallic ty pe. Lining failures due to inadequacies in the anchoring sy stem are v ery common (Figs. 6, 9 and 1 0). Selecting the proper metallurgy , anchor dimensions, configurations, and spacing are v ery important to achiev e the max imum serv ice life of the lining. Where metal liners are used ov er the lining, the mechanical design should be sound and allow free mov ement of the liner on one end from its fix ed positions.

Fig. 8. Ty pical refractory lining failuresAcid condensation below lining.

www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/Article/2780144/Updates-on-improving-refractory-lining-service-life.html

4/8

4/23/13

Updates on improving refractory lining service life | Hydrocarbon Processing | March 2011

Fig. 9. Ty pical refractory lining failuresOx idation of anchor.

Fig. 10. Ty pical refractory lining failuresSurface spalling and ex posed anchor.

While designing a new lining for a v essel it is important to consider ease of future maintenance and repair. Howev er, this aspect of the lining design is compromised in many cases because a lining sy stem that is maintenance friendly may be more ex pensiv e with respect to initial materials and installation ex penses as compared to a lining that is adequate to meet the initial contractual requirements. Details of the lining lay out structure, thickness, dimension, shape and sizes of indiv idual bricks and other shaped items, their lay ing and bonding patterns, prov isions for ex pansion allowances, support of brick-wall, etc., should be part of the detail engineering for each piece of equipment. Finally , practical ex periences and ex perience-based judgments are v ery important for successful and reliable design of any refractory lining. Therefore, inv olv ement of ex perienced engineers from the design stages to final implementation is one of the essential parameters to get the optimum performance of lining. Selection of refractory m aterials and specification. The majority of refractories used in the HPI are aluminasilicate and high alumina v arietiesboth insulating and dense ty pes. Mainly bricks, monolithics, ceramic fiber items, different ty pes of insulating blocks, etc., are used for lining. Bricks and monolithics are av ailable for both dense and insulating ty pes with a wide range of properties and each material has an application that is more suitable. Selecting materials should alway s be based on properties and specifications suitable for the specific application and operating conditions. Most refractory materials react and change during serv ice according to the principle of thermo-chemistry . It is important to know the furnace atmosphere, presence of any major or minor chemicals and their possible effects on the lining. Selecting materials solely based on price and ease of installation should be av oided. V ery often, monolithic lining sy stem is selected in the lining design of critical v essels where brick lining or some other design may be more suitable. The selection may be due to cheap and easy av ailability of monolithics and easier installation than brick lining and to av oid preparation of too many engineering drawings for the complicated brick shapes and lay ing details. In many cases, recommendations of refractory manufacturers are biased and based on their av ailable product ranges, which may not be appropriate for the required conditions. Selection should be based on the desired serv ice life and cost considerations. Initial cost of refractory lining should not be the selection criteria but rather the serv ice life of lining under operating conditions. It is better to dev elop the material specification for any application based on discussions with the manufacturers to ensure it is more practical and realistic. The specification should be regularly rev iewed and updated based on actual performance of used materials and current industry practices. Quality of refractory m aterials. Refractory materials are heterogeneous, and quality v aries both as manufactured and as installed. Materials should be procured against specifications most appropriate to the specific application. For critical applications, purchasing of materials based on a comparison of product datasheet or catalogue specifications or equiv alent principles should be av oided. The actual performance references and records for specific products or brands should be v erified against similar applications. Rev iews of manufacturing facilities and quality -control program, and random inspection and testing of important properties are essential. Lining installation. Unlike other engineering subjects, there are v ery few well-established and recognized engineering standards, design and installation guidelines for refractory jobs to ensure quality installation of the lining and its subsequent satisfactory performance. In many applications and contracts, the only quality assurance is limited to warranty and guarantee of material and lining for a limited operating period. Installations of refractory rely upon manpower. Because of the human element, care should be taken to ensure inv olv ement of only ex perienced manpower in the installation. Dev eloping job specific installation procedures, quality plans and acceptance criteria of the installed lining, prequalification materials, and installation crew are some of the important factors that companies must address

www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/Article/2780144/Updates-on-improving-refractory-lining-service-life.html

5/8

4/23/13
before any job.

Updates on improving refractory lining service life | Hydrocarbon Processing | March 2011

API 936 guidelines , dev eloped by the American Petroleum Institute (API) are v ery useful tools for quality control of monolithic lining. There are also some specifications and standards dev eloped by Process Industry Practices (PIP) especially for process industries. Prequalification of materials, installation procedures, machinery and crew, testing of as installed samples, ambient condition monitoring, acceptance criteria for installed lining, inv olv ement of neutral inspection agency for quality monitoring, etc., are important requirements of these standards. Many clients and licensors hav e started recommending compliance to these guidelines for critical applications. Possible quality control for brick and ceramic fiber lining in similar lines are ex pected to improv e quality for the total installation job and compliance to engineering practices. Using common standards and guidelines will help the industry to mitigate installation problems. This also helps in dev eloping quality installation manpower that are actually ex ecuting the jobs in the field, particularly crews, masons and superv isors. Dry out and heat up. The heat dry out of a new lining, particularly monolithic lining, is a critical step when considering the total quality for the installation. Slow and controlled remov al of free and chemically bonded water from the lining sy stem is essential before actual startup of the unit. Ex plosiv e spalling or cracking may occur in lining when quick and uncontrolled initial heat up or dry out of the refractory is done. Also, alkali hy droly sis is a major concern for monolithic lining in tropical and subtropical weather conditions. Dry -out needs to be done at the earliest to prev ent damage. When delay s in dry out or complete dry -out are not practical, suitable sealants may be used on monolithic lining to reduce alkali hy droly sis reaction and damage. Also, natural-air circulation should be maintained within the furnace to av oid hot and humid conditions. Dev eloping job specifications for the dry out schedule is essential instead of following general guidelines from the supplier. Burner size and location, ex haust location, air v olume, v elocity , temperature-control locations, etc., need to be properly addressed. Permanent burners or special ex ternal burners may be used for dry out depending on requirements. Permanent burners hav e limitations of inadequate temperature control at the initial stage. Many specialized dry -out agencies are av ailable to carry out this job in most professional manner. Unit operation. Production and operation personnel should be aware of the process parameters that may affect the serv ice life of the refractory lining for furnaces or reactors. Minor changes in operating conditions and processes may strongly influence the performance of any lining. Abnormal changes in burner operationsuch as flame impingement on refractory surface, incomplete burning of fuel causing change in furnace atmosphere, changes in temperature, pressure, fuel quality (dirty fuel), heating and cooling rate, etc.hav e direct effects on the refractory lining. Operating at a higher temperature than specified in the design can reduce the serv ice life of the refractory . High limit thermocouples should be located at strategic positions for monitoring and controlling temperatures within the sy stem. In many cases, the problem or initiation of deterioration in lining due to operational issues may not become v isible immediately . Therefore, it is important to gather information on operational information and records while study ing the problem. Inspection and m aintenance. Regular inspection of the lining and condition monitoring should be part of the operating plan for critical equipment. The frequency of inspection may be decided based on historical problems, sev erity of operating conditions, complex ity of design and other factors. Timely identification of problems and correctiv e actions may lead to longer life of the lining. Temperature-sensitiv e paints are widely used to monitor casing temperature and locate hot spots. Infrared thermography is an important tool for online-temperature measurement, condition monitoring of lining, predicting problems, and maintaining equipment uptime during a problem. Thermography is v ery useful for locating and monitoring effected areas in case of any operational upset or localized problem in the furnace, and thus allowing the inspectors insight into what is happening inside the lining. This allows the plant to make appropriate decisions in planning the shutdown schedule and maintenance repairs and estimating the total materials needed for these repairs. The maintenance strategy for refractory linings should be based on cost-effectiv e proactiv e sy stems rather than on conv entional reactiv e sy stems. The probable reasons and mode of failure should be ascertained before redesigning or repairing a lining. Change in lining design and installation practices without proper analy sis of factors limiting the serv ice life of the ex isting lining may not be a long-term solution. All repair and maintenance jobs should be treated like a new job with proper quality control. It is important to inspect and record all repairs to maintain a proper trend and database. Other factors. There are many other factors that may directly or indirectly affect the performance of the lining. In most construction sites, refractory installation is one of the last activ ities. With any delay in other pre-activ ities, there is alway s pressure on shortening and possibly compromising the refractory installation schedule to make up for earlier delay s. This attitude of getting the job done fast may hav e major adv erse effects on quality . Ambient temperature and working conditions for workers hav e direct effects on the quality of the installation job. Implementing cost-cutting measures, purchasing refractory and selecting the contractor solely on the basis of commercial issues with less importance on quality , serv ices, etc., may be the contributing factors to poor performance ov er the longer term.

Fig. 11. Ty pical refractory lining failuresBrick wall bulged.

www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/Article/2780144/Updates-on-improving-refractory-lining-service-life.html

6/8

4/23/13

Updates on improving refractory lining service life | Hydrocarbon Processing | March 2011

Fig. 12. Ty pical refractory lining failuresBrick wall collapsed and hex mesh detachment.

Observations for quality.

Refractory is a div erse class of materials that are used to insulate and protect industrial furnaces and v essels. The properties of the refractories are tailored to specific applications by v ary ing the composition of raw materials. The technology of refractories is making remarkable progress recently . Dev elopments in refractory lining design sy stem and performance specifications with as-built quality requirements are v ery important for this specialized field. With ev ery lining failure, there is a degree of uniqueness that results from v ariability in design and application, complex ity of serv ice conditions and material behav ior. Awareness of the potential degradation mechanisms of lining and operating parameters is essential to mitigate such problems. Implementing v arious quality control programs, adv anced installation procedures and online inspection can contribute to satisfy results. HP BIBLIOGRAPGHY American petroleum Institute, API RP 936, Refractory installation quality control guidelines-inspection and testing monolithic refractory linings and materials. Biglin, J., Refractory Maintenance and repair, The American Ceramic Society Bulletin, V ol.7 5, No. 5, May 1 996. Crowley , M. S., Design better v essel linings, Hydrocarbon Processing, December 1 97 9. Dev era, D., After installation the importance of a controlled dry -out for castable refractories, The Refractories Engineer, July 2003. Gardner, A., FCC Cy clone Refractories, Todays Refinery, Nov ember 1 998. Hanley , R. M., Refractories utilization in the hy drocarbon processing industries, The Refractories Engineer, July 2000. Hancock, J. D., Practical Refractories, Cannon & Hancock CC. Heard, N. E., Quality Control Practices in the US Petrochemical Industries, Unitcer, 1 989. James, S., The Fundamentals of Refractory Inspection with Infrared Thermography . Schacht, C. A., Refractory Linings, Marcel Dekker, Inc. Semler, C. E., Ov erv iew of refractory problems in industry , Interceram, V ol.40, No.7 , 1 991 . T he author

Manabendra Maity is working as a refractory specialist at the Materials & Corrosion Section of Sabic Technology Centre, Jubail, KSA. He holds B.Tech degree in ceramic engineering from Calcutta Univ ersity and a M.Tech degree in ceramic engineering from IT-BHU, India. He has more than 1 6 y ears of ex tensiv e ex perience in refractory lining design, engineering, installation & quality control, failure analy sis and troubleshooting for furnaces and v essels for the refining, petrochemical and metallurgical industries. He started his career in 1 994 as a refractories & non-metallics engineer in Engineers India Ltd., New Delhi and continued there until 2007 . It was followed by two y ears in Ciria Div ision of Thermal Ceramics. Mr. Maity is life member of India Ceramic Society & Indian Institute of Ceramics. He has qualifiedfor API-936 Refractory Personnel Certification Program.

Padav Shailesh 02.05.201 3

kam re azam 1 2.30.201 2 P R Krishnam oorthy 01 .20.201 2

what is normal pitch for anchors in castable lining shashank Refractory break down in boiler 01 .31 .201 3 a. ov erheating b.moisture present during start up c. Highly fluctuating temperatur/load d. ex cessiv e v ibration which one or which all are causes frm these option?plz rply I am working on an enquiry to prepare estimae for HDRI Feed bin of a Steel manufacturer. Need help to know what are liner plates used for refractory in such ty pe of bins. They need liner plates 1 0mm. Y ou hav e mentioned dry out has to be as earliest after castable refractory lining. If the commissioning is delay ed for months after the dry out is there any preserv ations required for the lined dry ed out refractory castable? Can we box up the heater and forget till start up? Please indicate y our v iews. 20-01 -201 2 Dear Friend: Hope y ou hav e a great day ! Sinabuddy Mineral Co.Ltd is one large manufacturer of Refractories Materials in China and knew y ou are one of the importers in Refractory .

Shirly Liu 1 1 .03.201 1

www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/Article/2780144/Updates-on-improving-refractory-lining-service-life.html

7/8

4/23/13

Updates on improving refractory lining service life | Hydrocarbon Processing | March 2011
We introduce our products, thats including White Aluminum Ox ide, Brown Aluminum Ox ide , Black Silicon Carbon, Tabular Alumina, Calcined Alumina, Fused Mullite, Fused Zirconia Mullite, Bubble Alumina, Fused Spinel. Any inquiries, please do not hesitate to contact us. We are looking forward to establish win-win business relations with y ou. Many thanks and best regards! SINABUDDY MINERAL CO., LTD Address: Zhengzhou city Henan prov ince China Tel: 0086-37 1 -55698532-607 Fax : 0086-37 1 -601 5347 6 Web: www.sinabuddy .com Email: shirly @sinabuddy .com Dear Sir, Can we know the effect of alkali hy droly sis in LC castable where the water for mix ing is v ery low. also please let me know whether insulating castables are better thermal shock resistance than dense castable thanks in adv ance Kindly send me the different applicaton of refrectory ,Castable with their chemical or kinetic reaction in furnace. different application in refractory lining process details .....plz send me...iam intrested lern refractory lining 04.1 0.201 1 process

Ganesh Mithran 1 0.1 4.201 1

Rav indr dubey 08.25.201 1

Please read our Term and Conditions and Priv acy Policy before using the site. All material subject to strictly enforced copy right laws. 201 1 Hydrocarbon Processing . 201 1 Gulf Publishing Company .

www.hydrocarbonprocessing.com/Article/2780144/Updates-on-improving-refractory-lining-service-life.html

8/8