Ecology and Environmental Pollution

Ecology is the study of environmental systems, or as it is sometimes called, the economy of nature. "Environmental" usually means relating to the natural, versus human-made world; the "systems" means that ecology is, by its very nature, not interested in just the components of nature individually but especially in how the parts interact. Ecology is technically an academic discipline, such as mathematics or physics, although in public or media use, it is often used to connote some sort of normative or evaluative issue as in something is ecologically bad or is or is not good for the ecology

More properly ecology is used only in the sense that it is an academic discipline, no more evaluative than mathematics or physics. When a normative or evaluative term is needed then it is more proper to use the term environmental, i.e., environmental quality or environmentally degrading. Most professional ecologists are not terribly unhappy when ecology is used in the normative sense, preferring the wider public awareness of environmental issues today compared to the widespread ignorance of three decades ago.

Basic concept: Ecology and Conservation The ecosystems and energy in an ecological system Ecosystem Dynamics Species, individuals and populations in the ecosystem.

THE STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AN ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT IS CALLED ECOLOGY

Abiotic and Biotic Component Scientific View Point From Which To Evaluate Environmental Issues Adaptations To Ecosystem Dynamics Experimental Ecology Ecology And Evolutionary Biology

-Organismal Ecology
-Physiological, Behavioral and Evolutionary Ecology

-Population Ecology
-Size and Density

-Community Ecology
-How disease, Competition and Predation Affect Community Structure

-Ecosystem Ecology
-Energy and Nutrient Flow in the Community

-Landscape Ecology
-Patches Coral Reefs, Riparian Vegetation

-Biosphere

Genetics = "currency" of life Evolution = process by which the existing life originated Behavior (Ethology) = the response of organisms to stimuli. Physiology = study of the functions and activities of life and the physical and chemical phenomena involved. Ecology = context of life (and evolution)

Physiology Genetics Ecology Evolution Behavior

Issues with lack of understanding Decreasing Scientific Understanding

Landscapes* Ecosystems* Communities* Species* Populations* Individual Organisms Organ systems Organs Tissue Cells Subcellular organelles Molecules

Much of biology is reductionistic. Lack of experiments Time constraints Logistical/Spatial constraints Research Support

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Natural History Hunting, Plagues, Agriculture Buffon Natural History (1756)

Suggested Reading The Map that Changed the World: William Smith and the Birth of Modern Geology by Simon Winchester

Demography Malthus Essay on Populations (1798) 1838 Logistic Curve Verhulst End of Balance of Nature Extinction Limited Resources
Suggested Reading The Growth of Biological Thought. By Ernst Mayr

Ecology and Evolution

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Ernst Haeckel 1866: formal definition

Total relations of the animal to both its

organic and its inorganic environment. Oikos

Clements 1898 and Cowles 1899

First bona fide ecologists

Young science but old discipline

Hunter/gatherers were practicing ecologists

1756: Buffon Natural History 1798: Thomas Malthus Essay on Population 1844: Forbes distribution of animals 1859: Origin of Species - Charles Darwin* 1866: Ernst Haeckel - "ecology" 1898: Clements - plant associations 1899: Cowles - plant associations 1913: Shelford - Animal communities 1915: ESA

1920s: Lotka Theoretical ecology 1927: Elton - Animal ecology 1929: Clements - Plant ecology 1929: Vernadski - biosphere 1942: Lindeman - trophic dynamics 1951: The Nature Conservancy is founded 1953: Odum - Fundamentals of Ecology (Energy basis) 1962: Rachael Carson: Silent Spring & The environmental movement

*recommend reading The Voyage of the Beagle

Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment.
How they interact with one another ? How the interact with their nonliving

environment?

Biosphere contains the combined portions of the planet in which life exists, including land, water, and air or atmosphere.

Ecologists have organized the interactions an organism takes part in into different levels according to complexity.

Species is a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed. Population are groups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area. Communities are assemblages of the different populations that live together in a defined area. Ecosystem is a collection of all the organisms that live together in a particular place as well as their nonliving or physical environment. Biome is a group of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant communities.

A group of organisms that can breed to produce fully fertile offspring.

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Great White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus

A population is all the members of a given species in a given area. Example - All the turtles in Town Lake.

A group of organism of the same species which live in the same habitat at the same time where they can freely interbreed

The black-veined white butterfly (Aporia crataegi) mating

The total number of different species in an ecosystem and their relative abundance

Worcester City Museums

Community - all the species in a given area. Example - all the living things in Town Lake

All the populations of the different species living and inter-acting in the same ecosystem
7-spotted lady bird (Adephagia septempunctata) Bean aphids (Aphis fabae) Red ant (Myrmica rubra) and Broom plant (Cytisus scoparius)

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Biotic/abiotic Niche
Generalist

(raccoon) vs. Specialist (koala) Competitive Exclusion Principle

If limited

Relationships
Feeding Competition Symbiosis

-troph
NPP vs gross secondary -vore Defense? decomposers 10% cyclical Change one part Bioacc/biomag

Mutualism
Pollination Leaf cutter ants

Commensalism
Barnacles and

whales Epiphytes

Parasitism
Endo and ecto

Endosymbiosis Coevolution Keystone species

Beavers Red mangrove Purple sea star

The characteristics of the type of environment where an organism normally lives. (e.g. a stoney stream, a deciduous temperate woodland, Bavarian beer mats)
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A plant's or animal's ecological niche is a way of life that is unique to that species. Niche and habitat are not the same. While many species may share a habitat, this is not true of a niche. Each plant and animal species is a member of a community. The niche describes the species' role or function within this community.

For example, the red fox's habitat, which might include forest edges, meadows and the bank of a river, is shared with many animals . The niche of the red fox is that of a predator which feeds on the small mammals, amphibians, insects, and fruit found in this habitat. Red foxes are active at night. They provide blood for blackflies and mosquitoes, and are host to numerous diseases. The scraps, or carrion, left behind after a fox's meal provide food for many small scavengers and decomposers. This, then, is the ecological niche of the red fox. Only the red fox occupies this niche in the meadowforest edge communities. In other plant communities different species of animal may occupy a similar niche to that of the red fox.

Community + Abiotic environment, interacting

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The biospheres systems are called ECOSYSTEMS. All ecosystems must have a constant source of energy (usually the sun) and cycles or systems to reuse raw materials. Examples are the water, nitrogen and carbon cycles. An ecosystem is made up of all the biotic or living and the abiotic or non-living components in a given area.

The nonliving things in an environment are called ABIOTIC factors.

Examples of abiotic factors are sunlight , temperature, rainfall, climate and soil conditions.

Biotic factors are all the living things or their materials that directly or indirectly affect an organism in its environment. This would include organisms, their presence, parts, interaction, and wastes. Factors such as parasitism, disease, and predation (one animal eating another) would also be classified as biotic factors.

Some Biotic Factors

parasitism disease predation

While the earth is huge, life is found in a very narrow layer, called the biosphere. If the earth could be shrunk to the size of an apple, the biosphere would be no thicker than the apple's skin. The biosphere, like the human body, is made up of systems that interact and are dependent on each other.

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Biosphere - part of Earth that supports life, including the top portion of Earth's crust, the atmosphere, and all the water on Earth's surface Biotic - living Abiotic non-living

Biome - large geographic areas with similar climates and ecosystems

Includes:

TUNDRA TAIGA DESERT TROPICAL RAINFOREST TEMPERATE RAINFOREST DECIDUOUS FOREST DESERT GRASSLAND

Organism one of any living thing Population - all the organisms that belong to the same species living in a community Community - all the populations of different species that live in an ecosystem

Ecosystem - all the living organisms that live in an area and the nonliving features of their environment Habitat - place where an organism lives and that provides the types of food, shelter, moisture, and temperature needed for survival Niche - in an ecosystem, refers to the unique ways an organism survives, obtains food and shelter, and avoids danger

Limiting factor - anything that can restrict the size of a population, including living and nonliving features of an ecosystem, such as predators or drought Carrying capacity - largest number of individuals of a particular species that an ecosystem can support over time

Producer - organism, such as a green plant or algae, that uses an outside source of energy like the Sun to create energy-rich food molecules Consumer - organism that cannot create energy-rich molecules but obtains its food by eating other organisms Decomposer consume wastes and dead organisms

Predator an animal that hunts and kills other animals for food. A predator is a consumer [carnivore or omnivore] Prey an animal that is hunted and caught for food. Prey is a consumer; it may be a herbivore, omnivore, or carnivore.

Carnivore eat omnivores or other carnivores [other consumers] Herbivore eat producers Omnivore eat producers and consumers

Adaptations of consumers:
Carnivore - meat-eating animal with sharp canine

teeth specialized to rip and tear flesh Herbivore - plant-eating mammal with incisors specialized to cut vegetation and large, flat molars to grind it Omnivore - plant- and meat-eating animal with incisors specialized to cut vegetables, premolars to chew meat, and molars to grind food

Energy flow through an ecosystem - the movement of energy through an ecosystem through food webs. The transfer of energy from one organism to another.

Food chain - chain of organisms along which energy , in the form of food passes. An organism feeds on the link before it and is in turn prey for the link after it. Food web - Complex network of many interconnected food chains and feeding relationships; a group of interconnecting food chains

Energy pyramid a way of showing energy flow. As the amount of available energy decreases, the pyramid gets smaller. Each layer on a pyramid is called a trophic level.

Mutualism - a type of symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit Commensalism - a type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is not affected Symbiosis - any close relationship between species, including mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism Parasitism -a type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is harmed

Succession - natural, gradual changes in the types of species that live in an area; can be primary or secondary Primary succession takes where no soil exists Secondary succession takes place where soil is already present

Pioneer species - a group of hardy organisms, such as lichens, found in the primary stage of succession and that begin an area's soil-building process Climax community - stable, end stage of ecological succession in which the plants and animals of a community use resources efficiently and balance is maintained by disturbances such as fire.

List the types of biomes:

Tundra Taiga Desert Tropical rain forest Temperate rain forest Grasslands Freshwater Saltwater

Taiga - world's largest biome, located south of the tundra between 50 N and 60 N latitude; has long, cold winters, precipitation between 35 cm and 100 cm each year, conebearing evergreen trees, and dense forests.

Taiga

Tundra - cold, dry, treeless biome with less than 25 cm of precipitation each year, a short growing season, permafrost, and winters that can be six to nine months long.
Location: northern North America, northern

Europe, northern Asia Plants: mosses, lichens, small plants that do need a lot of water Animals: caribou, migrating birds (come for the short summer)

Temperate rainforest - biome with 200 cm to 400 cm of precipitation each year, average temperatures between 9C and 12C, and forests dominated by trees with needlelike leaves .
Location: Canada, Washington (State), Russia,

China Plants: Evergreens (think Christmas Trees), Pines, Spruces, Cedars Animals: Moose, Bear, Lynx, Hibernating Animals, Migrating Animals

Tropical rain forest - most biologically diverse biome; has an average temperature of 25C and receives between 200 cm and 600 cm of precipitation each year.
Location: near the Equator, Africa, & South

America Plants: Jungle (think Tarzan), very tall trees, thick vegetation on the ground, dense canopy Animals: parrots, Apes, Toucans, Monkeys, Leopards, other predatory Cats, Snakes

Grasslands - temperate and tropical regions with 25 cm to 75 cm of precipitation each year that are dominated by climax communities of grasses; ideal for growing crops and raising cattle and sheep.
Location: Midwest United States (think Little House

on the Prairie), Africa (think the Lion King), Asia, South America Plants: several species of Grasses, scattered Trees, and Wildflowers Animals: burrowing Animals Rabbits, Moles, & Rodents, grazing Animals Buffalo, Zebras, and Giraffes, Lions, and Hyenas

Grassland

Desert - driest biome on Earth with less than 25 cm of rain each year; has dunes or thin soil with little organic matter and plants and animals specially adapted to survive extreme conditions.
Location: Africa (think Scorpion King or the

Mummy) Plants: Succulent Plants (retain water in the leaves), Cacti, and small Shrubs Animals: Lizards, Snakes, small Rodents, other Rodents

Deciduous forest - biome usually having four distinct seasons, annual precipitation between 75 cm and 150 cm, and climax communities of deciduous trees.
Location: eastern United States (think about

where we live), most of Europe, Australia Plants: Trees that lose their leaves, Maples, Oaks, Hickories, Sycamores, Willows Animals: Bears, Foxes, Raccoons, Deer, Squirrels, Birds

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Freshwater - flowing water such as rivers and streams and standing water such as lakes, ponds, and wetlands
Types of Organisms: Algae, Muskrats, Ducks, Geese, Fish, Pike, Carp, Bass, & Catfi

Saltwater - oceans, seas, a few inland lakes, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, coastal inlets and estuaries

Types of Organisms: Kelp, Whales, Dolphins, Sharks, Tuna, Crabs, Shrimp, Lobsters, Salmon, Eels, Plankton

Estuary shallow area where salt water and fresh water mix

Autotrophs

Organisms which can synthesise their own complex, energy rich, organic molecules from simple inorganic molecules (e.g. green plants synthesis sugars from CO2 and H2O)

Organisms who must obtain complex, energy rich, organic compounds form the bodies of other organisms (dead or alive)

Heterotrophic organisms who ingest dead organic matter. (e.g. earthworms, woodlice, millipedes)

Earth worm (Lumbricus terrestris)

Heterotrophic organisms who secrete digestive enzymes onto dead organism matter and absorb the digested material. (e.g. fungi, bacteria)

Chanterelle (Cantherellus cibarius)

Predators & prey Herbivory Parasite & host Mutualism Competition

Large blue butterfly (Maculinea arion)

Niche An organisms habitat + role + tolerance limits to all limiting factors

Sunlight is the main source of energy for life on Earth. Some types of organisms rely on the energy stored in inorganic chemical compounds. Autotrophs (producers) use energy from the environment to fuel assembly of simple compounds into complex organic molecules.

The best know autotrophs are those that harness the power of the sun through photosynthesis. They use this energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and glucose. The second type of autotrophs use chemical energy to make carbohydrates. This is performed by several types of bacteria.

Heterotrophs (consumers) rely on other organisms for their energy and food. Herbivores obtain energy by eating plants. Carnivores eat animals. Omnivores eat both plants and animals. Detritivores feed on the remains of plants, animals and other dead matter. Decomposers breaks down organic matter

Energy flow through an ecosystem in one direction, from the sun or inorganic compounds to autotrophs (producers) and then to various heterotrophs (consumers). Food Chains are a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating or being eaten. Food webs show the complex interactions within an ecosystem. Each step in a food chain or web is called a trophic level. Producers make up the first step, consumers make up the higher levels.

An ecological pyramid is a diagram that shows the relationship amounts of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a food web or food chain. Energy Pyramid only 10% of the energy available within one trophic level is transferred to organisms at the next trophic level.

Biomass pyramids show the total amount of living tissue available at each trophic level. This shows the amount of tissue available for the next trophic level. Numbers pyramid shows the number of species at each trophic level. Because each trophic level harvests only about one tenth of the energy from the level below, it can support only about one 10th the amount of living tissue.

Unlike the one-way flow of energy, matter is recycled within and between ecosystems. These cycles are the water cycle, Nutrient Cycle, Carbon Cycle, nitrogen cycle and phosphorus cycle.

Thank You.

Conservation biology, environmentalism: preservation of natural world

Population Ecology: Population Characteristics

1.

Population Density: Spatial Distribution:

2.

The number of organisms per unit area Dispersion: The pattern of spacing a population within an area 3 main types of dispersion

Clumped Uniform Random

The primary cause of dispersion is resource availability

Population Ecology: Population Characteristics

3.

Population growth rate

How fast a given population grows Factors that influence this are:
birth rate) Natality (____ death rate) Mortality (_____ Emigration (the number of individuals moving away from a population) _________ moving to a Immigration (the number of individuals _________ population)

Population Ecology: Density-independent factors

Density-independent factors
Factors that limit population size, regardless of

population density. These are usually abiotic factors They include natural phenomena, such as weather events
Drought, flooding, extreme heat or cold, tornadoes, hurricanes, fires, etc.

Population Ecology: Density-dependent factors

Density-dependent factors
Any factor in the environment that depends on

the number of members in a population per unit area Usually biotic factors These include
Predation Disease Parasites Competition

Population Ecology: Density-dependent factors

Put your pens down for a minute & think about this:
An employer offers you two equal jobs for one

hour each day for fourteen days. The first pays $10 an hour. The second pays only 1 cent a day, but the rate doubles each day. Which job will you accept?

Population Ecology: Population Growth Rate

Job 1 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
1

Job 2

Now, how much would your employer owe you if you stayed at this job for another 2 weeks? Job 2 lags for a long time before exponential growth kicks in! What would happen if this type of growth took place within a population?

10 11 12 13 14

Population Ecology: Population Growth Rate

Population growth models

Exponential growth model Also called geometric growth or J-shaped growth. First growth phase is slow and called the lag phase Second growth phase is rapid and called the exponential growth phase Bacteria can grow at this rate, so why arent we up to our ears in bacterial cells?

Population Ecology: Density-dependent factors

Population growth models

Limits to exponential growth Population Density (the number of individuals per unit of land area or water volume) increases as well Competition follows as nutrients and resources are used up The limit to population size that a particular environment can support is called carrying capacity (k) When youre done writing, put your pens down

Population Ecology: Population Growth Rate

We will probably reach our carrying capacity. Our growth rate will start to look like most organisms, which is the Logistic Growth Model
Carrying Capacity (k)

What letter does this curve kind of look like?

Population growth models

Logistic Growth Model Often called the S-shaped growth curve Occurs when a populations growth slows or stops following exponential growth. Growth stops at the populations carrying capacity Populations stop increasing when:
Birth rate is less than death rate (Birth rate < Death rate) Emigration exceeds Immigration (Emigration > Immigration)

Population growth models

Logistic Growth Model
The S-curve is not as pretty as the image looks 1. Carrying capacity can be raised or lowered. How?
Example 1: Artificial fertilizers have raised k Example 2: Decreased habitat can lower k

2. Populations dont reach k as smoothly as in the logistic graph.

Boom-and-Bust Cycles Predator-Prey Cycles

Population Ecology: Reproductive Strategies

Species that follow this pattern usually

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Have a Boom-and-Bust Life Cycle Have short life spans Produce many offspring Smaller organisms
i.e., fruit flies, mice, locusts

They are called r-strategists (for rate of increase)

Dont maintain a population near carrying capacity Controlled by densityindependent factors

Population Ecology: Reproductive Strategies

Species that follow this pattern usually

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Have long life spans Produce few offspring that have a better chance of living to a reproductive age Are larger organisms
i.e., elephants

They are called kstrategists (for karrying kapacity)

Maintain a population at or near k Controlled by densitydependent factors

declining birth rate or increasing death rate The regulation of growth in a natural population is determined by several factors
limited food supply the buildup of toxic wastes increased disease predation

About every 10 years, both hare and lynx populations have a rapid increase (a "boom") followed by a sharp decline (a "bust")

Figure 35.5

Survivorship curves plot the proportion of individuals alive at each age

Three types of survivorship curves reflect important species differences in life history

Figure 35.6

An organism's life history is the series of events from birth through reproduction to death Life history traits include
the age at which reproduction first occurs the frequency of reproduction the number of offspring the amount of parental care given the energy cost of reproduction

Principles of population ecology may be used to

manage wildlife, fisheries, and forests for

sustainable yield reverse the decline of threatened or endangered species reduce pest populations IPM = Integrated Pest Management

Integrated pest management (IPM) uses a combination of biological, chemical, and cultural methods to control agricultural pests
IPM relies on knowledge of
the population ecology of the pest its associated predators and parasites crop growth dynamics

Principles of population ecology may be used to

manage wildlife, fisheries, and forests for

sustainable yield reverse the decline of threatened or endangered species reduce pest populations IPM = Integrated Pest Management

 IPM relies on knowledge of

the population ecology of the pest its associated predators and parasites crop growth dynamics

THE HUMAN POPULATION

doubled three times in the last three centuries about 6.1 billion and may reach 9.3 billion by the year 2050 improved health and technology have lowered death rates

The history of human population growth

Figure 35.8A

The age structure of a population is the proportion of individuals in different age-groups

RAPID GROWTH Kenya Male Female SLOW GROWTH United States Male Female Male ZERO GROWTH/DECREASE Italy Female

Ages 45+

Ages 45+

Ages 1544

Ages 1544

Under 15

Under 15

Percent of population

Percent of population

Percent of population

Also reveals social conditions, status of women

Figure 35.9B

Source: Living Planet Report 2000

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The Ecological Footprints

The ecological footprint represents the amount of productive land needed to support a nations resource needs
The ecological capacity of the world may already be smaller than its ecological footprint

Ecological footprint in relation to ecological capacity

Figure 35.8B

Per capita CO2 emissions (metric tons of carbon) 0 U.S. China Russia Japan India 0.29 0.75 2.65 2.51 1 2 3 4 5 6 5.48 0 U.S. China Russia Japan India

Total CO2 emissions (billion metric tons of carbon) 0.5 1 1.5 1.49 0.91 0.39 0.32 0.28

What next?

Figure 35.8C

Figure 2.10x

Community Ecology: Communities

Review:
A community is a group of interacting

populations that occupy the same area at the same time.

Community Ecology: Communities

Limiting Factors
Any abiotic or biotic factor that restricts the

numbers, reproduction, or distribution of organisms.

Community Ecology: Communities

Range of Tolerance
The limits within which an organism can exist.

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession

Ecological Succession
The change in an ecosystem that happens when

one community replaces another as a result of changing biotic and abiotic factors.

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession

Ecological Succession
Consists of 2 types: Primary Succession Secondary Succession

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession: Primary Succession

Ecological Succession: Primary

The establishment of a community in an area of

exposed rock that does not have topsoil is called Primary Succession.
It occurs very slowly at first

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession: Primary Succession

Ecological Succession: Primary

The first organisms to arrive are usually lichens or

mosses, which are called pioneer species.

They secrete acids that can break down rock Their dead, decaying organic materials, along with bits of sediment from the rock make up soil.

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession: Primary Succession

Ecological Succession: Primary

Small weedy plants and other organisms become

established. As these organisms die, additional soil is created

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession: Primary Succession

Ecological Succession: Primary

Seeds brought in by animals, water and wind

begin to grow in the soil. Eventually enough soil is present for shrubs and trees to grow.

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession: Primary Succession

Ecological Succession: Primary

The stable, mature community that eventually

develops from bare rock is called a climax community.

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession: Secondary Succession

Ecological Succession: Secondary

Disturbances (fire, flood, windstorms) can disrupt

a community. After a disturbance, new species of plants and animals might occupy the habitat.

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession: Secondary Succession

Ecological Succession: Secondary

Pioneer species in secondary succession are

usually plants that begin to grow in the disturbed area. This is much faster than primary succession

Community Ecology: Ecological Succession

Ecological Succession: End point?

Cannot be predicted Different rates of growth &

human involvement make it impossible to know if a true climax community has been reached.

Biodiversity and Conservation: Introduction

What would happen if all of the jackrabbits in a food web died suddenly? Is the disappearance of one species from Earth important, or will another species fill its niche?

Biodiversity and Conservation: What is biodiversity?

What is Biodiversity? The variety of life in an area that is determined by the number of different species in that area. There are 2 main types:

Genetic Diversity

Species Diversity

Biodiversity and Conservation: Why is biodiversity important?

Penicillin: Derived from bread mold

Teosinte: A distant relative of corn

Domestic corn plant Madagascar Periwinkle: Used to treat childhood forms of leukemia

Biodiversity and Conservation: Extinctions

The gradual process of becoming extinct is known as background extinction. Mass extinctions: When a large percentage of all living species become extinct in a relatively short period of time. 250 MYA: Over 90% of species died

Biodiversity and Conservation: Extinctions

Group

Mainland

Island

Ocean

Total

Approximate Number of Species

Percent of Group Extinct

Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fish Invertebrates Flowering Plants

30 21 1 2 22 49 245

51 92 20 0 1 48 139

4 0 0 0 0 1 0

85 113 21 2 23 98 384

4000 9000 6300 4200 19,100 1,000,000+ 250,000

2.1 1.3 0.3 0.05 0.1 0.01 0.2

Biodiversity and Conservation: Extinctions

Cretaceous Period (65 MYA) Triassic Period (200 MYA) Permian Period (250 MYA) Devonian Period (360 MYA)

Ordovician Period (444 MYA)

G.F. Gause (1934) If two species, with the same niche, coexist in the same ecosystem, then one will be excluded from the community due to intense competition

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The niche of a species consists of: Its role in the ecosystem (herbivore, carnivore, producer etc) Its tolerance limits (e.g. soil pH, humidity) Its requirements for shelter, nesting sites etc etc, all varying through time

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Species A

Niche represented by a 2-dimensional area

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Species A

Species B

No overlap of niches. So coexistence is possible

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Species B

Species C

Interspecific competition occurs where the niches overlap

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Species B

Species C

Evolution by natural selection towards separate niches

Species B

Species C

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Specialisation into two separate niches

Species A

Species D

Very heavy competition leads to competitive exclusion One species must go

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Species A has a bigger niche it is more generalist Species E has a smaller niche it is more specialist Specialists, however, do tend to avoid competition Here it is total swamped by Species A

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The Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) is native to Britain Its population has declined due to: Competitive exclusion Disease Disappearance of hazel coppices and mature conifer forests in lowland Britain
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Isle of Wight Tourist Guide

The Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) is an alien species Introduced to Britain in about 30 sites between 1876 and 1929 It has easily adapted to parks and gardens replacing the red squirrel
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Bananas in the Falklands

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Red squirrel

Grey squirrel