The Pancreas: Anatomy and Functions

Anatomy of the pancreas: The pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ located across the back of the abdomen, behind the stomach. The right side of the organ (called the head) is the widest part of the organ and lies in the curve of the duodenum (the first section of the small intestine). The tapered left side extends slightly upward (called the body of the pancreas) and ends near the spleen (called the tail). The pancreas is made up of two types of glands: 1. Exocrine The exocrine gland secretes digestive enzymes. These enzymes are secreted into a network of ducts that join the main pancreatic duct, which runs the length of the pancreas. 2. Endocrine The endocrine gland, which consists of the islets of Langerhans, secretes hormones into the bloodstream. Functions of the pancreas: The enzymes secreted by the exocrine gland in the pancreas help break down carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and acids in the duodenum. These enzymes travel down the pancreatic duct into the bile duct in an inactive form. When they enter the duodenum, they are activated. The exocrine tissue also secretes bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid in the duodenum. The hormones secreted by the endocrine gland in the pancreas are insulin and glucagon (which regulate the level of glucose in the blood), and somatostatin (which prevents the release of the other two hormones).

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM The cardiovascular system is one of the major body systems. It transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste products, nutrients and hormones to and from various parts of the body. The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart, the blood vessels (arteries and veins and capillaries) and blood. The heart has major vessels that supply it with deoxygenated blood (travels back to the heart from the body), and major vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to all the parts of the body. The major vessels that carry blood to and from the heart are:

 Heart

inferior vena cava conveys deoxygenated blood (blood low in oxygen) from the lower extremities of the body to the heart superior vena cava coveys deoxygenated blood from the upper extremities of the body to the heart aorta conveys oxygenated blood (blood high in oxygen) away from the heart

The heart is a hollow organ about the size of a fist and is composed of special muscle tissue (cardiac muscle). It lies under the breast bone in the centre of the cardiothoracic cavity. In the average lifetime the heart beats 250 million times and pumps 340 million litres of blood. The heart is a sophisticated pump that is controlled by an electrical current that is initiated in the brain. The heart is divided into a left and right side by a muscular wall called the septum and has four chambers. Heart chambers and valves The chambers of the heart include the: right atrium which receives deoxygenated blood (low in oxygen) from all over the body right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium and sends it to the lungs via the pulmonary artery to become oxygenated and get rid of carbon dioxide left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and sends it to the left ventricle left ventricle receives blood from the left atrium and sends it out to the body via the aorta. The heart wall consists of three layers - the endocardium is the inner lining, the myocardium is the muscle layer and the pericardium is the outer covering. The chambers of the heart are separated by valves: tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and right ventricle bicuspid (mitral) valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle pulmonary valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery aortic valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta The major vessels that carry blood to and from the heart are: inferior vena cava conveys deoxygenated blood (blood low in oxygen) from the lower extremities of the body to the heart superior vena cava coveys deoxygenated blood from the upper extremities of the body to the heart aorta conveys oxygenated blood (blood high in oxygen) away from the heart

Blood vessels The cardiovascular system consists of arteries and veins and capillaries. Arteries carry oxygenated blood to the cells of the body, veins carry deoxygenated blood away from the cells. Arteries Arteries are tubes that carry oxygenated blood (high in oxygen) away from the heart. Arteries have thick, muscular, elastic walls. They branch off forming arterioles with thinner walls that then become capillaries. Arteries carry blood rich in oxygen and nutrients.

Blood that comes from a wound to an artery is bright red and spurts. The aorta is the largest artery and as it leaves the heart it branches into smaller arteries, eventually they become capillaries. Veins Veins are tubes that carry deoxygenated blood (low in oxygen) from the cells back to the heart where it is pumped to the lungs so that the blood can pick up more oxygen. The veins have one-way valves that help move the blood toward the heart. Veins have thinner muscular walls. They carry blood back to the heart that is low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide, a waste product. Capillaries Capillaries are very small vessels that surround the cells of the body and facilitate the movement of oxygen and nutrients into the cells and carbon dioxide and waste products away from the cells. Blood Blood is made up of a liquid (plasma) and cells. Blood is connective tissue, a red body fluid made up of liquid (plasma) and cells. The body contains 5 to 6 litres of blood. Fifty-five percent of the blood is plasma. Plasma Plasma is a straw coloured watery fluid in which the blood cells are suspended. It contains antibodies (gamma globulin) and antitoxins, plasma proteins, mineral salts, nutrients, waste products such as urea and creatinine, gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, hormones and enzymes. The blood cells float in the plasma. They are produced in the bone marrow and lymphatic tissues of the body. The bone marrow, liver and spleen destroy worn-out blood cells. Blood cells There are 3 types of blood cells. 1. Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) - carry most of the oxygen and small amounts of carbon dioxide. Haemoglobin carries the oxygen molecule and gives blood its colour. There are approximately 5 million RBC per cubic millimetre of blood and the average life span is 100 - 120 days. 2. Leucocytes or white blood cells (WBC) - help fight infection as they can attack microorganisms. There are 7,000 - 8,000 WBC per cubic millimetre. 3. Thrombocytes (platelets) - are parts of cells which plug small leaks in the walls of blood vessels and initiate blood clotting. There are 200,000 to 400,000 per cubic millimetre.
THE

The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs found along the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity. The left kidney is located slightly higher than the right kidney because the right side of the liver is much larger than the left side. The kidneys, unlike the other organs of the abdominal cavity, are located posterior to the peritoneum and touch the muscles of the back. The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of adipose that holds them in place and protects them from

physical damage. The kidneys filter metabolic wastes, excess ions, and chemicals from the blood to form urine. Ureters The ureters are a pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The ureters are about 10 to 12 inches long and run on the left and right sides of the body parallel to the vertebral column. Gravity and peristalsis of smooth muscle tissue in the walls of the ureters move urine toward the urinary bladder. The ends of the ureters extend slightly into the urinary bladder and are sealed at the point of entry to the bladder by the ureterovesical valves. These valves prevent urine from flowing back towards the kidneys. Urinary Bladder The urinary bladder is a sac-like hollow organ used for the storage of urine. The urinary bladder is located along the bodys midline at the inferior end of the pelvis. Urine entering the urinary bladder from the ureters slowly fills the hollow space of the bladder and stretches its elastic walls. The walls of the bladder allow it to stretch to hold anywhere from 600 to 800 milliliters of urine. Urethra The urethra is the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to the exterior of the body. The female urethra is around 2 inches long and ends inferior to the clitoris and superior to the vaginal opening. In males, the urethra is around 8 to 10 inches long and ends at the tip of the penis. The urethra is also an organ of the male reproductive system as it carries sperm out of the body through the penis. The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by the internal and external urethral sphincter muscles. The internal urethral sphincter is made of smooth muscle and opens involuntarily when the bladder reaches a certain set level of distention. The opening of the internal sphincter results in the sensation of needing to urinate. The external urethral sphincter is made of skeletal muscle and may be opened to allow urine to pass through the urethra or may be held closed to delay urination. Maintenance of Homeostasis The kidneys maintain the homeostasis of several important internal conditions by controlling the excretion of substances out of the body. Ions. The kidney can control the excretion of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and chloride ions into urine. In cases where these ions reach a higher than normal concentration, the kidneys can increase their excretion out of the body to return them to a normal level. Conversely, the kidneys can conserve these ions when they are present in lower than normal levels by allowing the ions to be reabsorbed into the blood during filtration. pH. The kidneys monitor and regulate the levels of hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions in the blood to control blood pH. H+ ions are produced as a natural byproduct of the metabolism of dietary proteins and accumulate in the blood over time. The kidneys excrete excess H+ ions into urine for elimination from the body. The kidneys also conserve bicarbonate ions, which act as important pH buffers in the blood.

Osmolarity. The cells of the body need to grow in an isotonic environment in order to maintain their fluid and electrolyte balance. The kidneys maintain the bodys osmotic balance by controlling the amount of water that is filtered out of the blood and excreted into urine. When a person consumes a large amount of water, the kidneys reduce their reabsorption of water to allow the excess water to be excreted in urine. This results in the production of dilute, watery urine. In the case of the body being dehydrated, the kidneys reabsorb as much water as possible back into the blood to produce highly concentrated urine full of excreted ions and wastes. The changes in excretion of water are controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland to help the body retain water. Blood Pressure. The kidneys monitor the bodys blood pressure to help maintain homeostasis. When blood pressure is elevated, the kidneys can help to reduce blood pressure by reducing the volume of blood in the body. The kidneys are able to reduce blood volume by reducing the reabsorption of water into the blood and producing watery, dilute urine. When blood pressure becomes too low, the kidneys can produce the enzyme renin to constrict blood vessels and produce concentrated urine, which allows more water to remain in the blood.