Professional Documents
Culture Documents
025
020
016
b
re2
(Grossman, 1997) 017 031 027 017
b
re2
(Hwang and Moehle, 2000) 016 069 035 038
b
re2
(Dovich and Wight, 2005)* 016 022 022 016
b
e
, effective slab width for service state; b
re
, reduced effective slab width for ultimate state.
* The model that has been updated by Wight and MacGregor (2009) was used.
The stiffness reduction factor of 1/3, which was proposed by Vanderbilt and Corley (1983) and experimentally
veried by Kang and Wallace (2005), was adopted.
M. SHIN, T. H.-K. KANG AND J. S. GROSSMAN
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
(l
1n
) are used in lieu of centre-to-centre span lengths (l
1
), with the assumption that slabcolumn joints
are rigid.
b l c x
c c d
h
K
e n FP
+ +
( )
1
]
1
_
,
0 3
2 0 9
1 1
2 1
(1)
Here, c
1
and c
2
are the column dimensions parallel and perpendicular to the direction of lateral
loading respectively, and x is the l
2
/l
1
ratio limited to unity (10). Here, l
1
is taken as the average of
the lengths of the two spans in front and back of the column, and l
2
is the average of the lengths of
the two transverse spans at the sides of the column, where both l
1
and l
2
are measured centre-to-centre
of supports parallel and perpendicular to lateral loading, respectively. Also, d is the distance from the
extreme compression bre to the centroid of tension reinforcement, h is the slab thickness and K
FP
is
a modication factor accounting for reduction in joint connement at exterior connections, equal to
08 and 06 for edge and corner connections, respectively. For exterior or corner connections with the
slab edge parallel to the direction of lateral loading, the effective slab width calculated by Equation
(1) is adjusted by multiplying by (l
3
+ l
2
/2)/l
2
, where l
3
is the distance measured from the column
centreline to the edge of the slab. The width of an equivalent slabbeam supported by two adjacent
columns is then taken equal to the average of the two values determined by Equation (1) at the sup-
Col. 1
Col. 2
Col. 3
Col. 4
11 ft. 10 in. 11 ft. 11 in.
16 ft. 8 in.
11 ft. 2 in.
6 ft. 1 in.
24 ft. 4 in.
12 ft. 3 in.
7 ft.
11 ft. 3 in.
7 ft. 5 in. 10 ft. 9 in.
at Col. 1
Effective slab width
at Col. 2
at Col. 3
at Col. 4
Rigid
slab-column
joint
Equivalent
slab-beam
with averaged
effective
slab width
) c ( ) b ( ) a (
Figure 3. Schematics for (a) various bay widths and clear span lengths for a portion of slabcolumn frames (see
Figure 2 for location); (b) effective slab width for each column; and (c) equivalent slabbeam modelling
for the given frame (see Table 1 and Figure 4 for details)
DUAL SYSTEMS OF RC WALLS AND SLAB-COLUMN FRAMES
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
ports (see Figure 3). More detailed model descriptions are provided in the paper by Grossman (1997),
where different stiffness degradation levels of at plates at various drifts were also proposed based
on the tests by Hwang and Moehle (1990).
Equation (1) is intended for slabcolumn frames subjected to service wind or seismic forces
(reduced by the response reduction factor R) that are expected to cause drift levels of about 025%.
Therefore, using this model for serviceability state analysis is considered to be appropriate. For
ultimate state analysis, the exural stiffness of equivalent slabbeams was considered to be reduced
by 30% on average due to more slab cracking (Grossman, 1997). Also, the effective slab width
estimated using Equation (1) was modied when slab openings existed at proximity of
supports.
3.3 Slabwall interactions
Although some research (Grossman, 1997; Kang et al., 2009; Hwang and Moehle, 2000; Kang and
Wallace, 2005; Dovich and Wight, 2005) has been conducted on the modelling and analysis of
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
s
l
a
b
w
i
d
t
h
f
a
c
t
o
r
[
b
e
/
l
2
]
Model by Allen and Darvall (1977)
Model by Grossman (1997)
Model by Hwang and Moehle (2000)
Model by Dovich and Wight (2005)
0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19
Aspect ratio of c
1
to l
1
(a) Effective slab width
at Col. 2
at Col. 4
at Col. 3
at Col. 1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
R
e
d
u
c
e
d
e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
s
l
a
b
w
i
d
t
h
f
a
c
t
o
r
[
b
r
e
/
l
2
]
Model by Allen and Darvall (1977)
Model by Grossman (1997)
Model by Hwang and Moehle (2000)
Model by Dovich and Wight (2005)
0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19
Aspect ratio of c
1
to l
1
(b) Reduced effective slab width
at Col. 1
at Col. 3
at Col. 2
at Col. 4
Figure 4. Comparisons of effective slab widths between several available models (see Figure 3 for Col. No.)
M. SHIN, T. H.-K. KANG AND J. S. GROSSMAN
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
slabcolumn frames subjected to lateral forces, such frames combined with RC shear walls have
scarcely been discussed. From a practical point of view, modelling the connection between a slab and
a wall is still in question. Different behaviour is expected depending on whether the slab spans either
parallel or perpendicular to the wall. In this study, the effective width of a slab framing perpendicular
to the length of a wall was estimated in a conservative way by replacing the wall with an imaginary
column having a width similar to that of the column at the other side of the span. Also, the effective
width of a slab framing parallel to the length of a wall was conservatively estimated by assuming that
the wall length-to-thickness ratio was equal to about 25, a ratio often used to differentiate between a
column and a wall pier (Section 1908 of IBC, 2003; ACI 318H, 2008). Such conservative modelling
for slabwall connections was also justied by previous research, revealing that the stiffness of slabs
connecting to stiff in-plane walls tends to be quite low due to the reduction in end xity of the slabs
(Schwaigofer and Collins, 1977; Qadeer and Smith, 1969).
3.4 Frame modelling and gravity load effects
The slabcolumn frames were represented by frame (line) elements jointed at intersection points
between the centrelines of the equivalent slabbeams and the columns. Following the new Section 8.8
provisions of ACI 318-08, the gross section moment-of-inertia (I
g
) for the columns was used for ser-
viceability design, whereas 70% of that value (07 I
g
) was adopted as the cracked column stiffness for
ultimate strength design. For columns under axial loads less than 03 A
g
f
c
(e.g., columns of new low-
rise buildings), 50% of the gross section property (05 I
g
) may be considered for ultimate strength
design (see ASCE 41-06, although this document is not intended for design of new buildings), where
A
g
is the column cross-sectional area and f
c
is the design concrete strength.
The frame element uses a three-dimensional two-node formulation with six independent degrees of
freedom (d.o.f.s) (three translations and three rotations) at each end of the element. The frame element
is capable of replicating the effects of axial and biaxial shear deformations as well as biaxial bending
and torsion (CSI, 2005). With regard to transmitting gravity loads applied on oors to vertical
members, membrane-type plate elements with no out-of-plane stiffness were used for the oor slabs;
thus, all nodes of this element must be supported by other types of elements. Using the membrane
elements assigned with trivial thickness (i.e., without adding membrane stiffness), the oor gravity
loads were distributed to vertical members based on the tributary area concept, which is a special
function in ETABS (CSI, 2005).
The slab portion existing within the column section, belonging to the common volume of the column
and the slab, was assumed to be rigid, considering that the effective slab width formulas used in this
study (Grossman, 1997) were derived using clear span lengths between column faces. Thus, in ETABS,
the rigid zone factor for that part of the equivalent slabbeam was set to one (10). This assumption
was justied in that the slab thickness was relatively small compared with the column dimensions, as
opposed to beamcolumn connections that typically exhibit considerable joint shear deformations even
within the elastic range (Shin and LaFave, 2004).
3.5 Shear wall modelling
The shear walls were modelled using shell-type plate elements available in ETABS. By using this
plate element, the behaviour of a shear wall was represented by deformations at the midsurface of the
wall. The shell element uses a triangular (three-node) or quadrilateral (four-node) formulation (see
Figure 5) that combines separate membrane and plate-bending behaviours (Ibrahimbegovic and
Wilson, 1990). Each node of the element has six deformation components, as shown in Figure 5. The
three components of membrane action include two in-plane translations (u and v) and a drilling
DUAL SYSTEMS OF RC WALLS AND SLAB-COLUMN FRAMES
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
rotation about an axis normal to the plane of the element (q
z
), while the three components of plate-
bending action include two plate-bending rotations (q
x
and q
y
) and an out-of-plane translation (w).
The shell-type plate element is perfectly compatible with the aforementioned frame element when the
plate and line elements share identical nodal points.
To account for varying crack formation at different lateral load stages and various stress levels along
the building height, the reduction factors summarized in Table 2 were applied for exural stiffness.
Two different stages of stiffness were assumed for two design purposes: serviceability and ultimate
states. This is in accordance with the stiffness reduction factors recommended by ACI 318-08 except
for at plates (Sections 8.8 and 10.10); however, some other references (e.g., ASCE 41-06) may be
adopted. For the lowest 8 storeys or so of the 60-storey residential tower (about 1/8 to 1/6 of the total
height), cracked wall stiffnesses of 05 E
c
I
g
and 035 E
c
I
g
were used for service and ultimate state
analyses respectively, while uncracked wall stiffnesses of 10 E
c
I
g
and 07 E
c
I
g
were used at upper
storeys. The height of about 1/8 to 1/6 of the total height was a preliminary value based on the authors
past experience and analysis, but was veried during the design process by checking stresses in the
shear walls modelled with gross-sectional properties (10 EI
g
).
The use of the cracked stiffness values specied for the lowest storeys was justied by comparing
the elastic analysis results with experimental data and nonlinear modelling results. Based on the several
Figure 5. Triangular shell element with 6 d.o.f.s at each node: (a) 3 d.o.f.s related to membrane action;
(b) 3 d.o.f.s related to plate-bending action (adapted from Cook et al., 1989)
Table 2. Stiffness reduction factors for exure used in analysis
Members Service state Ultimate state
Beams 05 E
c
I
g
035 E
c
I
g
Columns 10 E
c
I
g
070 E
c
I
g
Walls
Uncracked 10 E
c
I
g
070 E
c
I
g
Cracked 05 E
c
I
g
035 E
c
I
g
Flat plates (equivalent slabbeams) 10 E
c
I
e
070 E
c
I
e
E
c
, modulus of elasticity for concrete; I
g
, moment of inertia for the gross-sectional area of the member; I
e
, moment
of inertia for effective slab width (see Equation (1)).
M. SHIN, T. H.-K. KANG AND J. S. GROSSMAN
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
tests of slender walls, including RW2 and TW2 specimens tested by Thomsen and Wallace (1995),
different degrees of cracking were validated in the two response stages. As shown in Figure 6, the
values of 05 E
c
I
g
and 035 E
c
I
g
well represent the secant stiffnesses between 025 M
n
and 06 M
n
(for
serviceability level), and between 06 M
n
and 09 M
n
(for ultimate level), respectively. Here, M
n
is the
nominal moment strength of the shear wall given with the axial force (see Figure 6). The moment
ranges for each level were estimated based on the fact that ASCE 7-02 species service lateral forces
as approximately 45 to 70% of ultimate design lateral forces. The corresponding drift level for 05
E
c
I
g
was moderately less than drift limits (02 to 025%) recommended for serviceability of non-struc-
tural components (ASCE 7-02, CB.1.2).
Using PERFORM-3D nonlinear analysis and performance assessment software (CSI, 2006), a
comparison was also made with the analysis results from nonlinear bre wall modelling (Figure 6),
which the authors believe effectively simulates nonlinear exuralaxial load behaviour based on their
preliminary studies. The corresponding comparison between the linear and nonlinear models validates
the use of the elastic wall element for stiffness modelling at each limit state level.
(a) RW2
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
L
a
t
e
r
a
l
f
o
r
c
e
[
k
i
p
s
]
Experimental test data
(Thomsen and Wallace, 1995)
Nonlinear fiber wall model
of PERFORM-3D
Elastic shell-type plate model
of ETABS
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Lateral drift ratio [%]
0.5E
c
I
g
0.35E
c
I
g
Load @ M
n
(
c
= 0.003)
= 29.4 kips
Load @ M
n
(
c
= 0.003) = 29.4 kips
0.5E
c
I
g
0.35E
c
I
g
Axial Load
= 0.07A
g
f'
c
(b) TW2
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
L
a
t
e
r
a
l
f
o
r
c
e
[
k
i
p
s
]
Experimental test data
(Thomsen and Wallace, 1995)
Nonlinear fiber wall model
of PERFORM-3D
Elastic shell-type plate model
of ETABS
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Lateral drift ratio [%]
0.5E
c
I
g
0.35E
c
I
g
Load @ M
n
(
c
= 0.003)
= 40.2 kips
Load @ M
n
(
c
= 0.003) = 77 kips
0.5E
c
I
g
0.35E
c
I
g
Axial Load
= 0.075A
g
f'
c
Figure 6. Comparisons between wall stiffness models and test data
DUAL SYSTEMS OF RC WALLS AND SLAB-COLUMN FRAMES
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
The stiffness of shear walls was adjusted by changing stiffness modiers in ETABS. There are
eight stiffness modiers for the shell-type element: three for membrane action (N
x
, N
y
and N
xy
) asso-
ciated with in-plane forces (Figure 7(a)), and ve for plate-bending action (M
x
, M
y
, M
xy
, Q
x
and Q
y
)
associated with transverse loads (Figure 7(b)). It is assumed that the out-of-plane (plate-bending)
stiffness of shear walls has little inuence on the lateral stiffness of the overall structure, regardless
of whether the walls are parallel or perpendicular to the direction of loading. Also, for slender walls
used in tall buildings, in-plane shear deformations do not contribute much to the lateral deections of
the walls. Thus, the section properties related to N
xy
forces in the shear walls were not modied during
the analysis. For simulating cantilever-bending deformations of the slender walls, the stiffness com-
ponent related to the membrane force (N
x
or N
y
) parallel to the height of the structure was reduced,
considering the degree of cracking damage conceived at serviceability and ultimate states.
3.6 Link beam modelling
Force demands in the structural walls are potentially affected by the stiffness of link beams designed
to achieve coupled action of the discontinuous wall segments (see Figure 2). The link beams used in
this project were shallow and wide (see Figure 8) because of the limited storey heights ranging
approximately from 9 to 10 ft at the typical oors; they were much wider than the wall thicknesses
with a beam width-to-depth ratio equal to about 24, and had a span-to-depth ratio of approximately
33. Therefore, the link beams were modelled using frame elements rather than plate elements, and
their exural stiffness was modied using the beam reduction factors in Table 2. It is noted that the
performance of this type of shallow and wide link beam has not been researched, even though it has
been popularly used in RC residential buildings for many decades. Previous research (Wallace, 2007)
identied that link beams could be damaged more severely than those typically expected by current
design practice when subjected to design-level earthquakes; thus, using the cracked stiffness appears
to be reasonable for both service and ultimate states (see Table 2).
3.7 Diaphragm modelling
It is a common practice that concrete oors in building structures, which typically have very high
in-plane stiffness, are modelled with rigid diaphragm constraints (hereafter rigid diaphragms) for
N
xy
dx
N
y
dx
N
x
dy
N
xy
dy
(a) membrane action (b) plate-bending action
Figure 7. Internal forces in shell-type plate element associated with: (a) membrane action; (b) plate-bending
action (adapted from Cook et al., 1989)
M. SHIN, T. H.-K. KANG AND J. S. GROSSMAN
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
lateral load analysis. In this type of model, all constrained nodal points (joints) are slaved to one
another so that they undertake no in-plane deformations in the rigid plane (note that a rigid diaphragm
does not affect the out-of-plane behaviour of the slab.) The relative displacements at any two joints
(subscripts i and j) constrained by a rigid diaphragm can be expressed as follows:
u u y
j i zi
(2)
v v x
j i zi
+ (3)
zj zi
(4)
Here, x x
j
x
i
, y y
j
y
i
and x
j
and y
j
are in-plane coordinates of the j-joint. Also, u
j
and v
j
are
in-plane translations of the j-joint along the X and Y directions, respectively, and q
zj
is the rotation of
the j-joint about the axis normal to the plane (see Figure 9).
However, previous experimental and analytical research reported that the diaphragm exibility of
RC slabs might signicantly affect lateral force distributions in structures with shear walls (Panahshahi
et al., 1991; Pantazopoulou and Imran, 1992; Barron and Hueste, 2004). The previous research iden-
tied that the effects of diaphragm exibility were most pronounced in shorter buildings with relatively
high planar aspect ratios. To investigate diaphragm action in this lateral analysis, three different cases
of diaphragm modelling were considered: (a) one rigid diaphragm for the whole oor level; (b) two
separate rigid diaphragms for the hotel and residential tower slabs, which were connected using shell-
type plate elements; and (c) no rigid diaphragm (i.e., an extreme case). In short, the second case (see
Figure 2) was chosen for the analysis of the case study building; more information for diaphragm
effects is summarized later in this paper. The interfacial area existing between the two rigid diaphragms
was represented by shell-type plate elements capable of simulating both membrane and plate-bending
behaviours of the concrete oors.
Wall
(shell-type plate element)
Link beam
(frame element)
Column
(frame element)
Figure 8. Shallow wide link beams (membrane elements for oors and frame elements for equivalent slab
beams are not shown for clarity)
DUAL SYSTEMS OF RC WALLS AND SLAB-COLUMN FRAMES
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
4. DISCUSSION OF ELASTIC MODELLING AND ANALYSIS RESULTS
In the previous section, modelling approaches used in the practical design of the case study building
were discussed in detail. Relatively simple elastic models with various stiffnesses to discern different
degrees of damage at varying drift levels were used to obtain design forces and moments for each
member, as well as to check service and ultimate level storey drifts. This section further validates the
considered modelling methods in several aspects, and presents some of the representative analyses.
4.1 Model validation and detailing
In order to validate the use of cracked wall stiffness of 05 E
c
I
g
at lower storeys for serviceability state
analysis, the extent of exural cracking in the walls was investigated from preliminary analysis that
used the building models with no stiffness reduction. This was done by checking stresses in the walls
with the tensile strength of concrete (e.g., 75 f
c
) under the load combination of D + 05 L + 07 W,
as recommended by ASCE 7-02 (Section CB.1.2). Based on the results, it was generally concluded
that the service state analysis could reasonably be carried out using the cracked stiffness
(05 E
c
I
g
) for the shear walls at the lowest 1/8 to 1/6 of the total building height (versus 10 E
c
I
g
). It
should be noted, however, that gravity loads (e.g., Slab thickness) greatly affect the extent of cracking
in shear walls. Appropriate modelling of the effective wall stiffness for various levels of lateral forces
or drifts is very important for elastic lateral analysis used to estimate service-level drifts (Gavin et al.,
1992). Similar results were found for ultimate state analysis.
As discussed previously, the seismic force-resisting system of the case study building is composed
of a vertical combination of dual and building frame systems. The extent of the building frame system
was determined based on the 25% rule of ASCE 7-02, by examining storey shears distributed
between shear walls and frames when subjected to design seismic forces, with allowance for moment
Figure 9. Rigid diaphragm constraints (adapted from CSI, 2005)
M. SHIN, T. H.-K. KANG AND J. S. GROSSMAN
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
transfer at slabcolumn connections. For those storeys where the seismic force resistance taken by the
structural walls was greater than 75% of the total seismic shear forces, the walls were designed for
100% of the total storey shear forces. Such storeys typically existed at the lower part of the building
(refer to Figure 10 showing shear distributions against a selected case of wind forces). Therefore,
modelling hinged connections between slabs and columns part of the building frame system was
reasonable for seismic lateral force analysis; the d.o.f.s corresponding to moment transfer were
released at the ends of equivalent slabbeams.
With respect to the modelling of oor diaphragms, a great deal of effort was used to identify the
effects of the diaphragm exibility that may occur in the irregularly shaped tall building consisting of
two substructures. The three diaphragm modelling cases described in the preceding section were
compared in terms of differences in their dynamic responses. It was concluded that there were, in
general, no major differences between mode shapes and frequencies of the three systems; for example,
differences in the rst three modal periods of the two- and no-diaphragm cases were approximately
35% on average. This appeared to be attributed to the fact that core-wall systems in conjunction with
well-distributed moment frames were used in the two substructures, rather than perimeter lateral force-
resisting systems (such as end shear walls). This also indicated that the core-wall systems were very
effective in decreasing diaphragm exibility, which could be severe for high-rise structures having
horizontal and vertical irregularities. In general, the results obtained have justied the use of the two
diaphragm models for the wind analysis. The following subsection presents some key results derived
from the multi-diaphragm wind study.
4.2 Multi-diaphragm wind study
The multi-diaphragm wind study was conducted along with wind tunnel tests by Rowan Williams
Davies & Irwin Inc. (RWDI). Two separate rigid diaphragms were assigned to the hotel and
residential tower slabs in the model structurally linked at the same oor level (see Figure 2). The
interfacial area existing between the two rigid diaphragms was represented by shell-type plate ele-
ments capable of simulating both membrane and plate-bending behaviours of the concrete oors.
This was primarily to investigate the most critical wind effects on various parts of the structure,
which might potentially result from relative deformations between the hotel and the residential tower
due to dynamic responses of the structure and local wind effects. The member sizes of the structures
(most importantly, wall thickness along its height) were preliminarily determined to limit storey drifts
against assumed service-level wind forces; this provided building dynamic properties necessary for
the RWDI wind analyses. Two different sets of member stiffnesses (see Table 2) were used
for the wind study. Critical accelerations and maximum drifts at the uppermost occupied oors
were estimated using the service state properties with the critical damping ratio of 2%, while
wind forces for the structural design were determined with the ultimate state properties and 3%
critical damping ratio.
Figure 11 illustrates raw base shears and base torsional moments applied to the 60-storey residen-
tial tower as an example, which were estimated based on the 50 year return period wind speed (3 s
gust) of 98 mph, assuming this wind speed applies equally to all directions. Fifty-six combinations of
service wind forces that consider the effects of directionality in the local wind climate were provided
by the wind study consultant (RWDI). Each wind force combination contained two horizontal forces
along its principal axes (F
x
and F
y
) and a torsional moment (M
z
) for each of the two rigid diaphragms
(hotel and residential tower) with respect to the vertical axis at the reference point given by RWDI
(i.e., a total of six components for the whole oor).
The case study building satised the acceleration criteria range of 15 to 18 milli-g and the torsional
velocity criteria of 3 milli-rads/s, which are commonly used for a residential tower under 10-year
DUAL SYSTEMS OF RC WALLS AND SLAB-COLUMN FRAMES
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140%
BH
story49
story39
story29
story19
story9
SW1 SW2 SW3 SW4 columns
(a)
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140%
BH
story49
story39
story29
story19
story9
SW1 SW2 SW3 SW4 columns
(b)
Figure 10. (a) Shear force distributions against wind in NS direction for ultimate state; (b) Shear force
distributions against wind in EW direction for ultimate state
M. SHIN, T. H.-K. KANG AND J. S. GROSSMAN
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
60 120 180 240 300 360
Wind direction [degrees]
-6000
-4000
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
-5000
-3000
-1000
1000
3000
5000
B
a
s
e
s
h
e
a
r
f
o
r
c
e
[
k
i
p
s
]
Maximum
Mean
Minimum
(a) F
x
10
60 120 180 240 300 360
Wind direction [degrees]
-6000
-4000
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
-5000
-3000
-1000
1000
3000
5000
B
a
s
e
s
h
e
a
r
f
o
r
c
e
[
k
i
p
s
]
Maximum
Mean
Minimum
(b) F
y
10
60 120 180 240 300 360
Wind direction [degrees]
-50000
0
50000
100000
-75000
-25000
25000
75000
B
a
s
e
t
o
r
s
i
o
n
a
l
m
o
m
e
n
t
[
f
t
-
k
i
p
s
]
Maximum
Mean
Minimum
(c) M
z
10
-100000
Figure 11. An illustrative example of 50 year return period wind-induced resultants acting on 60-storey
residential tower at the base level
DUAL SYSTEMS OF RC WALLS AND SLAB-COLUMN FRAMES
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
return period wind. The strength requirements of the members were controlled in general by wind
forces in the NS direction rather than wind forces in the EW direction or seismic forces. Force
demands and relative deformations at the interface between the two substructures against wind forces
were investigated for special load combinations provided by RWDI for these purposes. By implement-
ing such a design process, tensile and shear stresses at the interface region were successfully estimated
for the strength design.
Figure 10 illustrates shear force distribution to the frames and shear walls when subjected to one
of the wind force cases provided by RWDI. The total shear force resisted by all frames at a storey
level is indicated as columns in Figure 10. It is shown that the slabcolumn frames contributed most
signicantly to lateral wind force resistance at the upper portion of the structure, while the shear walls
were dominant at the lower portion. This result is consistent with the previous studies by Paulay and
Priestley (1992). In this particular case, however, there were not many storeys where the frames and
shear walls counteracted each other (see negative percentages at several storeys in Figure 10). In
other words, little reversed story shears and overturning moments were observed at the tops of the
walls. The reduced counter-interaction between the walls and the frames under lateral deections was
achieved by modifying the upper wall design. The lengths and thicknesses of the shear walls were
decreased at the upper oor levels, resulting in reduced bending stiffness of the upper walls. These
results prove that the design of main wind-force-resisting system can be improved using the modied
framewall system.
4.3 Building dynamic responses
This subsection investigates dynamic responses of the cast study building, and discusses potential
considerations for the lateral force design of irregular tall buildings.
Differences in dynamic mode shapes and periods between the two models for wind design, corre-
sponding to service and ultimate states, are evaluated in the following paragraphs. Masses were cal-
culated from the self weights of members and applied dead loads in ETABS internally, and then the
total mass assigned to a nodal point was determined based on a tributary area basis. Nodal masses
existing between storey levels were lumped to the nearest storey level.
Figure 12 describes the rst three undamped free-vibration mode shapes and periods under lateral
forces for (a) service and (b) ultimate states. The mode shapes are shown in terms of diaphragm dis-
placements at their centre of rigidity along the principal axes of the structure. (note that the in-plane
behaviour of a oor slab constrained by a rigid diaphragm can be completely dened by three displace-
ments with respect to a reference point, which are two in-plane translations and a rotation normal to
the plane.) In addition, Figure 13 graphically illustrates the rst three modal motions of the ultimate
state model, projected at the top of the hotel. In Figure 13, D1-EW stands for the EW directional
translation of the rigid diaphragm named D1 and so forth. The mode shapes shown were normalized
so that {}
n
T
[m]{}
n
1 for each mode, where {}
n
is the nth mode shape and [m] is the global mass
matrix of the model in kip-inch units.
The three modal periods increased on the order of 1 s as the structure became more exible when
affected by more cracking. For both service and ultimate states, the third mode was dominated by
twisting motion, and thus the plotted translations were minimal, except for the NS translations of
D2 that were attributed to the centre of twist leaning towards the residential tower side. For each of
the rst two modes, two translational components were both exhibited due to the asymmetry of the
structure. This torsional movement was especially signicant in the ultimate state analysis. This
phenomenon can also be found in Table 3, which summarizes modal participating masses normalized
by the total mass. In the table, UX and UY stand for the EW and NS translations, respectively,
M. SHIN, T. H.-K. KANG AND J. S. GROSSMAN
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
(a) Serviceability states
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
H
e
i
g
h
t
[
f
t
.
]
Diaphragm 1-EW direction
Diaphragm 2-EW direction
Diaphragm 1-NS direction
Diaphragm 2-NS direction
-0.1 0 0.1
Modal displacement
1st mode period: 6.1 sec.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
H
e
i
g
h
t
[
f
t
.
]
-0.1 0 0.1
Modal displacement
2nd mode period: 5.8 sec.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
H
e
i
g
h
t
[
f
t
.
]
-0.1 0 0.1
Modal displacement
3rd mode period: 4.1 sec.
(b) Ultimate states
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
H
e
i
g
h
t
[
f
t
.
]
-0.1 0 0.1
Modal displacement
1st mode period: 7.0 sec.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
H
e
i
g
h
t
[
f
t
.
]
-0.1 0 0.1
Modal displacement
2nd mode period: 6.8 sec.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
H
e
i
g
h
t
[
f
t
.
]
-0.1 0 0.1
Modal displacement
3rd mode period: 4.9 sec.
Diaphragm 1: 60-story residential tower
Diaphragm 2: 25-story hotel tower
Figure 12. Mode shapes and periods for (a) service and (b) ultimate states
and RZ stands for the rotation about an axis normal to the building plan. For the service state against
wind forces, the rst mode vibrated most into the NS direction, while the second mode was domi-
nated by the EW translations. However, the rst and second modes of the ultimate state model
mingled the NS and EW translations by almost equal degrees. Considering that wind and seismic
forces for design were essentially based on the modal analysis, these results demonstrate the
importance of accurate assessment of structural damage conditions and corresponding stiffness
properties.
From these results, two suggestions may be advanced. First, different vertical distributions of
simplied static lateral forces may need to be proposed for serviceability and ultimate states.
For the ultimate state analysis of the case study building, it appears that the second-mode behaviour
contributes as much as the rst mode for each of the two principal (X and Y) directions. Second,
DUAL SYSTEMS OF RC WALLS AND SLAB-COLUMN FRAMES
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
Table 3. Modal participating mass ratios (calculated by ETABS)
Mode
Service state (%) Ultimate state (%)
UX UY RZ UX UY RZ
1 80 416 113 290 237 54
2 461 62 34 252 239 99
3 06 51 257 07 57 255
UX, modal participating mass ratio for horizontal translation in the EW
direction; UY, modal participating mass ratio for horizontal translation in
the NS direction; RZ, modal participating mass ratio for torsion about the
vertical axis perpendicular to the oor plan.
(1
st
mode) (2
nd
mode) (3
rd
mode)
for an irregular tall building, simplied wind or equivalent static seismic force may need to be deter-
mined, combining a sufcient number of dynamic modes to take into account all important irregular
motions of high possibility in each of two translational and torsional motions. However, the dened
process of converting dynamic system behaviour to the simplied lateral forces is beyond the scope
of this paper.
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Due to its reasonable cost and reliability, practical elastic modelling is preferred over detailed non-
linear modelling for the design and analysis of three-dimensional irregular RC tall buildings located
in regions of low to moderate seismicity. Substantial wind pressures are involved at the site of the
case study building, but are expected to deform the structure within its elastic range. This paper
focused on discussing practical modelling approaches for service and ultimate states of RC slab
column frames, shear walls, slabwall connections and link beams that are part of dual systems (upper
storeys) or building frame systems (lower storeys). The ndings and conclusions are summarized as
follows:
(1) Member proportions and details of the structural system were determined considering both service
and ultimate wind/seismic forces based on the authors past experience, building codes and cali-
bration with previous studies.
(2) Different effective stiffnesses were used for each member, depending on the degree of anticipated
cracking damage under various lateral loading conditions. The models used to dene these stiff-
ness values were evaluated by comparing with other linear or nonlinear models, previous ana-
lytical research and experimental data, as well as by calibrating member stresses in the model
Figure 13. Free vibration modes for ultimate state, projected at the top of the hotel (displacements are
exaggerated for presentation)
M. SHIN, T. H.-K. KANG AND J. S. GROSSMAN
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
with uncracked stiffness. Through this process, it was found that the use of the cracked shear wall
stiffness for the lowest 1/8 to 1/6 of the total building height was reasonable for the case study
building.
(3) The analysis showed that the dual system was efcient in resisting seismic forces at the upper
storeys, whereas the building frame system of shear walls was dominant at the lower storeys.
Modelling of the building frame system for the lower storeys was veried by examining storey
shears distributed between shear walls and frames when subjected to design seismic forces, with
and without allowance of moment transfer at slabcolumn connections.
(4) In the model, slabwall interactions were treated in conservative ways, as the exibility of slabs
connecting in-plane or out-of-plane walls was observed to be signicant from previous research.
Similar approaches were taken for shallow wide beams coupling discontinuous walls. Further
investigation on the stiffness of slabwall connections and shallow wide link-beams would be
helpful to increase the accuracy of practical elastic modelling.
(5) The degree of diaphragm exibility did not signicantly impact the dynamic behaviour of the
overall structures, which may conrm that the use of core-wall systems in conjunction with well-
distributed moment frames is an effective means to restrain diaphragm exibility that may exist
in irregularly shaped high-rise buildings. Through this investigation, the use of multi-diaphragms
for the wind analysis was justied.
(6) Comprehensive multi-diaphragm wind studies were performed to identify stresses at the interfacial
area between the two substructures with different heights and geometries under a variety of design
wind force combinations. These studies considered different sets of member stiffnesses and
damping ratios to reect anticipated structural conditions under targeted design objectives. By
adjusting the upper shear wall design, resistance to storey shear due to lateral forces was well
distributed with little counter-interaction between the walls and the frames.
(7) Building dynamic responses demonstrated that the overall system behaviour (e.g., torsional) of
irregular high-rise structures might be greatly affected by different structural damage levels and
associated member stiffnesses (e.g., at service versus ultimate state level). Based on these results,
it is concluded that different vertical distributions of simplied lateral forces may need to be
considered for serviceability and ultimate states.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The case study building presented in this paper was part of an actual design project that was undertaken
by Rosenwasser/Grossman Consulting Engineers, P.C., New York. All the designers and engineers
involved in this project are appreciated. Special thanks are due to Benjamin Pimentel, an Associate
of the rm, who has been in charge of managing the structural design project successfully. Also, sup-
ports from the University of Oklahoma, Norman, are acknowledged. The experimental data of RC
shear walls were generously provided by Prof. John W. Wallace at the University of California, Los
Angeles, who is also credited for helpful suggestions on nonlinear wall modelling. The original
experimental data used to develop the proposed equivalent slabbeam model were provided by Prof.
Jack P. Moehle at the University of California, Berkeley, who is gratefully acknowledged for his
contributions towards conducting the quality testing program. The views expressed are those of
authors, and do not necessarily represent those of sponsors or data providers.
REFERENCES
ACI Committee 318. 2002. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-02) and Commentary
(318R-02). American Concrete Institute: Farmington Hills, MI.
ACI Committee 318. 2008. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-08) and Commentary
(318R-08). American Concrete Institute: Farmington Hills, MI.
DUAL SYSTEMS OF RC WALLS AND SLAB-COLUMN FRAMES
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
ACI Committee 318H. 2008. Committee meeting discussion. ACI Fall Convention, St. Louis, MO.
Allen FH, Darvall P. 1977. Lateral load equivalent frame. ACI Journal, Proceedings 74(7): 294299.
ASCE 41. 2006. Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings; ASCE/SEI 41-06. American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, Reston, VA.
ASCE 7. 2002. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures; ASCE/SEI 7-02. American Society
of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
Barron JM, Hueste MBD. 2004. Diaphragm effects in rectangular reinforced concrete buildings. ACI Structural
Journal 101(5): 868875.
Computers and Structures Inc. 2005. CSI Analysis Reference Manual. Computers and Structures Inc.: Berkeley,
CA.
Computers and Structures Inc. 2006. PERFORM-3D Nonlinear Analysis and Performance Assessment for 3D
Structures, Ver. 4 User Guide. Computers and Structures Inc.: Berkeley, CA.
Cook RD, Malkus DS, Plesha ME. 1989. Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis. John Wiley &
Sons: New York.
Dovich LM, Wight JK. Effective slab width model for seismic analysis of at slab frames. ACI Structural Journal
102(6): 868875.
Gavin H, Yuan S, Grossman J, Pekelis E, Jacob K. 1992. Low-level dynamic characteristics of four tall at-plate
buildings in New York City. Technical Report NCEER-92-0034, State University of New York, Buffalo,
NY.
Grossman JS. 1987. Reinforced concrete design. Building Structural Design Handbook, White RN, Salmon CG
(eds). John Wiley & Sons: New York.
Grossman JS. 1997. Verication of proposed design methodologies for effective width of slabs in slabcolumn
frames. ACI Structural Journal 94(2): 181196.
Hwang SJ, Moehle JP. 1990. An experimental study of at-plate structures under vertical and lateral loads. Report
No. UCB/SEMM-90/11, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, July 1990,
pp. 271.
Hwang SJ, Moehle JP. 2000. Models for laterally loaded slabcolumn frames. ACI Structural Journal 97(2):
345353.
IBC. 2003. International Building Code 2003 (IBC 2003). International Code Council: Falls Church, VA.
Ibrahimbegovic A, Wilson EL. 1990. A unied formulation for triangular and quadrilateral at shell elements
with six nodal degrees of freedom. Communications in Applied Numeral Methods 7: 19.
Kang TH-K, Wallace JW, Elwood KJ. 2009. Nonlinear modeling of at plate systems. ASCE Journal of Structural
Engineering 135(2): 147158.
Kang TH-K, Wallace JW. 2005. Dynamic responses of at plate systems with shear reinforcement. ACI Structural
Journal 102(2): 763773.
New York City Department of Buildings. 2008. Building Code of the City of New York 2008. International Code
Council: Fall Church, VA.
Panahshahi N, Reinhorn AM, Kunnath SK, Lu L-W, Huang T, Yu K. 1991. Seismic response of a 1:6
reinforced concrete scale-model structure with exible oor diaphragms. ACI Structural Journal 88(3): 315
324.
Pantazopoulou S, Imran I. 1992. Slabwall connections under lateral loads. ACI Structural Journal 89(5): 515
527.
Paulay T, Priestley MJN. 1992. Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry Buildings. John Wiley &
Sons: New York.
Qadeer A, Smith BS. 1969. The bending stiffness of slabs connecting shear walls. ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings
66(12): 10211022.
Schwaigofer J, Collins MP. 1977. Experimental study of the behavior of reinforced concrete slabs. ACI JOURNAL,
Proceedings 74(3): 123127.
Shin M, LaFave JM. 2004. Modeling of cyclic joint shear contribution in RC beamcolumn connections to overall
frame behavior. Structural Engineering and Mechanics 18(5): 403412.
Shin M, Pimentel B, Grossman J. 2008. Practical nite element analysisissues for an irregular reinforced
concrete high-rise building. Concrete International 30(10): 7176.
Thomsen IV JH, Wallace JW. 1995. Displacement-based design of RC structural walls: experimental studies of
walls with rectangular and T-shaped cross sections. Report No. CU/CEE-95/06, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Clarkson University: Potsdam, NY, 353 pp.
Vanderbilt MD, Corley WG. 1983. Frame analysis of concrete buildings. ACI Concrete International 5(12):
3343.
M. SHIN, T. H.-K. KANG AND J. S. GROSSMAN
Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
Vanderbilt MD. 1981. Equivalent frame analysis of unbraced reinforced concrete buildings for static lateral loads.
Structural Research Report No. 36, Civil Engineering Department, Colorado State University: Fort Collins,
Colorado.
Wallace JW. 2007. Modelling issues for tall reinforced concrete core wall buildings. The Structural Design of
Tall and Special Buildings 16(5): 615632.
Wight JK, MacGregor JG. 2009. Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics & Design, Fifth Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall:
Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1112 pp.
APPENDIX (CONVERSION):
Conversion Factors
1 in. 254 mm
1 psi 6895 N/m
2
psi MPa ( ) ( ) 0 0833
1 lb 4448 N
1 kip-in. 0113 kN-m