Electrical Power and Energy Systems 27 (2005) 327333 www.elsevier.

com/locate/ijepes

Power ow and loss allocation for deregulated transmission systems

Jen-Hao Teng*
Department of Electrical Engineering, I-Shou University, 1, Section 1, Hsueh-Cheng Rd. Ta-Hsu Hsiang, Kaohsiung County 840, Taiwan, ROC Received 9 December 2002; revised 25 November 2004; accepted 29 December 2004

Abstract This paper proposes a systematic method to allocate the power ow and loss for deregulated transmission systems. The proposed method is developed based on the basic circuit theories, equivalent current injection and equivalent impedance. Four steps are used to trace the voltages, currents, power ows, and losses contributed by each generator sequentially. Using this method, the real and reactive power on each transmission lines and their sources and destinations can be calculated. The loss allocation of each line, which is produced by each generator, can also be obtained. Test results show that the proposed method can satisfy the power ow equation, the power balance equation and the basic circuit theories. Comparisons with previous methods are also provided to demonstrate the contributions of the proposed method. q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Deregulation; Power ow and loss allocation; Kirchhoffs current law; Kirchhoffs voltage law; Superposition law; Equivalent current injection; Equivalent impedance

1. Introduction Nowadays, the electric power industry is under deregulation in response to changes in the law, technology, market and competition. Deregulated power systems cannot bundle the generation, transmission, distribution and retail activities, which were traditionally carried out by vertically integrated utilities; therefore, different pricing policies will exist between different power companies. With the separate pricing of generation, transmission and distribution, it is necessary to nd the capacity usage of different transactions happening at the same time so that a fair use-oftransmission-system charge can be given to individual customer separately. Then the transparency in the operation of deregulated power systems can be achieved. In additional, the capacity usage is another important issue for transmission congestion managements; therefore, the power produced by each generator and consumed by each load through the network should be traced. In these aspects,
* Tel.: C886 7 6577711x6613; fax: C886 7 6577205. E-mail address: jhteng@isu.edu.tw.

0142-0615/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijepes.2004.12.005

problems arise because all transactions have to share the same transmission network simultaneously. Those problems including Which generators are supplying this load? Which generator or load is making the biggest usage of this transmission line? and Which generator or load is producing loss of this transmission line? etc., need to have acceptable solutions in a fair deregulated power system [1,2]. To solve these problems, an algorithm, which can allocate the contributions of power ow and loss from individual generator through the transmission system to the loads, is needed. This is both an essential and challenging task. Some methods [313] have been proposed to trace the power ow and loss in deregulated environments. The use of the predetermined factors to allocate the loss is the most commonly used method. The losses allocated are based on the bus generation or load, but not on their relative location within the network [3]. Loss allocation based on incremental transmission loss (ITL) coefcients was proposed by Schweppe et al. [4]. The method based on the ITL that can be used to handle large changes in operating conditions was proposed in Ref. [5]. Gross and Tao proposed a physicalow-based approach to allocate transmission loss [6]. Quadratic loss approximation formulas and some assumptions, such as bus voltage magnitude and bus voltage angle,

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J.-H. Teng / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 27 (2005) 327333

are required for the loss allocation. Chang and Lu used the bus impedance matrix to trace the power ow of a network [7]. Approximation formulas were then used to allocate the power loss. Ref. [8] proposed a power ow comparison method and used it to charge the transmission-system services. Conejo et al. [9] proposed a loss allocation method based on the bus impedance matrix. In Ref. [10], line power ows are rst unbundled into a sum of components, each corresponding to a bilateral transaction. Then, the loss allocation by individual bilateral transactions can be calculated. Bialek [11] proposed a method based on the topological generation, load distribution factors and proportional sharing assumption, and used the upstreamlooking and downstream-looking algorithm to trace the ows. The method based on the network topology and proportional sharing assumption was proposed in Ref. [12]. In the method, the network characteristics including commons, links, and state of graph need to be dened rst and then the contribution of a load or generator to a line can be obtained. From those methods, the admittance- or impedancematrix-based methods have recently received great attentions, since those method can integrated the network characteristics and circuit theories into ow and loss allocation. However, due to the almost singular characteristic of full admittance matrix, the methods based on the admittance or impedance matrices are difcult to allocate the ow and loss generated by swing bus directly. Additional ow and loss allocation formulas may be necessary. Only when the full admittance matrix is nonsingular, the admittance- or impedance-matrix-based methods can obtain exact results. This paper proposed a method to allocate the power ow and loss for deregulated transmission systems based on the equivalent current injections, equivalent impedance and electric circuit theories. By transforming the generation and load into equivalent current injection and equivalent impedance and then integrating the equivalent impedance into the original full admittance matrix, the modied full admittance will be non-singular. Therefore, the basic circuit theories can be used to solve the problem directly and the ow and loss generated by the swing bus can be easily calculated. Four steps proposed in this paper are used to trace the voltages, currents, power ows, and losses contributed by each generator sequentially. Using this method, the real and reactive power on each transmission lines and their sources and destinations can be calculated. The loss allocation of each line, which is produced by each generator, can also be obtained. Test results demonstrate the main contributions of the proposed method.

the solution of the converged power ow or state estimator was obtained, the system status including power injections, bus voltage angles, bus voltage magnitudes, and power ows at both ends of a line can be calculated. For a transmission system with N buses, we assume the system has NG generator buses (including swing bus) and NL load buses. It is clear that N is equal to the sum of NG and NL. Once the solution was obtained, a generator of a power system can be treated as an equivalent current injection that injects its current into the power system. On the contrary, a load of a power system can be treated as equivalent impedance, which absorbs current from the power system. For example, the converged power injection of a generator bus n can be expressed as Sn;G Z Pn;G C jQn;G (1)

And its corresponding equivalent current injection (In,G) is   Pn;G C jQn;G I n ;G Z (2) Vn ; G where Vn,G is the voltage of generator bus n obtained from the converged power ow solution. Note that the inuences of the constant voltage characteristic of a generator bus have been integrated into (2). That is, voltage changes of generator buses will be represented in the power ow solution and then the corresponding equivalent current injection will also be changed accordingly. Then, for a load bus i, the corresponding equivalent impedance (Zi,L) can be derived as Zi;L Z Vi ; L jVi;L j2 Z Ii;L Pi;L K jQi;L (3)

where Vi,L, Ii,L, and Si,LZ(Pi,LCjQiL) are the voltage, current, and power of load bus i obtained from the converged load ow solution, respectively. After the equivalent impedance was integrated into the admittance matrix, the relationship between bus voltages and bus current injections can be expressed as VBus Z ZMatrix IG (4)

2. Basic concepts of the proposed algorithm The proposed method is developed based on the converged load ow or state estimator solution. After

where VBus, IG and ZMatrix are the bus voltage vector, current injection vector, and impedance matrix including the effects of the equivalent impedance, respectively. Note that the effects of swing bus are also included in (4). Due to the almost singular characteristic of admittance matrix, the methods based on the admittance or impedance matrix are difcult to allocate the ow and loss generated by swing bus directly. However, the equivalent impedance is shunt impedance; the integration of the equivalent impedance into the admittance matrix can avoid the possible numerical problems in the impedance matrix building process. Besides, the relationship between the power injections and transmission networks are non-linear; thus, tracing the power ows and losses will be difcult. However, from (4) it can be seen that the relationships

J.-H. Teng / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 27 (2005) 327333

329

between the current injections and transmission networks are linear; thus, the circuit theories, including Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL), Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) and superposition law can be used and the proposed method can be derived.

where yijZ(gijCjbij) is the line admittance from bus i to j n and c/2 is the line charging susceptance. Din ij and Diji are the line currents, produced by generator bus n, from bus i to bus j and bus j to bus i, respectively. And the total line current from bus i to bus j will be Iij Z
NG X nZ1

3. Power ow and loss allocation The proposed method develops four steps to trace the ows and losses for deregulated power systems. They are (1) trace the voltages; (2) trace the currents; (3) trace the power ows; and (4) trace the losses. In this section, the derivations will be described in details. The rst step of the proposed method uses the Superposition Law and takes the generators into account one by one to derive the voltage contributions of each generator to each bus. For example, bus n is a generator bus and the In,G is its equivalent current injection, then the voltages contributed by generator bus n can be expressed as 3 2 2 n3 2 3 Dv 1 0 z11 / z1n / z1N 7 7 6 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 1 / / 7 7 7 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 6 n7 6 (5) 6 In;G 7 6 Dvn 7 Z 6 zn1 / znn / znN 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 4 / / 1 7 5 5 5 4 4 n z / / / z 0 N1 NN Dv N Eq. (5) shows that the voltage at bus i contributed by generator bus n Dvn i can be written as Dv n i Z zin In;G (6)

Di n ij

(9)

Since the voltages and line currents contributed by each generator can be traced, the power ow from bus i to bus j can be expressed as ! ! NG NG X X n n Sij Z Vi Iij Z Dvi Diij
nZ1 nZ1 NGK1 2 G Z Dv1 C Dv N i C Dv i C/C Dv i i NGK1 2 G C DiN Di1 ij C Diij C/C Diij ij

(10)

Eq. (10) can be rewritten as Sij Z

NG X NG X mZ1 nZ1

PFmn

(11)

where 2 6 6 6 6 n 1 PF Z 6 6 Dvi Diij 6 6 4 1 G Dv N i Diij

1 Dv 1 i Diij

/ 1 / /

n Dv 1 i Diij

/
n Dv n i Diij

And the voltage of bus i contributed by all generator buses will be Vi Z

NG X nZ1

n G / Dv N i Diij

7 7 7 7 NG 7 / Dv n D i i ij 7 7 7 1 5 NG NG / Dvi Diij /

NG Dv 1 i Diij

Dv n i

(7)

It is clear that the voltage contributions of each generator to each bus can be calculated easily by (6) and (7). That information is very important for ow and loss allocation. Using Fig. 1 as an example, the line current between bus i and j corresponding to the voltage contribution of generator bus n can be expressed as
n n n Di n ij Z Dvi K Dvj gij C jbij C jc=2Dvi n n n Di n ji Z Dvj K Dvi gij C jbij C jc=2Dvj

(8a) (8b)

n ni Bus i

yij=gij+j bij

n nj Bus j

c/2

c/2

Fig. 1. A transmission line section model.

From (11), it can be seen that the power ow of a line has to be calculated by the voltages and currents contributed by each generator; therefore, it is very difcult to allocate the powers contributed by a single generator. Previous research also shown that the ow and loss allocated in deregulated power systems has no unique solution; therefore, in order to nd a reasonable solution, some assumptions or approximations were necessary [412]. For example, the proportional sharing assumption is the prerequisite assumption for the ow and loss allocation proposed in Refs. [11,12]. Quadratic loss approximation formulas and some assumptions, such as bus voltage magnitude and bus voltage angle, are required for the loss allocation method used in Ref. [6]. However, if the assumptions or approximations are made proper, the power ow equations, power balance equations and electric circuit theories including Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL), Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) and Superposition Law should all be satised. Therefore, a reasonable and accurate solution can be obtained. From the observation of (11), it can be seen that the bus voltage can be considered as the force or pressure, which push the currents contributed by different generators through the line. Therefore, by using

330 Table 1 The system data of the 4-bus system Converged bus solution Bus no. 1 2 3 4 P (p.u.) Q (p.u.)

J.-H. Teng / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 27 (2005) 327333

Ig=

0.34559 j0.11655

G1: 0.40910+j0.01698 G4: 0.59436j0.10223 G1: 0.44827+j0.09195 G4: 0.60173j0.09195

ZL= 1.74671 j0.41259

V (p.u.) 1.05000 1.00707 1.01945 1.07000

q (rad.) 0.00000 K0.08475 K0.05385 0.01771

Bus type Swing PQ PQ PV

Bus 1

Bus 2

0.36287 0.11188 K0.54995 K0.12990 K0.30001 K0.18008 0.50000 0.28755

Line parameter data Line no. 1 2 3 4 5 From 1 1 3 2 4 To 2 3 2 4 3 R (p.u.) 0.08 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.0 X (p.u.) 0.40 0.50 0.40 0.50 0.30

G1: 0.40779+j0.02184 G4: 0.66204j0.00289

Bus 3
ZL= 2.54664 j1.52855

G1: 0.40648+j0.02449 G4: 0.61150j0.07936

Bus 4
0.47197 Ig= j0.26042

Fig. 3. The voltage tracing result of the 4-bus system.

the voltages contributed by all generators to push the line current contributed by the generator bus n, the power ow contributed by the generator bus n can be calculated. That is Dsn ij Z Dv1 i Dsn ij C/C Dv n i
n G C/C Dv N i Diij Z Vi Din ij

Therefore, the power of load bus i contributed by generator bus n can be written as
n Dsn i;L Z Vi Dii;L

(16)

And the total power of load bus i can be expressed as Si;L Z

NG X nZ1

(12) where is the line power ow produced by generator bus n from bus i to bus j. And the total power ow can be written as Sij Z
NG X nZ1

Dsn i;L

(17)

The line loss contributed by generator bus n can be calculated by

n n D pn ij;Loss Z ReDsij C ReDsji

Dsn ij

(13)

(18)

The power from a generator to a load can be also calculated by the same procedure, that is Di n i;L Z Dv n i Zi;L (14)

The total line losses can be expressed as Pij;Loss Z

NG X nZ1

D pn ij;Loss

(19)

where Din i;L is the current injection of load bus i contributed by generator bus n. The total current injection of load bus i will be Ii;L Z
NG X nZ1

Di n i;L
L2 0.23866 +j0.07444 0.23412 +j0.05177

(15)

The proposed method uses four steps to trace the voltage, current, power, and loss contributed by a generator. Quadratic loss formula requires some approximation and assumption for loss allocation; therefore, it is not used in this paper [6,7]. The correctness of the proposed method can be veried by comparing the results obtained from (7), (9), (13), (17) and (19) with the converged power ow solution.

0.36287 G1 +j0.11188

0.54995 j0.12990

Bus 1
0.12421 +j0.03744

Bus 2
0.23415 j0.06861

Bus 1

G1: 0.19905-j0.05814 G4: 0.02824-j0.01276

Bus 2

0.12238 +j0.02981

0.08234 +j0.01219

0.08168 j0.00953 0.24002 j0.09796

G1: 0.14654-j0.04842 G4: -0.02824+j0.01276

G1: -0.01612-j0.01057 G4: -0.06386+j0.02686

G1: -0.00884-j0.00437 G4: -0.21705+j0.09194

Bus 3
0.30001 j0.18008 L3

0.25998 j0.16246

0.25998 j0.18959

Bus 4
G4 0.50000 +j0.28755

Bus 3

G1: 0.00884+j0.00437 G4: -0.25490+j0.16848

Bus 4

Fig. 2. The power ow solution of the 4-bus system.

Fig. 4. The current tracing result of the 4-bus system.

J.-H. Teng / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 27 (2005) 327333

331

Load
G1: 0.22846j0.02425 G4: 0.32148j0.10566

G1

G1: 0.265 G4: 0.296 G1: 0.238 G4: 0.000 Bus 2

Bus 1

G1: 0.20900+j0.06104 G4: 0.02966+j0.01340

Bus 2

Bus 1

G1: 0.15387+j0.05084 G4: 0.02966j0.01340

G1:0.01528+j0.01198 G4: 0.06640j0.02154

G1: 0.00849j0.00514 G4: 0.22566j0.07375

G1: 0.124 G4: 0.000

G1: 0.026 G4: 0.056

G1: 0.000 G4: 0.240

Bus 3

G1: 0.00876-j0.00494 G4: 0.26873j0.15752

Bus 4

Bus 3 G1: 0.097 G4: 0.203

G1: 0.000 G4: 0.259 G4

Bus 4

Load
G1: 0.12725j0.05783 G4: 0.17277j0.12225

Fig. 5. The power tracing result of the 4-bus system.

Fig. 7. Tracing results using the proportional method in [11].

Test results shown in Section 4 will reveal that the results obtained from the proposed method do not only agree with the converged power ow solution but also satisfy the power ow equations, power balance equations, and electric circuit theories.

4. Numerical examples and discussions The proposed method was implemented by Borland CCC language and tested on a Windows-98 based Pentium-II (350) PC. A load ow program is used to obtain the system status. The convergence tolerance of the load ow program is 0.001 p.u. for power mismatches. Many power systems have been tested to verify the validity of the proposed method; however, only the results of a 4-bus system and a 6-bus system [13] were shown. The sizes of the test systems are not large, however; it is good enough to illustrate the correctness of the proposed method. Table 1 is the line parameters and the converged bus solution of the 4-bus system. The bus types of swing, PV, and PQ as shown in Table 1 are the swing bus, generator bus, and load bus, respectively. Fig. 2 shows the network topology of the 4-bus system. There are two generators at bus 1 and 4 and two loads at bus 2 and 3 for this system.

The system status including the power injections and power ows at both ends of each line are also shown in Fig. 2. All numerical values shown in Fig. 2 are in p.u. It can be seen that the line loss is equal to the absolute value of the difference between the line ows of both ends. Fig. 3 shows the equivalent impedance of bus 2 and 3, the equivalent current injections of bus 1 and 4, and the voltages contributed by each generator. From Fig. 3, it can also be seen that the sum of the bus voltages contributed by each generator is equal to the converged bus voltages. Figs. 4 and 5 show the line currents and powers contributed by each generator, respectively. Note that only the values as indicated by arrows are shown. From Fig. 4, it can be seen that the KCL of each bus and the KVL of each loop are satised. The fulllment of KCL and KVL are both for each individual generator and the full system. Fig. 6 shows the losses contributed by each generator. It can be seen that the total line losses produced by generator buses 1 and 4 are 0.00716 and 0.00674, respectively. The sum of line losses produced by each generator is the same as the line losses calculated by load ow program. The real power ow tracing result obtained from the method proposed in [11] is

G1 Bus 4 Bus 1 Bus 2

G2

Bus 1

G1: 0.00431 G4: 0.00023

Bus 2

L4 Bus 5

Bus 3 G3 L5

G1: 0.00204 G4: 0.00020

G1: 0.00056 G4: 0.00011

G1: 0.00104 G4: 0.00483

Bus 3

G1: 0.00078 G4: 0.00078

Bus 6

Bus 4
L6

Fig. 6. The loss tracing result of the 4-bus system.

Fig. 8. Network topology of the 6-bus system.

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J.-H. Teng / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 27 (2005) 327333

Table 2 The converged solution of the 6-bus system The converged bus solution Bus no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 P (p.u.) 1.07873 0.49989 0.59995 K0.69995 K0.69988 K0.70000 Q (p.u.) 0.13548 0.78378 0.86970 K0.69963 K0.69983 K0.70005 V (p.u.) 1.05000 1.05000 1.07000 0.99020 0.99037 1.00542 q (rad.) 0.00000 K0.06666 K0.07363 K0.07413 K0.08823 K0.10321 Type Swing PV PV PQ PQ PQ Line lossa K0.07498 0.06677 0.08694 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000

The converged line solution Line no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

a b

From 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 5

To 2 4 5 3 4 5 6 5 6 5 6

P (p.u.) 0.29865 0.43960 0.34048 0.01400 0.31340 0.21543 0.24592 0.17390 0.43971 0.02759 0.02996

Q (p.u.) K0.15913 0.19628 0.09833 K0.11977 0.46046 0.18452 0.12394 0.21927 0.59633 K0.05318 K0.08873

Line lossb 0.00979 0.01093 0.00966 0.00035 0.01454 0.00808 0.00530 0.00961 0.00983 0.00019 0.00045

The line losses produced by generator bus. The line losses consumed at line.

shown in Fig. 7. Several differences between Figs. 5 and 7 can be found. In Fig. 5 the counter ow may exist, while in Fig. 7 all of the branch power components are in the same direction. Fig. 7 also shows that a generator may only inject power to certain line, for example, the real line ows from bus 3 to 4 and bus 2 to 4 contributed by bus 1 are zero. While in Fig. 5, the real line ows from bus 3 to 4 and bus 2 to 4 contributed by bus 1 are 0.00876 and K0.00839, respectively. Fig. 8 shows the network topology of the 6-bus system [13]. From Fig. 8, it can be seen that the 6-bus system has three generators, three loads and eleven transmission lines. The converged solutions of the 6-bus system including bus voltage magnitudes, bus voltage angles, loss of each generator, line ows and line losses are shown in Table 2. Table 2 shows that the sum of the line losses is equal to the sum of the losses produced by each generator. Tables 3
Table 3 The power ow tracing result of the 6-bus system Line no. Bus 1 (G) Dp 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1

and 4 show the line ows and the loads contributed by each generator. From Table 3, it can be seen that the sum of each row, that is the sum of the line ows contributed by each generator, is equal to the corresponding line ow shown in Table 2. From Table 4, it can be seen that the sum of each row, that is the sum of the load contributed by each generator, is equal to the load of each load bus. The ow and loss of a power system reects the combined effects of all participating injections, any injection changes will result in ow and loss changes. This paper proposes a systematic solution procedure to allocate the ow and loss in deregulated environments. Using the equivalent current injection and equivalent impedance transformed from the generation and load respectively, the bus voltages and currents generated by each generator can be traced. The information is very useful

Bus 2 (G) Dq
1

Bus 3 (G) Dq
2

Dp

Dp3 K0.01877 0.02163 K0.00286 K0.13077 0.12290 0.01766 K0.03743 0.18144 0.27655 K0.01694 K0.02848

Dq3 K0.05646 0.06723 K0.01077 K0.23770 0.21366 0.04286 K0.05894 0.19918 0.45447 K0.04064 K0.07620

0.36338 0.40182 0.31353 0.08805 0.02837 0.08333 0.17392 K0.02346 0.12777 0.02508 0.04826

K0.00375 0.08235 0.05688 0.00770 K0.01459 0.00165 0.00735 K0.00758 0.03592 K0.01396 K0.00283

K0.04596 0.01615 0.02981 0.05672 0.16214 0.11444 0.10938 0.01592 0.03538 0.01947 0.01017

K0.09892 0.04670 0.05223 0.11024 0.26139 0.15533 0.17553 0.02768 0.10594 0.00142 K0.00970

J.-H. Teng / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 27 (2005) 327333 Table 4 The load tracing result of the 6-bus system Bus no. Bus 1 (G) Dp 4 5 6
1

333

Bus 2 (G) Dq
1

Bus 3 (G) Dq
2

Dp

Dp3 K0.15223 K0.17004 K0.19075

Dq3 K0.32353 K0.32976 K0.33609

K0.40066 K0.38704 K0.36601

K0.06978 K0.06964 K0.06898

K0.14707 K0.14281 K0.14324

K0.30631 K0.30043 K0.29497

for power ow and loss allocation. In order to trace the power ow and determine shares of system losses, a practical viewpoint was made in this paper. Test results show that the proposed method can provide a reasonable and accurate solution for power and loss allocation.

References
[1] Kirschen DS, Bacher R, Heydt GT. Scanning the issuespecial issue on the technology of power system competition. Proc IEEE 2000;1237. [2] United State of America Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Notice of Proposed Rulemaking and Supplement Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, Mar. 29; 1995. [3] Gonzalez JJ, Basagoiti P. Spanish power exchange market and information system. Design concepts and operating experience. IEEE Power Ind Comput Appl Conf 1999;24552. [4] Schweppe F, Caramanis R, Tarbor R, Bohn R. Spot pricing of electricity. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publisher; 1988. [5] Galiana FD, Conejo AJ, Kockar I. Incremental transmission allocation under pool dispatch. IEEE Trans Power Systems 2002;17(1):2633. [6] Gross G, Tao S. A physical-ow-based approach to allocating transmission losses in a transaction framework. IEEE Trans Power Systems 2000;15(2):6317. [7] Chang Y-C, Lu C-N. An electricity tracing method with application to power loss allocation. Int J Electrical Power Energy Systems 2001; 23(1):1317. [8] Jian Y, Anderson MD. Tracing the ow of power in transmission networks for use-of-transmission-system charges and congestion management. IEEE Winter Meeting 1999;1:399405. [9] Conejo AJ, Galiana FD, Kockar I. Z-bus loss allocation. IEEE Trans Power Systems 2001;16(1):10510. [10] Gomez Exposito A, Riquelme Santos JM, Gonzalez Garcia T, Ruiz Velasco EA. Fair allocation of transmission power losses. IEEE Trans Power Systems 2000;15(1):1848. [11] Bialek J. Topological generation and load distribution factors for supplement charge allocation in transmission open access. IEEE Trans Power Systems 1997;12(3):118593. [12] Kirschen D, Allan R, Strbac G. Contributions of individual generators to loads and ows. IEEE Trans Power Systems 1997;12(1):5260. [13] Wood AJ, Wollenberg BF. Power generation operation and control. London: Wiley; 1984.

5. Conclusions This paper proposed a method to trace the power ow and loss for deregulated transmission systems based on the electric circuit theories, equivalent current injection, and equivalent impedance. The method can determine the amount of the real and reactive power output from a particular generator goes to a particular load. The loss allocation of each line, which is produced by each generator, can also be obtained. The proposed method possesses the following features: 1 The proposed method uses the well-known circuit theories, including KCL, KVL and Superposition Law, to trace the ow and loss of a transmission system. 2. The algorithm is clear and simple. 3. The proposed method can calculate the contributions of real and reactive power together. 4. Power contributed by each generator may have positive and negative direction in the same line. 5. On the basis of the proposed method, each generator has some contribution to each line ow. Other topics, including the integration of the proposed method into the existent tariffs of charging for transmission losses, transmission services, and power system operation, will be studied in future papers.

Acknowledgements This work was sponsored by National Science Council, Taiwan, under research grant NSC 90-2213-E-214-052.

Jen-Hao Teng received his BS, MS and PhD degrees in electrical engineering from the National Sun Yat-Sen University in 1991, 1993 and 1996, respectively. He has been with the I-Shou University, Taiwan, since 1998. His current research interests are Distribution Automation, Power Quality and Power System Deregulation.