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Zoom Out Zoom In 1. Indus-Sarasvati Civilization First st eps o f t echnology and science in the protohistoric era* The eastw est alignment of the main streets of Mohenjo-daros citadel (or acropolis, left ) was based on the Pleiades star cluster ( Krittik a ), which rose due east at t h e t i me; it no longer does because of the precession of the equinoxe s . ( German archaeologist Holger W a nzke, Axis systems and orientat ion at Mohenjo-daro, 1987) The mystery of Mohenjo-daros ring stones (above right) :t h e small d r illed

holes (see red ar rows) , showed the s tones w ere used to track the pat h of the sun through the year , as seen from Mohenjo-daro. Such evidences demonstrate t h e f i rst steps in observat i onal astronomy. There are o t her h i nts, such as possible astronomical symbolism on a few seals. ( Fin n ish scholar Erkka Maulan, The Calendar Stones from Mohe njo-daro, 1984) * For techn o l o g y , pl ease see s eparate pdf file o n this civilization. A rudimentary decimal system The standardized Harappan system of weight s follow ed a dual binar y decimal progression:

1 (= 0.86 g), 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64; then, instead of cont inuing w i t h the geometr i c progression: 160, 200, 320, 640 , 1,600, 3,200, 6, 400, 8,000, 12,800; therefore tens, hundre d s and thousands of previous units. Note: T h is does not mean that the Harappa ns noted their numbers in a decimal manner (that is vir t ually im possible, as th is development comes much later) . Several ot her ancient civilizat i ons also used mult ip les of 10 without a decimal system of numeral notations. 2. Historical Era: Pre-Siddhantic Period Geometry of the Shulbastras (6 th to 10 th century BCE , possibly earlier ) : t

h ese four ancient texts deal w i th complex f i re altars of various shapes constructed w i t h bricks of specif i c shapes and area: the t o tal area of the altar must alw ays be carefully respected. This leads to precise but purely geometr i cal calculat i ons (algebra does not exist yet) . The Shulbastras g i ve a precise geometric expr ession of the socalled P ythagorean t h eorem. Right angles w e re made by ropes marked to g i ve the tr iads 3, 4, 5 and 5, 12, 13 (3 2 + 4 2 = 5 2

, 5 2 + 1 2 2 = 1 3 2 ). We should rename this theorem the Shulba theorem! Examples of other geometric operations in the Shulbastras : Squaring the circle ( and viceversa): geometrically construc ting a square having t h e same area as a given area. Adding or subtracting t h e areas of tw o squares (to produce a single square). Doubling the area of a square. In the last construction, 2 works out t o 577/408 or 1.414215, correct to the 5 th decimal. (Same precision with 3.) Pingalas treat ise Chhandas h stra or the science of verse meter s (a few

centur i es BCE , Pingala being perhaps the brother of the famous grammarian Panini). Notatio n of ver se meters for verses w i th various numbers of syllables (6 in th is case). Syllables are light ( laghu ) or heavy ( guru ). The system of notat ion, spelling out every possible combination of light and hea vy syllables, is identical to the modern binary notation of numbers used in computers. Ea rlie st ins c r iptions (firs t c e n turie s BCE and AD): numerals w i thout decimal p l ace value. See for in stance how in the first column, 40 is formed by repeat ing th e symb o l for

20 tw ice. There is also no symbol for 0 and no mathemat ical concept of zero. It is well established that socalled A rabic numerals originated in Indi a. Their evolution has been traced to the Brhm script o f Mauryan t i mes. The Webster dictionary gives the synony m of Hindu-Arabic numerals. All Indian numerals ar e also ultimately derived from Brhm numerals (except for Tamil, which had a different system using letters). Ghati yantra, a type of water clock: the bowl, w i th a small hole at its b o ttom, sinks after 24 mn (a unit of time called ghati , equal to 1/60 th of a day). Ancient texts r e fer to various other devices (gnomons, sun dials et c.) which have

disappe ared, but point to a long tradition of observat i on. (Below:) A sun dial (Jantar Mantar, Jaipur, 18 th century) . Such massive st ructures are found only in r ecent t i mes; ancient observatories must have consisted of simple implements made of wood. Judeo-Christian time scale Indian time scale compare Satya: 1,728,000 year s Tret: 1,296,000 year s Dvpara: 864,000 year s Kali: 432,000 year s _______________ Chatury uga : 4,320,000 year s Duration of a day of Bra h m = one kalpa or 1,000 chaturyuga = 4.32 billion years. Anno mundi (year of the world

s creat ion): 3761 BC (Judaism) 4004 BC (Christ i anity) The Hindu religion is the only one of the w o rlds great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, inde ed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths . It is the only religion in which the t i me scales correspond, no doubt by accident, t o those of modern scient i f i c cosmology. Its cycles run fr om our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Ba ng. An d there are much longer time scales still. U.S. astronome r Carl Sagan, Cosmos Ancient Indians conceived the infinity of time and space: Cyclic time. Limit l ess space B

hskara I : The sky is beyond limit ; it is impossible t o state its measure. The concept of inf i n i ty underlies much of lat e r Indian science: Bra h magupta first spelt out the mathematical definition of infinity. S. Ramanujan: The man w ho knew infinity is the title o f one of his b iographies. Concept of evolution: The notion of Dashavatar (10 incarnations of the divine consciousness) contain s the seed of the concept of evolutio n : the f i rst body is a fish, the second an amphibian, the thir d a mammal, t

h e fourt h half-man half-animal, the fifth a short man, etc. ( l ater st ages reflecting a spiritual evolution). A c onc eptualiz ation or intu it io n of the truth expressed by Darwinian evolution. 3. Highlights o f the S iddhantic Period (from the 5 th century CE ): the golden age of Indian mathematics and astronomy Early Indian scientists This map (adapted from the w e bsite of St. Andrews University, Scot land) lists the main f i gures of ear ly Indian science. ( The exact p l ace or epoch of many of them remains uncertain). Note th e shif

t t o the South, especially Karnataka and Kerala, after the 12 th century. The first known inscription w i th a decimal p l ace-value not at ion (Sankheda, Gujarat , dated 346 Chhedi era, or AD 594): for the f i rst time, 3 stands for hundreds, 4 for tens and 6 for units. George s Ifrah: The Universal History o f Numbers, in 3 volumes. Volume 2 is mostly about Indias contributions to mathematics. Testimonies from two French mathematicians: The ingenious method of expr essing every possible number using a set o f t e n symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in I ndia. The idea seems so simple nowada ys that its significance and profound importance is no longe r appreciated. Its simplicity lies in th e way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmet ic foremost amongst useful inventions. The

importance of this invention is mo re r eadily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond t h e two greatest men of Antiquity, Archimedes and Apollonius. L aplace (ear ly 19 th century) The Indian mind has always had for calculations and the handling o f numbers an ext r aordinary inclination, ease and power, such as no other civilizat i on in h i story ever possessed to the same degree. S o much so that Indian culture r e garded the science of numbers as the noblest of its arts.... A thousand year s ahead of Europeans, Indian savants knew t h at the zero and inf i nit y were mutually inverse notions.... George s Ifrah ( 1994) rya bh ata was a brilliant scientist who lived at Kusum a

pura (probably today s Patna). In 499 CE, he wrote the ryabhatya, a br ief but extr e mely important treat ise of mathemat ics and astronomy, at t h e age of 23! A few hig h lights: ryabhata about the earth: The earth is a rotating sphere: the stars do not move, it is the earth that rotates. Its diameter is 1,050 yojanas . I ts circumference i s therefore 1050 x 13.6 x = 44,860 km, about 12% off. (1 yojana = 8,000 human heights) ryabhata on eclipses: The moon eclipses the sun, and the great shadow of the earth eclipses t h e moon. ( ryabhat

 ya , I V.37) ryabhata also ... Gave a table of sines ( a bove) : 24 values for t h e f i rst quadrant in increments of 3.75 (all values correct to 3 or 4 signif i cant f igures). Proposed that = 62832 / 20000 = 3.1416, adding th at it was an ap p rox i mate value. Gave for the f i r s t t i me the formula for the ar ea of a t r iangle. Solved in integers linear indeterminate equatio n

s of th e type a x + c = by through the kut t aka or pulverizing method. A thousand years ahead of Europeans, Indian savants knew that the zero and infinity were mutually inverse notions.... G eorges Ifrah Khachheda means divided by kha ; Kha (space) stands for zero; Divided by zero = infinity. B rahmagupta, Bra h masphuta Siddh nta (628 CE) Foundations of modern algebra Solutions in integers for Nx 2 + 1 = y 2 were proposed by Brahmagupta (the bhvan method). Mahvir a (9 th century): approximate formulas for the area and circumf e rence of an ellipse; w o

rk on permutations and combinations. Bhskara II (12 th century) developed th e im pr oved cyclic method ( chakravla ) ; e.g., smallest so lutions t o 61x 2 + 1 = y 2 are 226153980 & 1766319049. Lagrange reached the same so lutions in the 18 th century, but through a much longer method. Bhskara II also worked on derivat i ves (of a sine funct i on in r e lat i on to the velocity of p l anets) . The Kerala School Parameswara ( 1360-1455): det a iled observatio

ns of eclipses o ver 55 years and consequent correction tec hniques; minute corrections for the position of planets afte r long periods of time. Inf i n i te series, especially of tr igonometr i c fu nctions. Mdhava (14 th century): power series expans ions for sine and cosine (correct to 1/3600 th of a degree). Infinite series o f (result ing in values w i th 10 correct decimals) . Nlakantha (15 th century): formula for t h e sum o f a convergent inf i n i te geometric ser ies. Concept of helioce ntrism (building on Paramesw

ara). The calculus controversy: Indian mathemat ics had on Arabic mathem at ics, and ult i mat e ly, through Latin translat ions, on European math emat ics, an in f l uence that is considerably neglected.... If indeed it is true that transmission of id eas and resu lts between Europe and Kerala occurred [ about calculu s], then the role of later Indian mathematics is even more important th an previously thought.... The work of Indian mathemat icians has been severel y neglected by Western historians. B rit i sh math emat ician Ian Pearce (ww w -h istory.mcs.sta ndrews.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/index.html) Specificities of Indian scientific method Little i nterest in axiomatics, more in pragmatic m ethods. Nev e rtheless, a notion of proof

(upapa tti) does exist , especially in th e commentaries (e.g. Jyesthadevas Yuktibhs of 1530 CE). Obser ved results must be validated. Great skill for developing effi cient algorithms (the terms etymology has an Indian conne ction, through the Persian mathemat ician Al-Khwarizmi ( 800-847 CE). Especially visible in astro nomical calculat ions. India was a pioneer in many technologies. Metallurgy (bronze, iron, wootz, zinc...) Pottery (ceramic, faience...) Pigments (painting, dyeing...) Perfumes & cosmet ics Medicines Chemistry and alchemy More Information Less Information Close