CHAPTER 4 Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of magma, molten rock.

. If this takes place underground, crystalline plutonic rocks develop. If the magma erupts as lava or fragmental (pyroclastic) materials, then the resulting rocks show few if any crystals and are called volcanic. Granite and basalt are two common types of igneous rocks. Each igneous rock type has a plutonic and volcanic equivalent. For example, granite, which is a plutonic rock, is chemically identical to rhyolite, a volcanic rock, even though these two rocks have very different physical appearances. Magma forms under restricted conditions of high temperature and low pressure inside Earth. Although rock is hot throughout the planets interior, there are only a few zones where the pressure is low enough for the rock to melt. One is the outer core, and the other is the asthenosphere. Most of the molten rock produced at shallow levels in Earth originates where upwelling currents of hot mantle material rapidly rise into the lower-pressure environment of the asthenosphere. Magma transfers not only matter toward the surface but heat as well. Heat from mantle-derived magma contributes to melting continental sedimentary and metamorphic rocks at convergent plate margins to generate granitic magmas. The sedimentary and metamorphic rocks contain trapped water, which lowers the melting temperature of the rock in some cases by hundreds of degrees. Magma may be defined chemically as mafic, with high magnesium and iron contents, or felsic, with high silica, aluminum, sodium, potassium and water contents. Intermediate magmas have compositions between those of mafic and felsic. The terms mafic, felsic, and intermediate also apply to igneous rocks. Magma rises buoyantly because of the difference in density between the molten rock and the surrounding country rock. At the level of neutral buoyancy, where this density difference disappears, magma stagnates. Volatiles, including carbon dioxide, water vapor, sulfur gases, chlorine, fluorine, and other gases, build up in the magma reservoir and expand into bubbles whenever pressure drops. The force of expanding gases is the primary agent of volcanic eruptions. Viscosity, the resistance

to flow, greatly influences the way that magmas erupt. High-viscosity molten rock oozes across the surface slowly. Low-viscosity lava flows can travel rapidly for tens of kilometers. Some volcanic eruptions are triggered by the collision of two magma bodies. Different magmas can mingle, or they can mix to produce hybridized rocks of intermediate composition. Bowens reaction series describes the crystallization of magma. It consists of two branches. The discontinuous reaction series describes the reaction of minerals with the magma at specific temperatures, leading to the formation of new minerals that are stable at lower temperatures. The continuous reaction series describes minerals that are continuously adjusting their compositions as the magma cools. The specific arrangement, sizes, and shapes of mineral grains in a rock define the rocks texture. Examples of igneous rock textures include aphanitic rocks, which are fine-grained, and phaneritic rocks, which are coarsegrained. Porphyritic rocks include large crystals set in a bed, or groundmass, of finer grains. Pyroclastic texture typifies explosively erupted igneous rocks. Mineral content and texture are both important features in classifying igneous rocks. Texture determines whether a rock is called plutonic or volcanic. Mineral content allows further classification. Ultramafic rocks are characterized by a high content of olivine and pyroxene. Most ultramafic rocks are plutonic; very few lavas are known in the young geologic record. Mafic rocks contain large amounts of plagioclase as well as olivine and pyroxene. Gabbro is the most abundant mafic plutonic rock; basalt is the lava equivalent. Most gabbro and basalt develop at mid-oceanic ridges.
Diorite is an intermediate rock containing plagioclase, hornblende, biotite, and minor quartz formed at oceanic continental convergent plate boundaries. Andesite is the volcanic equivalent of diorite, and it contains abundant plagioclase crystals with minor olivine, pyroxene, and hornblende. Partial melting in the mantle above subducting slabs and interaction with the lower crust contribute to the formation of these rocks.

 Granite and rhyolite are felsic rocks formed by melting entirely within Earths crust, mostly at convergent plate boundaries. Granites contain abundant quartz, potassium feldspar, plagioclase, hornblende, and biotite. Rhyolite may contain minor amounts of each of these minerals as phenocrysts. Obsidian is a glassy form of rhyolite.
The largest igneous intrusions are batholiths

_ What special conditions are required to make

magma?
The temperature must be high enough and the pressure low enough for rock to melt. Also important is the convective upwelling of hot mantle rock beneath mid-oceanic ridges. The rock rises so quickly that it cannot release heat fast enough to keep from melting with the reduction of pressure during ascent. The most common lava in the world, basalt, results from this process. _ What is unique about the origin of granitic

and stocks. These are the surface expressions of eroded plutons. If the area of exposure is larger than 100 km2, then the body is a batholith. It is a stock otherwise. Plutons have diverse, irregular geometry inside the crust. Many are bulbous and kilometers wide. Sheetlike intrusions include dikes, sills, and veins. Dikes are discordant, cutting across preexisting layering. Sills are concordant, developing along the contacts between pre-existing layers. Veins are thin versions of dikes and sills and often are very irregular in geometry. Laccoliths are sill-like bodies that inflate into arching mounds, which may create hills and even mountains at Earths surface. Sheetlike intrusions are common around volcanoes and in the roof crust overlying magma chambers. Volcanic sheet intrusions radiate from volcanic pipes, which erosion can expose.

magma?
Granitic magma forms in continental crust, and it is a secondary product of heat introduced by deeper-seated mantle magmas into the lower crust. Bonded mineral and pore water play an important role in generating granitic magma by enabling the melting of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that might remain solid if they were dry. _ Why and how does magma rise? Molten rock is less dense than solid rock, and so it is buoyant. Initially, the rate of magma ascent is related to the difference in density between the melt and the surrounding country rock. Later the magma may stall out and crystallize at a level of neutral buoyancy. A large body of magma can push aside the overlying crust and stope and thus assimilate blocks of crust on its way toward the surface. _ What are volatiles and why are they

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS SUMMARY

4.1 Introduction _ What are common plutonic and volcanic rocks? Gabbro/basalt, and granite/rhyolite are pairs of common rock types that represent two ends of the compositional range of most igneous rocks at Earths surface. Gabbro and granite are plutonic rocks; basalt and rhyolite are volcanic rocks. _ How are plutonic and volcanic rocks related? Depending on whether magma erupts, it can produce plutonic (deep-seated) or volcanic (eruptive) rocks. It is best to learn the different kinds of igneous rocks as pairs of equivalent plutonic and volcanic compositions; that is, each plutonic rock has its volcanic compositional equivalent, and vica versa. For example, gabbro is chemically equivalent to basalt, and granite is chemically equivalent to rhyolite. 4.2 The Properties and Behavior of Magma and Lava _ What role does magma play in helping heat

important?
Volatiles are dissolved substances in magma that emerge as gases at low pressures. Increasing volatile pressure in a shallow magma chamber can help wedge open fractures in the chamber roof and drive the magma to the surface. In particular, expanding water vapor is a major agent in explosive volcanic eruptions. _ What is the chemical composition of magma? Most magma, like most minerals, consists of silicon and oxygen with lesser amounts of other elements, such as magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and aluminum (Al). Mg-Ferich magma is called mafic, and magma rich in Na, K, Al and H2O is felsic. Gabbros and basalts are products of mafic magmas; granites and rhyolites are products of felsic magmas. _ How hot is magma? No one knows for sure, but measured temperatures of lavas suggest that typical mafic magma is somewhat hotter than 1200C, and felsic magma is somewhat hotter than 900C.

escape Earth?
Magma transfers heat from Earths deep interior as it rises. Magma carries heat up faster than the other main processes of heat release: conduction and solid-state convection. It is a very efficient way for heat to escape Earth.

_ What is viscosity and what controls it? Viscosity is a measure of a substances resistance to flow. The higher the viscosity, the stiffer and thicker the flow. Tar and glacial ice are good examples of highly viscous substances. Water and syrup have low viscosities and flow readily. The viscosity of magma is controlled by temperature, silica content, loss of volatiles, crystallinity, bubble content, and shear stress during movement. Characteristically, mafic magmas are less viscous than felsic magmas, primarily because they are hotter and have less silica. _ What is Bowens reaction series? Bowens reaction series describes the sequence of mineral crystallization in a cooling magma. There are two branches in the reaction series. Minerals that form by the reaction of other minerals with the magma at certain specific temperatures belong to thediscontinuous series, whereas minerals that react continuously with the magma to adjust their compositions during cooling belong to the discontinuous series. The reverse of Bowens reaction series describes the melting of rock. _ How does magma change as crystallization

coarse-grained, and porphyritic, meaning scattered large crystals set in a finer-grained groundmass. Layered volcanic ash and pumice deposits display pyroclastic texture. _ Why is mineral content important for

classifying igneous rocks?

After geologists identify a rock as plutonic or volcanic, the name it is given depends on the relative percentages of certain key minerals, such as quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, olivine, and pyroxene. The most common igneous rocks are peridotite, gabbro, basalt, andesite, diorite, granite, and rhyolite. Pegmatite is a rock type closely related to granite that contains many minerals not ordinarily found in other igneous rocks.

4.4 PlutonsTheir Characteristics and Origins

_ What are the largest igneous intrusions and

what do their contacts look like?

Batholiths are plutons that have more than 100 km2 in area of exposure. Stocks are somewhat smaller plutonic bodies. Large plutons tend to have discordant contacts; that is, they cut across preexisting rock layers. _ What are the major types of sheetlike igneous

occurs?
During crystallization, the remaining melt becomes progressively more silica-enriched. This is shown by Bowens reaction series, in which quartz (SiO2) is the last mineral to crystallize from a cooling magma. _ What happens when two magmas come together? Two different magmas can blend together (mix) if their viscosities are very similar, or they can mingle without blending if their viscosities are very different. Mingling of magmas beneath a volcano can trigger a volcanic eruption. _ What are zoned plutons? Characteristically, zoned plutons have multiple igneous rock compositions, ranging from mafic to felsic. Many zoned plutons show evidence of partial blending of different magmas to produce hybrid igneous rocks. The different compositions in the pluton are not randomly distributed. For example, one rock type may predominate near the top and on the sides of a pluton, with another type in the interior and near the base. 4.3 Igneous RocksTheir Characteristics and Classification _ What does the term texture mean with respect

intrusions?
Dikes and sills are the most common sheetlike igneous intrusions. Dikes are discordant features (meaning they cut across layering in the country rock), whereas sills are concordant. Laccoliths are sill-like bodies with inflated cores. Volcanic pipes are magmafilled, cylindrical feeder channels beneath volcanoes. Pipes can become volcanic necks with deep erosion. Dikes, sills, and laccoliths radiate from many volcanic pipes and necks.

ESSENTIAL TERMS TO KNOW

Aphanitic texture - individual minerals are too

small to be seen without the aid of a microscope.

Assimilation - is the digestion of stoped blocks

and surrounding country rock by magma.

Batholith - are exposed plutons that have at least

100 km2 of surface area.

Bowens reaction series - describes the sequence of mineral crystallization in a cooling magma. Concordant - rock layering that parallels the

to rocks, and what are some examples of igneous textures? Texture refers to the size, shape, and
arrangement of mineral grains composing a rock. Examples of igneous textures include aphanitic, meaning very fine-grained, phaneritic, meaning very

contact with the intrusion.

Country rock - all magma rises because it is less

Plutonic (intrusive igneous) rock - igneous rock

dense than the surrounding solid rock. Dike - is a discordant intrusion that appears as a band of igneous rock slicing across strata.
Discordant - the intrusions cut across pre-

that crystallizes from magma intruded into or formed in place within Earths crust.
Porphyritic texture - an igneous texture with

minerals of markedly different sizes.

Pyroclastic materials - fragmental substances,

existing rock layers.

Extrusive refers to magma and rocks formed

such as ash, explosively ejected from a volcano.

(fragmental) texture - fragmental texture characteristic of igneous rocks composed of pyroclastic materials. Pyroclastic Sill - a tabular or sheetlike concordant igneous

from magma that reaches Earths surface.

Felsic magma containing more than 65% silica

and considerable sodium, potassium, and aluminum but little calcium, iron, and magnesium.
Igneous rock - any rock formed by cooling and

intrusion.
Stock - an irregularly shaped discordant pluton with

crystallization of magma or by the accumulation and consolidation of pyroclastic materials.

Intermediate magma - magma with a silica content

a surface area of less than 100 km2.

Stoping a process in which rising magma

between 53% and 65% and an overall composition intermediate between felsic and mafic magmas.
Intrusive - refers to magma and rocks that formed

detaches and engulfs pieces of the surrounding country rock.

Vein - an irregular, sheetlike intrusion no more than

within Earths crust.

Laccolith a concordant pluton with a mushroom

like geometry.
Lava - magma at Earths surface. Mafic - magma containing between 45% and 52%

a few centimeters thick that may be concordant or discordant; many veins are composed of quartz or quartz and potassium feldspar.
Vesicle a small hole or cavity formed by gas

trapped in cooling lava.

Viscosity - a fluids resistance to flow. Volcanic a term referring to igneous rocks that

silica and proportionately more calcium, iron, and magnesium than intermediate and felsic magmas.
Magma - molten rock material generated within

Earth.
Magma chamber (reservoir) - a reservoir of magma

formed from magma that reached the surface as lava or pyroclastic materials.
Volcanic neck - an erosional remnant of the

within the upper mantle or lower crust.

Magma mingling - in magma mingling, magmas

material that solidified in a volcanic pipe.

Volcanic pipe - the conduit connecting the crater of

that come together do not mix and there is a destabilizing exchange of heat that results in explosive eruptions.
Magma mixing - the process of mixing magmas of

a volcano with an underlying magma chamber.

Volcanic (extrusive igneous) rock - an igneous

different composition, thereby producing a modified version of the parent magmas.

Phaneritic texture - igneous rock texture in which

rock formed when magma is extruded onto Earths surface where it cools and crystallizes, or when pyroclastic materials become consolidated.

minerals are easily visible without magnification.

Pluton - an intrusive igneous body that forms when

magma cools and crystallizes within the crust (such as a batholith).

CHAPTER 5

Interactions among systems are demonstrated by large volcanic eruptions because they have an impact on the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.
A volcano is a landform, whereas volcanism

Since 1760 more than 40 volcanoes have

erupted in Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands, some of them many times. The largest volcanic outburst since the late 1800s took place at Novarupta in Alaska in 1912.
The Cascade Range includes volcanoes in

is the process whereby magma contained gases rise to the surface.

and

its

Water vapor is the most common volcanic

gas, but several others, including carbon dioxide and sulfur gases, are also emitted.
Aa lava flows are made up of jagged, angular

northern California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, Canada. Only three eruptions have occurred since 1914, one at Lassen Peak in California (19141917) and two at Mount St. Helens in Washington (1980 and 20042006).

blocks, whereas pahoehoe flows have a taffylike texture. Lava tubes, pillow lava, and columnar joints are found in some lava flows . Pyroclastic materials are particulate matter ejected from volcanoes during explosive eruptions.
All volcanoes, regardless of size or shape,

The large volcanoes Cascade Range are volcanoes, although some present and both areas cones.

in Alaska and the mostly composite shield volcanoes are have many cinder

Most of the magma that is emplaced as

plutons or that rises to the surface as lava at divergent plate boundaries is mafic, even where divergence takes place on land, as in East Africa.

form where lava and pyroclastic materials are erupted. Most have one or more craters or a caldera, a large oval to circular structure formed when a volcanic peak collapses into a partially drained magma chamber.
Shield volcanoes have low, rounded profiles

Igneous activity at convergent plate boundaries involves mostly intermediate and felsic magma and lava. Huge plutons such as batholiths as well as composite volcanoes are common in this geologic setting.

and are made mostly of fluid lava flows; cinder cones are small, steep-sided volcanoes composed of pyroclastic materials; and composite volcanoes consist of lava flows, pyroclastic layers, and lahars.
Viscous bulbous masses of lava, generally of

Geologists have devised a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) to indicate the size of an eruption. VEI values depend on the volume of material erupted and the height of an eruption plume; fatalities and property damage are not considered.
Although lava flows and lava fountains are

felsic composition, are lava domes, which are dangerous because they erupt explosively.

Fluid mafic lava erupted from fissures spreads over large areas to form a basalt plateau.

impressive, the most dangerous manifestations of volcanoes are eruptions of pyroclastic materials, especially nue ardentes, as well as mudflows and debris flows, which may take place even when a volcano is not erupting.

Pyroclastic sheet deposits result when huge eruptions of ash and other pyroclastic materials take place, especially when calderas form.
About 60% of all active volcanoes are in the

Volcano monitoring involves evaluating physical and chemical aspects of volcanoes. Especially important for anticipating eruptions is detecting volcanic tremor and determining the eruptive history of a volcano.

circum-Pacific belt, another 20% are in the Mediterranean belt, and the remaining 20% are mostly at or near midoceanic ridges or their extensions onto land.

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS SUMMARY

5.1 Introduction _ How can volcanism be both constructive and

origin of calderas are responsible for pyroclastic sheet deposits. 5.5 The Distribution of Volcanoes _ Where are the three zones or belts with most

destructive?
Volcanism may destroy houses and farmland and cause injuries and fatalities so it is destructive, but it is also constructive because it is responsible for the origin of many oceanic islands as well as the oceanic crust. 5.2 Volcanism and Volcanoes _ What gases do volcanoes commonly emit? Most volcanic gases are water vapor, with lesser amounts of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, and very small amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and chlorine. _ How and why do aa and pahoehoe lava flows

of Earths volcanoes?
About 60% of all active volcanoes are in the circum-Pacific belt, another 20% are in the Mediterranean belt, and most of the remaining 20% are at or near mid-oceanic ridges or their extensions onto land. 5.6 North Americas Active Volcanoes _ Where is the Cascade Range and what types of

volcanoes are found there?

The Cascade Range stretches from Lassen Peak in California north through Oregon and Washington to Meager Mountain in British Columbia, Canada. Most of the large volcanoes in the range are composite volcanoes, but there are also two huge shield volcanoes and numerous cinder cones. 5.7 Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes, and Plutons _ What kinds of igneous rocks make up the

differ?
Aa is made up of angular blocks and fragments, whereas pahoehoe has a smooth surface much like taffy. The flows differ mostly because aa is viscous enough to fragment. _ What are pyroclastic materials, and how are

oceanic crust?
The oceanic crust is made up of mafic igneous rocks. Gabbro is found in the lower part of the oceanic crust, whereas vertical dikes and pillow lava, both composed of basalt, make up the upper part. _ How do plate tectonics and volcanism account

they dangerous to air traffic?

Pyroclastic materials are solids, including ash, lapilli, blocks, and bombs, that are explosively ejected by volcanoes. Ash is dangerous to aircraft because it fouls jet engines. 5.3 Types of Volcanoes _ What are calderas and how do they form? A caldera is a large oval to circular volcanic depression that forms when the summit of a volcano collapses into its magma chamber following voluminous eruptions. _ What are cinder cones and what are they

for the origin of the Hawaiian Islands?

As the Pacific plate moved over a hot spot, a chain of volcanoes formed in succession, so the oldest in the chain is far to the northwest and active volcanism now occurs only on the island of Hawaii and at Loihi. 5.8 Volcanic Hazards, Volcano Monitoring, and Forecasting Eruptions _ What are the most dangerous manifestations of

composed of?
Cinder cones are small, steep-sided volcanoes made up of pyroclastic materials that resemble cinders. _ What are lava domes and why are they so

volcanoes?
Lava dome eruptions during which huge amounts of pyroclastic materials and gases are ejected are the most dangerous volcanic eruptions. Lahars are also dangerous and they may take place long after an eruption.

dangerous?
Lava domes are bulbous masses of viscous magma that commonly erupt explosively. 5.4 Other Volcanic Landforms _ How do basalt plateaus form? Basalt plateaus are made up of numerous overlapping basalt lava flows that erupt from fissures rather than from a central vent. _ What are pyroclastic sheet deposits? Huge eruptions of pyroclastic materials, especially ash, from fissures that form during the

ESSENTIAL TERMS TO KNOW

Aa a lava flow with a surface of rough, angular

Lava tube - A tunnel beneath the solidified surface

blocks and fragments.

Ash - pyroclastic material measuring less than 2

of a lava flow through which a molten flow continues to move. Also, the hollow space left when the lava within the tube drains away.
Mediterranean belt - a zone of seismic and

mm.
Basalt plateau - a large area built up by numerous

volcanic activity extending westerly from Indonesia through the Himalayas, across Iran and Turkey, and through the Mediterranean region of Europe.
Nue ardente - a mobile dense cloud of hot

flat-lying lava flows erupted from fissures.

Caldera - a large, steep-sided circular to oval

volcanic depression usually formed by summit collapse resulting from partial draining of the underlying magma chamber.
Cascade Range a mountain range stretching

pyroclastic materials and gases ejected from a volcano.

Pahoehoe - a type of lava flow with a smooth, ropy

or billowy surface.
Pillow lava - bulbous masses of basalt, resembling

from northern California through Oregon and Washington and into southern British Columbia, Canada. Made up of about a dozen large composite volcanoes and thousands of smaller volcanic vents.
Cinder cone - a small, steep-sided volcano

pillows, formed when lava is rapidly chilled under water.

Pyroclastic materials - fragmental substances,

such as ash, explosively ejected from a volcano.

sheet deposits - vast, sheetlike deposits of felsic pyroclastic materials erupted from fissures. Pyroclastic Shield volcano - a dome-shaped volcano with a

composed of pyroclastic materials that accumulate around a vent.

Circum-Pacific belt - a zone of seismic and

volcanic activity that nearly encircles the Pacific Ocean basin.

Columnar joint - joints in some igneous rocks

low, rounded profile built up mostly of overlapping basalt lava flows.

Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) a semiquantitative scale for the size of a volcanic

consisting of six sided columns that form as a result of shrinkage during cooling.
Composite volcano (stratovolcano) - a volcano

composed of pyroclastic layers, lava flows typically of intermediate composition, and mudflows; also called a stratovolcano.
Crater - a circular or oval depression at the summit

eruption based on evaluation of such criteria as volume of material explosively ejected and height of eruption cloud.
Volcanic tremor - ground motion lasting from

minutes to hours resulting from magma moving below the surface, as opposed to the sudden jolts produced by most earthquakes.
Volcanism - the process whereby magma and its

of a volcano resulting from the extrusion of gases, pyroclastic materials, and lava; connected by a conduit to a magma chamber below Earths surface.
Fissure eruption - an eruption in which lava or

associated gases rise through the crust and are extruded onto the surface or into the atmosphere.
Volcano - a mountain formed around a vent as a

pyroclastic material is emitted from a long, narrow fissure or group of fissures.

Lahar - a mudflow composed of volcanic materials

result of the eruption of lava and pyroclastic materials.

such as ash.
Lava dome - a bulbous, steep-sided structure

formed by viscous magma moving upward through a volcanic conduit.