World History

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Articles
History of the world Civilization 1 22

References
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History of the world

History of the world

The history of the world is the history of humanity, beginning with the Paleolithic Era. Distinct from the history of Planet Earth (which includes early geologic history and prehuman biological eras), world history comprises the study of archeological and written records, from ancient times on. Ancient recorded history begins with the invention of writing.[1][2] However, the roots of civilization reach back to the period before the invention of writing. Prehistory begins World population from 10,000 BCE to 2,000 CE. The vertical (population) scale is logarithmic. in the Paleolithic Era, or "Early Stone Age," which is followed by the Neolithic Era, or New Stone Age, and the Agricultural Revolution (between 8000 and 5000 BCE) in the Fertile Crescent. The Neolithic Revolution marked a change in human history, as humans began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals.[][3][4] Agriculture advanced, and most humans transitioned from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle as farmers in permanent settlements. Nomadism continued in some locations, especially in isolated regions with few domesticable plant species;[5] but the relative security and increased productivity provided by farming allowed human communities to expand into increasingly larger units, fostered by advances in transportation. As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labor to store food between growing seasons. Labor divisions then led to the rise of a leisured upper class and the development of cities. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of writing and accounting.[] Many cities developed on the banks of lakes and rivers; as early as 3000 BCE some of the first prominent, well-developed settlements had arisen in Mesopotamia,[] on the banks of Egypt's River Nile,[6][7][] and in the Indus River valley.[8][9][10] Similar civilizations probably developed along major rivers in China, but archaeological evidence for extensive urban construction there is less conclusive. The history of the Old World (particularly Europe and the Mediterranean) is commonly divided into Ancient history (or "Antiquity"), up to 476 CE; the Postclassical Era (or "Middle Ages"[11][12]), from the 5th through 15th centuries, including the Islamic Golden Age (c. 750 CE c. 1258 CE) and the early European Renaissance (beginning around 1300 CE);[13][14] the Early Modern period,[] from the 15th century to the late 18th, including the Age of Enlightenment; and the Late Modern period, from the Industrial Revolution to the present, including Contemporary History. The ancient Near East,[15][16][17] ancient Greece, and ancient Rome figure prominently in the period of Antiquity. In the history of Western Europe, the fall in 476 CE of Romulus Augustulus, by some reckonings the last western Roman emperor, is commonly taken as signaling the end of Antiquity and the start of the Middle Ages. By contrast, Eastern Europe saw a transition from the Roman Empire to the Byzantine Empire, which did not decline until much later. In the mid-15th century, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of modern printing,[18] employing movable type, revolutionized communication, helping end the Middle Ages and usher in the Scientific Revolution.[19] By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology, especially in Europe, had reached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution.[20] Outside of the Old World, including ancient China,[21] and ancient India, historical timelines unfolded differently. By the 18th century, however, due to extensive world trade and colonization, the histories of most civilizations had

History of the world become significantly intertwined (see Globalization). In the last quarter-millennium, the rate of growth of population, knowledge, technology, commerce, weapons destructiveness and environmental degradation has greatly accelerated, creating opportunities and perils that now confront the planet's human communities.[22][23]

Prehistory
Early humans
Genetic measurements indicate that the ape lineage which would lead to Homo sapiens diverged from the lineage that would lead to chimpanzees (the closest living relative of modern humans) around five million years ago.[] It is thought that the Australopithecine genus, which were likely the first apes to walk upright, eventually gave rise to genus Homo. Anatomically modern humans arose in Africa about 200,000 years ago, and reached behavioral modernity about 50,000 years ago.[24] Modern humans spread rapidly from Africa into the frost-free zones of Cave painting, Lascaux, France Europe and Asia around 60,000 years ago.[] The rapid expansion of humankind to North America and Oceania took place at the climax of the most recent Ice Age, when temperate regions of today were extremely inhospitable. Yet, humans had colonised nearly all the ice-free parts of the globe by the end of the Ice Age, some 12,000 years ago. Other hominids such as Homo erectus had been using simple wood and stone tools for millennia, but as time progressed, tools became far more refined and complex. At some point, humans began using fire for heat and cooking. They also developed language in the Palaeolithic period and a conceptual repertoire that included systematic burial of the dead and adornment of the living. Early artistic expression can be found in the form of cave paintings and sculptures made from wood and bone. During this period, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers, and were generally nomadic.

Rise of civilization
The Neolithic Revolution, beginning about 8,000 BCE, saw the development of agriculture, which drastically changed the human lifestyle. Farming permitted far denser populations, which in time organised into states. Agriculture also created food surpluses that could support people not directly engaged in food production. The development of agriculture permitted the creation of the first cities. These were centres of trade, manufacturing and political power with nearly no agricultural production of their own. Cities established a symbiosis with their surrounding countrysides, absorbing agricultural products and providing, in return, manufactured goods and varying degrees of military control and protection.[25][26][27] The development of cities was synonymous with the rise of Cuneiformearliest known writing system civilization.[28] Early civilizations arose first in lower Mesopotamia (3500 BCE),[29][30] followed by Egyptian civilization along the Nile (3300 BCE)[] and the Harappan civilization in the Indus Valley (in present-day Pakistan; 3300 BCE).[31][32] These societies developed a number of unifying characteristics, including a central government, a complex economy and social structure, sophisticated language and writing systems, and distinct cultures and religions. Writing was another pivotal development in human history, as it made the administration of cities and expression of ideas far easier.

History of the world As complex civilizations arose, so did complex religions, and the first of their kind apparently originated during this period.[33][34][35] Inanimate entities such as the Sun, Moon, Earth, sky, and sea were often deified.[36] Shrines developed, which evolved into temple establishments, complete with a complex hierarchy of priests and priestesses and other functionaries. Typical of the Neolithic was a tendency to worship anthropomorphic deities. Among the earliest surviving written religious scriptures are the Egyptian Pyramid Texts, the oldest of which date to between 2400 and 2300 BCE.[37] Some archaeologists suggest, based on ongoing excavations of a temple complex at Gbekli Tepe ("Potbelly Hill") in southern Turkey, dating from c. 11,500 years ago, that religion predated the Agricultural Revolution rather than following in its wake, as had generally been assumed.[38]

Antiquity
Timeline
Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

Regions not included in the timeline include: Southern Africa, the Caribbean, Central Asia, Northern Europe, Korea, Japan, Oceania, Siberia, Southeast Asia, and Taiwan.

Cradles of civilization
The Bronze Age is part of the three-age system (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age) that for some parts of the world describes effectively the early history of civilization. During this era the most fertile areas of the world saw city states and the first civilizations develop. These were concentrated in fertile river valleys: the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yangtze and Yellow River in China. Sumer, located in Mesopotamia, is the first known complex Ancient Egyptians built the Great Pyramids of civilization, developing the first city-states in the 4th millennium BCE. Giza. It was in these cities that the earliest known form of writing, cuneiform script, appeared c. 3000 BCE. Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs. These pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract. Cuneiform texts were written on clay tablets, on which symbols were drawn with a blunt reed used as a stylus. Writing made the administration of a large state far easier. Transport was facilitated by waterwaysby rivers and seas. The Mediterranean Sea, at the juncture of three continents, fostered the projection of military power and the exchange of goods, ideas and inventions. This era also saw new land technologies, such as horse-based cavalry and chariots, that allowed armies to move faster. These developments led to the rise of empires. Such extensive civilizations brought peace and stability over wider areas. The first empire, controlling a large territory and many cities, developed in Egypt with the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt c. 3100 BCE. Over the next millennia, other river valleys would see monarchical empires rise to power. In the 24th century BCE, the Akkadian Empire arose in Mesopotamia;[39] and c. 2200 BCE the Xia Dynasty arose in China.

History of the world

Over the following millennia, civilizations would develop across the world. Trade would increasingly become a source of power as states with access to important resources or controlling important trade routes would rise to dominance. In c. 2500 BCE, the Kingdom of Kerma developed in Sudan, south of Egypt. In modern Turkey the Hittites controlled a large empire and by 1600 BCE, Mycenaean Greece began to develop.[40][41] In India this era was the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 6th century BCE. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country. As complex civilizations arose in the Eastern Hemisphere, most indigenous societies in the Americas remained relatively simple for some time, fragmented into diverse regional cultures. During the Formative stage in Mesoamerica, (about 1500 BCE to 500 CE), more "The Wrestler", an Olmec era statuette, 1200 complex and centralized civilizations began to develop, mostly in what 800 BCE. is now Mexico, Central America, and Peru. They include civilizations such as the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Moche, and Nazca. They developed agriculture as well, growing maize and other crops unique to the Americas, and creating a distinct culture and religion. These ancient indigenous societies would be greatly affected by European contact during the early modern period.

Axial Age
Beginning in the 8th century BCE, the so-called "Axial Age" saw a set of transformative religious and philosophical ideas develop, mostly independently, in many different locations. During the 6th century BCE, Chinese Confucianism,[42][43] Indian Buddhism and Jainism, and Jewish Monotheism all developed. (Karl Jaspers' Axial Age theory also includes Persian Zoroastrianism on this list, but other scholars dispute Jaspers' timeline for Zoroastrianism.) In the 5th century BCE Socrates and Plato made significant advances in the development of Ancient Greek philosophy. In the east, three schools of thought were to dominate Chinese thinking until the modern day. These were Taoism,[44] Legalism[45] and Confucianism.[46] The Confucian tradition, which would attain dominance, looked for political morality not to the force of law but to the power and example of tradition. Confucianism would later spread into the Korean peninsula and toward Japan. In the west, the Greek philosophical tradition, represented by Socrates,[] Plato,[47] and Aristotle,[48][49] was diffused throughout Europe and the Middle East in the 4th century BCE by the conquests of Alexander III of Macedon, more commonly known as Alexander the Great.[50][51][52]

Regional empires
The millennium from 500 BCE to 500 CE saw a series of empires of unprecedented size develop. Well-trained professional armies, unifying ideologies, and advanced bureaucracies created the possibility for emperors to rule over large domains, whose populations could attain numbers upwards of tens of millions of subjects. The great empires depended on military annexation of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to become agricultural centres.[53] The relative peace that the empires brought encouraged international trade, most notably the massive trade routes in the Mediterranean, and the Silk Road. In southern Europe, the Greeks (and later the Romans) established cultures whose practices, laws, and customs are considered the foundation of contemporary western civilization.

History of the world Major regional empires of this period include: The Median Empire, from 678 BCE, centered in present-day Iran, but extending west to present-day Turkey and east to present-day Pakistan. The Median Empire gave way to successive Iranian empires of the period, up to the Sassanid Empire (224-651 CE). The Delian League (from 478 BCE) and the succeeding Athenian Empire (454-404 BCE), centered in present-day Greece. Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE), of Macedon, founded an empire of conquest, extending from present-day Greece to present-day Pakistan. The empire divided shortly after his death, but the influence of his Hellenistic successors made for an extended Hellenistic period (323 30 BCE) throughout the region. The Maurya Empire (322 185 BCE) in present-day India. In the 3rd century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the Maurya Parthenon epitomizes sophisticated culture of Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka the Ancient Greece. Great. From the 3rd century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's Golden Age. From the 4th to 6th centuries, northern India was ruled by the Gupta Empire. In southern India, three prominent Dravidian kingdoms emerged: Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in the golden age of Hindu culture in the 4th and 5th centuries. The Roman Empire, centered in present-day Italy. Beginning in the 3rd century BCE, the Roman Republic began expanding its territory through conquest and colonization. By the time of Augustus (63 BCE - 14 CE), who would become the first Roman Emperor, Rome had already established dominion over most of the Mediterranean. The empire would continue to grow, controlling much of the land from England to Mesopotamia, reaching its greatest extent under the emperor Trajan (d. 117 CE). In the 3rd century CE, the empire would split into western and eastern regions, with (sometimes) separate emperors. The Western empire would fall, in 476 CE, to German influence under Odoacer. The eastern empire, now known as the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Constantinople, would continue for another thousand years, until overthrown by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 CE. The Qin Dynasty (221 206 BCE), the first imperial dynasty of China, followed by the Han Empire (206 BCE 220 CE). The Han Dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the Silk Road. While the Romans constructed a vast military of unprecedented power, Han China was developing advanced cartography, shipbuilding, and navigation. The East invented blast furnaces and were capable of creating finely tuned copper instruments. As with other empires during the Classical Period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and many others. The Aksumite Empire, centered in present-day Ethiopia. By the 1st century CE the Aksumite Empire had established itself as a major trading empire, dominating its neighbours in South Arabia and Kush, and controlling the Red Sea trade. They minted their own currency, and carved enormous monolithic stelae such as the Obelisk of Axum to mark their Emperors' graves. Successful regional empires were also established in the Americas, arising from cultures established as early as 2000 BCE. In Mesoamerica,[54] vast pre-Columbian societies were built, the most notable being the Zapotec Empire (200 BCE 100 CE), and the Mayan Empire, which reached its highest state of development during the Mesoamerican Classic period (c. 250 900 CE), but continued throughout the Post-Classic period until the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century CE. Maya civilization arose as the mother culture of the Olmecs[55] gradually declined. The great Mayan city-states slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the Yucatn and surrounding areas. The later empire of the Aztecs was built on neighboring cultures and was influenced by conquered peoples such as the Toltecs.

History of the world

Some areas experienced slow but steady technological advancements, with important developments such as the stirrup and moldboard plow arriving every few centuries. There were, however, in some regions, periods of rapid technological progress. Most important, perhaps, was the Mediterranean area during the Hellenistic period, when hundreds of technologies were invented.[56][57][58] Such periods were followed by periods of technological decay, as during the Roman Empire's decline and fall and the ensuing early medieval period.
Ptolemy's world map, c. 150 CE

Declines and falls

The empires faced common problems associated with maintaining huge armies and supporting a central bureaucracy. These costs fell most heavily on the peasantry, while land-owning magnates increasingly evaded centralised control and its costs. Barbarian pressure on the frontiers hastened internal dissolution. China's Han Empire fell into civil war in 220 CE, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time. The great empires of Eurasia were all located on temperate coastal plains. From the Central Asian steppes, horse-based nomads (Mongols, Turks) dominated a large part of the continent. The development of the stirrup, and the breeding of horses strong enough to carry a fully armed archer, made the nomads a constant threat to the more settled civilizations. The gradual break-up of the Roman Empire,[59][60] spanning several centuries after the 2nd century CE, coincided with the spread of Christianity westward from the Middle East. The Western Roman Empire fell[61] under the domination of Germanic tribes in the 5th century, and these polities gradually developed into a number of warring states, all associated in one way or another with the Roman Catholic Church. The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, would henceforth be the Byzantine Empire.[62] Centuries later, a limited unity would be restored to western Europe through the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire[63] in 962, comprising a number of states in what is now Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czechia, Belgium, Italy, and parts of France. In China, dynasties would similarly rise and fall.[64][65] After the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty[66] and the demise of the Three Kingdoms, nomadic tribes from the north began to invade in the 4th century, eventually conquering areas of Northern China and setting up many small kingdoms.

Postclassical Era
The Postclassical Era is named for the more Eurocentric era of "Classical Antiquity," but "the Postclassical Era" refers to a more global outline. The era is commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. The Western Roman Empire fragmented into numerous separate kingdoms, many of which would be later confederated under the Holy Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire survived until late in the Middle Ages. The Postclassical period also corresponds to the Islamic conquests,[67] subsequent Islamic golden age,[68][69] and commencement and expansion of the Arab slave trade, followed by the Mongol invasions in the Middle East and Central Asia. South Asia saw a series of middle kingdoms of India, followed by the establishment of Islamic empires in India. In western Africa, the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire developed. On the southeast coast of Africa, Arabic ports were established where gold, spices, and other commodities were traded. This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the Swahili culture. The Chinese Empire experienced the successive Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty. Middle Eastern trade routes along the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road through the Gobi Desert, provided limited economic and cultural contact between Asian and European civilizations. During this

History of the world same period, civilizations in the Americas, such as the Inca, Maya, and Aztec, reached their height. All would be seriously compromised by contact with European colonists at the beginning of the Modern period.

History of Islam
The history of Islam concerns the Islamic religion and its adherents, known as Muslims. "Muslim" is an Arabic word meaning "one who submits to God." Muslims and their religion have greatly impacted the political, economic, and military history of the Old World, especially the Middle East, where lie its roots. From their center on the Arabian Peninsula, Muslims began their expansion during the early Middle Ages. By 750CE, they came to conquer most of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe, ushering in an era of learning, science, and invention known as the Islamic Golden Age. The knowledge and skills of the ancient Middle East, of Greece, and of Persia were preserved in the Middle Ages by Muslims, who also added new and important innovations from outside, such as the manufacture of paper from China and decimal positional numbering from India. Much of this learning and development can be Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, founded linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence the city of Mecca 670 oldest mosque in Muslim West had served as a center of trade in Arabia, and the prophet Muhammad himself was a merchant. With the new Islamic tradition of the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, the city became even more a center for exchanging goods and ideas. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to the Europeans, Indians, and Chinese who based their societies on an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their faith to China (resulting in a present-day population of some 37 million Chinese Muslims, mainly ethnic Turkic Uyghurs, whose territory was annexed to China), India, southeast Asia, and the kingdoms of western Africa, and returned with new discoveries and inventions.

Medieval Europe
Europe during the Early Middle Ages was characterized by depopulation, deurbanization, and barbarian invasion, all of which had begun in Late Antiquity. The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, North Africa and the Middle East, once part of the eastern empire, became part of the Caliphate after conquest by Muhammad's successors. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break was not as extreme as once put forth by historians, with most of the new kingdoms incorporating as many of the existing Roman institutions as they could. Christianity expanded in western Europe and monasteries were founded. In the 7th and 8th centuries the Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, established an empire covering much of western Europe; it lasted until the 9th century, when it succumbed to pressure from new invaders the Vikings, Magyars, and Saracens.

History of the world

During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as new technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and crop yields to increase. Manorialism the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labor service to nobles and feudalism a political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors were two of the ways of organizing medieval society that developed during the High Middle Ages. Kingdoms became more centralized after the Castles like Segovia Castle, Spain, were common decentralizing effects of the breakup of the Carolingian Empire. The in High Middle Ages Europe. Crusades, which were first preached in 1095, were an attempt by western Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from the Muslims, and succeeded long enough to establish some Christian states in the Near East. Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism and the founding of universities, while the building of Gothic cathedrals was one of the outstanding artistic achievements of the age. The Late Middle Ages were marked by a number of difficulties and calamities. Famine, plague and war decimated the population of western Europe. The Black Death alone killed approximately a third of the population between 1347 and 1350. It was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Starting in Asia, the disease reached Mediterranean and western Europe during the late 1340s,[70] and killed tens of millions of Europeans in six years; between a third and a half of the population.[71] The Middle Ages[72] witnessed the first sustained urbanization of northern and western Europe. Many modern European states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle Ages; present European political boundaries are, in many regards, the result of the military and dynastic achievements during this tumultuous period.[73] The Middle Ages lasted until the beginning of the Early Modern Period[] in the 16th century, marked by the rise of nation-states, the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation,[74] the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance,[75] and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange.[76]

History of the world

Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa

Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa was home to many different civilizations. The Aksumite Empire declined in the 7th century as Islam cut it off from its Christian allies and its people moved further into the Ethiopian highlands for protection. They eventually gave way to the Zagwe Dynasty who are famed for their rock cut architecture at Lalibela. The Zagwe would then fall to the Solomonic Dynasty who claimed descent from the Aksumite emperors and would rule the country well into the 20th century. In the West African Sahel region, many Islamic empires rose, such as the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire, the Songhai Empire, and the Kanem Empire. They controlled the trans-Saharan trade in gold, ivory, salt and slaves. South of the Sahel civilisations rose in the coastal forests where horses and camels could not survive. These include the Yoruba city of Ife (noted for its naturalistic art) and the Oyo Empire, the Benin Empire of the Edo people centered in Benin city, the Igbo Kingdom of Nri which produced advanced bronze art at Igbo Ukwu, and the Akan who are noted for their intricate architecture.

Yoruba bronze head, Ife, 11th14th century

In what is now modern Zimbabwe various kingdoms evolved from the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in modern South Africa. They flourished through trade with the Swahili people on the East African coast. They built large defensive stone structures without mortar such as Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Khami, capital of Kingdom of Butua and Danamombe (Dhlo-Dhlo), capital of the Rozwi Empire. The Swahili people themselves were the inhabitants of the East African coast from Kenya to Mozambique who traded extensively with Asians and Arabs, who introduced them to Islam. They built many port cities such as Mombasa, Zanzibar, and Kilwa, which were known to Chinese sailors under Zheng He and Islamic geographers.

Indian Subcontinent
In nothern India, after the fall (550 CE) of the Gupta Empire, the region divided in to a complex and fluid network of smaller kingdoms, including the Rajput states.[77] Early Muslim incursions began in the west in 711 CE, when the Arab Umayyad Empire annexed much of present-day Pakistan. Arab military advancement was largely halted at that point, but Islam still spread in India, largely due to the influence of Arab merchants along the western coast. In the 12th century, Turkic Muslims would found the Delhi Sultanate, which would control most of the northern subcontinent. At the end of the 15th century, the Muslim Deccan Sultanates would arise from the west coast to east in the middle of the Indian Peninsula. Postclassical dynasties in Southern India included those of the Chalukyas,the Rashtrakutas, the Hoysalas, the Cholas and the Vijayanagara Empire. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.

East Asia
After a period of relative disunity, the Sui Dynasty reunified China in 581, and under the succeeding Tang Dynasty (618907) China entered a second golden age. The Tang Dynasty eventually splintered, however, and after half a century of turmoil the Northern Song Dynasty reunified China in 982, yet pressure from nomadic empires to the north became increasingly urgent. North China was lost to the Jurchens in 1141, and the Mongol Empire[78][79] conquered all of China in 1279, along with almost half of Eurasia's landmass. After about a century of Mongol Yuan Dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming Dynasty (1368).

History of the world In Japan, the imperial lineage had been established by this time, and during the Asuka period (538 to 710) the Yamato Province developed into a clearly centralized state.[80] Buddhism was introduced,[81] and there was an emphasis on the adoption of elements of Chinese culture and Confucianism. The Nara period of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and is often portrayed as a golden age. During this period, the imperial government undertook great public works, including government offices, temples, roads, and irrigation systems. The Heian period (794 to 1185) saw the peak of imperial power, followed by the rise of militarized clans, and the beginning of Japanese feudalism.[82] The feudal period of Japanese history, dominated by powerful regional families (daimy) and the military rule of warlords (shgun), stretched from 1185 to 1868. The emperor remained, but mostly as a figurehead, and the power of merchants was weak. Postclassical Korea saw the end of the Three Kingdoms era, the three kingdoms being Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. Silla conquered Baekje in 660, and Goguryeo in 668,[83] marking the beginning of the North and South States period (), with Unified Silla in the south and Balhae, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north. About 900 CE, this arragement reverted back to the Later Three Kingdoms, with Goguryeo (then called Hugoguryeo and eventually named Goryeo) emerging as dominant, unifying the entire peninsula by 936.[84] The founding Goryeo dynasty ruled until 1392, succeeded by the Joseon Dynasty, which ruled for the next 500 years.

10

Central Asia
Starting with the Sui Dynasty (581-618), the Chinese began expansion into eastern Central Asia, and had to deal with Turkic nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia.[85][86] Originally the relationship was largely cooperative, but in 630 the Tang Dynasty began an offensive against the Turks.,[87] capturing areas of the Mongolian Ordos Desert. The Tang Empire competed with the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia.[88][89] In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east. The desert nomads of Arabia could militarily match the nomads of the steppe, and the early Arab Empire gained control over parts of Central Asia. The Hephthalites were the most powerful of the nomad groups in the 6th and 7th century, and controlled much of the region. In the 10th and 11th centuries the region was divided between several powerful states including the Samanid dynasty, that of the Seljuk Turks, and the Khwarezmid Empire. The most spectacular power to rise out of Central Asia developed when Genghis Khan united the tribes of Mongolia. The Mongol Empire spread to comprise all of Central Asia and China as well as large parts of Russia, and the Middle East. After Genghis Khan died in 1227, most of Central Asia continued to be dominated by the successor Chagatai Khanate. In 1369, Timur, a Turkic leader in the Mongol military tradition, conquered most of the region. Timur's large empire collapsed soon after his death, however. The region then became divided among a series of smaller Khanates, including the Khanate of Khiva, the Khanate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Kokand, and the Khanate of Kashgar.

Southeast Asia
The beginning of the Middle Ages in Southeast Asia saw the fall (550 CE) of the Kingdom of Funan to the Chenla Kingdom, which was then replaced by the Khmer Empire (802 CE). The Khmer's capital city Angkor was the largest city in the world prior to the industrial age and contained over a thousand temples, the most famous being Angkor Wat. The Sukhothai (1238 CE) and Ayutthaya (1351 CE) kingdoms were major powers of the Thai people, who were influenced by the Khmer. Starting in the 9th century, the Pagan Kingdom rose to

Angkor Wat temple, Cambodia, early 12th century

History of the world prominence in modern Burma. Other notable kingdoms of the period include the Srivijayan Empire and the Lavo Kingdom (both coming into prominence in the 7th century), the Champa and the Haripunchai (both about 750), the Dai Viet (968), Lanna (13th century), Majapahit Empire (1293), Lan Xang (1354), and the Ava Kingdom (1364). It was also during this period that Islam spread to present-day Indonesia (beginning in the 13th century), and the Malay states began to emerge.

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Oceania
The Tu'i Tonga Empire was founded in the 10th century AD and expanded between 1200 and 1500. Tongan culture, language, and influence spread widely within Polynesia during this period,[90][91] through East 'Uvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa and Niue, parts of Micronesia (Kiribati, Pohnpei), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands,[92] Indigenous written records from this period are scant, but some history can be established through oral tradition, archaeology, and linguistics.

The Americas
In North America, this period saw the rise of the Mississippian culture in the modern United States c. 800 CE, marked by the extensive 12th-century urban complex at Cahokia. The Ancient Pueblo Peoples and their predecessors (9th - 13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that would remain the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century.[][] In Mesoamerica, the Teotihuacan civilization fell and the Classic Maya collapse occurred. The Aztec came to dominate much of Mesoamerica in the 14th and 15th centuries. In South America, the 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the Inca. The Inca Empire of Tawantinsuyu, with its Machu Picchuleading icon of Inca civilization capital at Cusco, spanned the entire Andes Mountain Range, making it the most extensive Pre-Columbian civilization.[93][94] The Inca were prosperous and advanced, known for an excellent road system and unrivaled masonry.

Modern history
Modern history (the "modern period," the "modern era," "modern times") is history of the period following the Middle Ages. "Contemporary history" is history that only covers events from c. 1900 to the present day.

Early modern period

"Early Modern period"[95] is a term used by historians to refer to the period between the Middle Ages (Post-classical era) and the Industrial Revolution roughly 1500 to 1800. The Early Modern period is characterized by the rise of science, and by increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics, and the nation-state. Capitalist economies began their rise, initially in northern Italian republics such as Genoa. The Early Modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the mercantilist economic theory. As such, the Early

Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man epitomizes Renaissance artistic and scientific advances.

History of the world Modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism, serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the late decades of the Protestant Reformation, the disastrous Thirty Years' War, the Age of Discovery, European colonial expansion, and the peak of European witch-hunting. Renaissance Europe's Renaissance, beginning in the 14th century,[96] consisted of the rediscovery of the classical world's scientific contributions, and of the economic and social rise of Europe. But the Renaissance also engendered a culture of inquisitiveness which ultimately led to Humanism[97] and the Scientific Revolution.[98] Although it saw social and political upheaval and revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, the Renaissance is perhaps known best for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".[99][100] This era in European culture also saw the 16th-century Protestant Reformation and the 17th-century Age of Enlightenment,[101] which led to the Scientific Revolution.[102] European expansion During this period, European powers came to dominate most of the world. One theory of why that happened holds that Europe's geography played an important role in its success. The Middle East, India and China are all ringed by mountains and oceans but, once past these outer barriers, are nearly flat. By contrast, the Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Carpathians and other mountain ranges run through Europe, and the continent is also divided by several seas. This gave Europe some degree of protection from the peril of Central Asian invaders. Before the era of firearms, these nomads were militarily superior to the agricultural states on the periphery of the Eurasian continent and, if they broke out into the plains of northern India or the valleys of China, were all but unstoppable. These invasions were often devastating. The Golden Age of Islam[103] was ended by the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258. India and China were subject to periodic invasions, and Russia spent a couple of centuries under the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Central and western Europe, logistically more distant from the Central Asian heartland, proved less vulnerable to these threats. Geography contributed to important geopolitical differences. For most of their histories, China, India and the Middle East were each unified under a single dominant power that expanded until it reached the surrounding mountains and deserts. In 1600 the Ottoman Empire[104] controlled almost all the Middle East, the Ming Dynasty ruled China,[105][106] and the Mughal Empire held sway over India. By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states. Pan-European empires, with the notable exception of the Roman Empire, tended to collapse soon after they arose. Another doubtless important geographic factor in the rise of Europe was the Mediterranean Sea, which, for millennia, had functioned as a maritime superhighway fostering the exchange of goods, people, ideas and inventions.

12

World map by Ortelius, 1570, incorporating new discoveries by Europeans

Movable-type printing press arose in mid-15th century. 50 years later, nine million books were in print.

Nearly all the agricultural civilizations have been heavily constrained by their environments. Productivity remained low, and climatic changes easily instigated boom-and-bust cycles that brought about civilizations' rise and fall. By

History of the world about 1500, however, there was a qualitative change in world history. Technological advance and the wealth generated by trade gradually brought about a widening of [107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117] possibilities. Many have also argued that Europe's institutions allowed it to expand,[118][119] that property rights and free-market economics were stronger than elsewhere due to an ideal of freedom peculiar to Europe. In recent years, however, scholars such as Kenneth Pomeranz have challenged this view, although this revisionist approach to world history has been met with criticism for systematically "downplaying" European achievements.[120] Europe's maritime expansion unsurprisingly given the continent's geography was largely the work of its Atlantic states: Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands. Initially the Portuguese and Spanish Empires were the predominant conquerors and sources of influence, and their union resulted in the Iberian Union,[121] the first global empire, on which the "sun never set". Soon the more northern English, French and Dutch began to dominate the Atlantic. In a series of wars fought in the 17th and 18th centuries, culminating with the Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the new world power. Regional developments Persia came under the rule of the Safavid Empire in 1501, succeeded by the Afsharid Empire in 1736, and the Qajar Empire in 1796. Areas to the north and east were held by Uzbeks and Pashtuns. The Ottoman Empire, after taking Constantinople in 1453, quickly gained control of the Middle East, the Balkans, and most of North Africa. Elsewhere in Africa, this period saw a decline in many civilizations and an advancement in others. The Swahili Coast declined after coming under Portuguese (and later Omani) control. In west Africa, the Songhai Empire fell to the Moroccans in 1591 when they invaded with guns. The south African Kingdom of Zimbabwe gave way to smaller kingdoms such as Mutapa , Butua, and Rozwi. Ethiopia suffered from the 1531 invasion from neighboring Muslim Adal Sultanate, and in 1769 entered the Zemene Mesafint (Age of Princes) during which the Emperor became a figurehead and the country was ruled by warlords, though the royal line later would recover under Emperor Tewodros II. The Ajuuraan Empire, in the Horn of Africa, began to decline in the 17th century, succeeded by the Geledi Sultanate. Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period. The Oyo Empire experienced its golden age, as did the Benin Empire. The Ashanti Empire rose to power in what is modern day Ghana in 1670. The Kingdom of Kongo also thrived during this period. European exploration of Africa reached its zenith at this time. In the Far East, the Chinese Ming Dynasty gave way (1644) to the Qing, the last Chinese imperial dynasty, which would rule until 1912. Japan experienced its Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568 1603), followed by the Edo period (1603-1868). The Korean Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) ruled throughout this period, successfully repelling 16th- and 17th-century invasions from Japan and China. Japan and China were significantly affected during this period by expanded maritime trade with Europe, particularly the Portuguese in Japan. During the Edo period, Japan would pursue isolationist policies, to eliminate foreign influences. On the Indian subcontinent, the Delhi Sultanate and the Deccan Sultanates would give way, beginning in the 16th century, to the Mughal Empire. Starting in the northwest, the Mughal Empire would by the late 17th century come to rule the entire subcontinent,[122] except for the southernmost Indian provinces, which would remain independent. Against the Muslim Mughal Empire, the Hindu Maratha Empire was founded on the west coast in 1674, gradually gaining territory a majority of present-day Indiafrom the Mughals over several decades, particularly in the Deccan Wars (1681-1701). The Maratha Empire would fall to the British in 1818, under the control of the British East India Company, with all former Maratha and Mughal authority devolving to the British Raj in 1858. In 1511, the Portuguese overthrew the Sultanate of Malacca in present-day Malaysia and Indonesian Sumatra. The Portuguese held this important trading territory (and the valuable associated navigational strait) until overthrown by the Dutch in 1641. The Johor Sultanate, centered on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region. European colonization would affect the whole of Southeast Asia the British in Burma and Malaysia, the French in Indochina, the Dutch in the Netherlands East Indies, and the Spanish in the Philippines. Only Thailand would successfully resist colonization.

13

History of the world The Pacific islands of Oceania would also be affected by European contact, starting with the circumnavigational voyage of Ferdinand Magellan, who landed on the Marianas and other islands in 1521. Also notable were the voyages (164244) of Abel Tasman to present-day Australia, New Zealand and nearby islands, and the voyages (1768-1779) of Captain James Cook, who made the first recorded European contact with Hawaii. Britain would found its first colony on Australia in 1788. In the Americas, the western European powers vigorously colonized the newly-discovered continents, largely displacing the indigenous populations, and destroying the advanced civilizations of the Aztecs and the Inca. Spain, Portugal, Britain, and France all made extensive territorial claims, and undertook large-scale settlement, including the importation of large numbers of African slaves. Portugal claimed Brazil. Spain claimed the rest of South America, Mesoamerica, and southern North America. Britain colonized the east coast of North America, and France colonized the central region of North America. Russia made incursions onto the northwest coast of North America, with a first colony in present-day Alaska in 1784,[] and the outpost of Fort Ross in present-day California in 1812.[] In 1762, in the midst of the Seven Years War, France secretly ceded most of its North American claims to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Thirteen of the British colonies declared independence as the United States of America in 1776, ratified by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, ending the American Revolutionary War. Napoleon Bonaparte won Frances claims back from Spain in the Napoleonic Wars in 1800, but sold them to the United States in 1803 as the Louisiana Purchase. In Russia, Ivan IV (the Terrible) was crowned (1547) the first Tsar of Russia, and by annexing the Turkic Khanates in the east, transformed Russia into a regional power. The countries of western Europe, while expanding prodigiously through technological advancement and colonial conquest, competed with each other economically and militarily in a state of almost constant war. Often the wars had a religious dimension, either Catholic versus Protestant, or (in eastern Europe) Christian versus Muslim. Wars of particular note include the Thirty Years War, the War of the Spanish Succession, the Seven Years War, and the French Revolutionary Wars. Napoleon came to power in France in 1799, an event foreshadowing the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century.

14

Modern period
The Scientific Revolution changed humanity's understanding of the world and led to the Industrial Revolution, a major transformation of the world's economies.[102][123] The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century had made little immediate impact on industrial technology; only in the second half of the 18th century did scientific advances begin to be applied significantly to practical invention. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used new modes of production the factory, mass production, and mechanisation to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labour than previously. The Age of Enlightenment also led to the beginnings of modern democracy in the late-18th century American and French Revolutions. Democracy and republicanism would grow to have a profound effect on world events and on quality of life. After Europeans had achieved influence and control over the Americas, the imperial activities of the West turned to the lands of the East and Asia.[124][125] In the 19th century the European states had social and technological advantage over Eastern lands.[126] Britain gained control of the Indian subcontinent, Egypt and the Malay Peninsula;[127] the French took Indochina; while the Dutch cemented their control over the Dutch East Indies. The British also colonized Australia, New Zealand and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.[127] Russia colonised large pre-agricultural areas of Siberia.[128][129] In the late 19th century, the European powers divided the remaining areas of Africa. Within Europe, economic and military challenges created a system of nation states, and ethno-linguistic groupings began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for cultural and political autonomy. This nationalism would become important to peoples across the world in the 20th century. During the Industrial Revolution, the world economy became reliant on coal as a fuel, as new methods of transport, such as railways and steamships, effectively shrank the world.[123] Meanwhile, industrial pollution and

History of the world environmental damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically. The advantages that Europe had developed by the mid-18th century were two: an entrepreneurial culture,[126][130] and the wealth generated by the Atlantic trade[126] (including the African slave trade). By the late 16th century, silver from the Americas accounted for the Spanish empire's wealth.[131] The profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to 5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution.[132] While some historians conclude that, in 1750, labour productivity in the most developed regions of China was still on a par with that of Europe's Atlantic economy (see the NBER Publications by Carol H. Shiue and Wolfgang Keller[133]), other historians like Angus Maddison hold that the per-capita productivity of western Europe had by the late Middle Ages surpassed that of all other regions.[134]

15

Contemporary history
190045 The 20th century[135][136][137] opened with Europe at an apex of wealth and power, and with much of the world under its direct colonial control or its indirect domination.[138] Much of the rest of the world was influenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the United States and Japan.[139] As the century unfolded, however, the global system dominated by rival powers was subjected to severe strains, and ultimately yielded to a more fluid structure of independent nations organized on Western models. This transformation was catalysed by wars of unparalleled scope and devastation. World War I[140] destroyed many of Europe's empires and monarchies, and weakened Britain and France.[141] In its aftermath, powerful ideologies arose. The Russian Revolution[142][143][144] of 1917 created the first communist state, while the 1920s and 1930s saw militaristic fascist dictatorships gain control in Italy, Germany, Spain and elsewhere.[145] Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, helped precipitate World War II.[146][147] The militaristic dictatorships of Europe and Japan pursued an ultimately doomed course of imperialist expansionism. Their defeat opened the way for the advance of communism into Central Europe, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, China, North Vietnam and North Korea. 19452000 After World War II ended in 1945, the United Nations was founded in History's only use of nuclear weapons in the hope of allaying conflicts among nations and preventing future warHiroshima and Nagasaki, 1945 wars.[148][149] The war had, however, left two nations, the United States[150] and the Soviet Union, with principal power to guide international affairs.[151] Each was suspicious of the other and feared a global spread of the other's political-economic model. This led to the Cold War, a forty-year stand-off between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies. With the development of nuclear weapons[152] and the subsequent arms race, all of humanity were put at risk of nuclear war between the two superpowers.[153] Such war being viewed as impractical, proxy wars were instead waged, at the expense of non-nuclear-armed Third World countries.
World War I static trench warfare, western Europe

History of the world The Cold War lasted to the 1990s, when the Soviet Union's communist system began to collapse, unable to compete economically with the United States and western Europe; the Soviets' Central European "satellites" reasserted their national sovereignty, and in 1991 the Soviet Union itself disintegrated.[154][155][156] The United States for the time being was left as the "sole remaining superpower".[157][158][159] In the early postwar decades, the African and Asian colonies of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French and other west European empires won their formal independence.[160][161] These nations faced challenges in the form of neocolonialism, poverty, illiteracy and endemic tropical diseases.[162][163] Many Western and Central European nations gradually formed a political and economic community, the European Union, which expanded eastward to include former Soviet satellites.[164][165][166][167] The 20th century saw explosive progress in science and technology, and increased life expectancy and standard of living for much of humanity. As the developed world shifted from a coal-based to a petroleum-based economy, new transport technologies, along with the dawn of the Information Age,[168] led to increased globalization.[169][170][171] Space exploration reached throughout the solar system. The structure of DNA, the template of life, was discovered,[172][173][174] and the human genome was sequenced, a major milestone in the understanding of human biology and the treatment of disease.[175][176][177][178][179] Global literacy rates continued to rise, and the percentage of the world's labor pool needed to produce humankind's food supply continued to drop.
Last Moon landing Apollo 17 (1972)

16

The technologies of sound recordings, motion pictures, and radio and television broadcasting produced a means for rapid dissemination of information and entertainment. Then, in the last decade of this century, a rapid increase took place in the use of computers, including personal ones. A global communication network emerged in the Internet. One-way mass media gave way to individual communication in what has been called a shift from the fourth to a fifth civilization.[180] The century saw several man-made global threats emerge or become more serious or widely recognized, including nuclear proliferation, global climate change,[181][182] deforestation, overpopulation, near-Earth asteroids and comets,[] and the dwindling of global natural resources (particularly fossil fuels).[183] 21st century The 21st century has been marked by economic globalization, with consequent risk to interlinked economies, and by the expansion of communications with mobile phones and the Internet. Worldwide demand and competition for resources has risen due to growing populations and industrialization, mainly in India, China and Brazil. This demand is causing increased levels of environmental degradation and a growing threat of global warming.[184] That in turn has spurred the development of alternate or renewable sources of energy (notably solar energy and wind energy), proposals for cleaner fossil fuel technologies, and consideration of expanded use of nuclear energy (somewhat dampened by nuclear plant accidents).[185][186][187]
Depiction of the Internet, a source of information and communication

History of the world

17

Notes
[1] According to David Diringer ("Writing", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986 ed., vol. 29, p. 558), "Writing gives permanence to men's knowledge and enables them to communicate over great distances.... The complex society of a higher civilization would be impossible without the art of writing." [2] Webster, H. (1921). World history (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cboXAAAAIAAJ). Boston: D.C. Heath. Page 27 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cboXAAAAIAAJ& pg=PR5& pg=PA27). [3] Bellwood, Peter. (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies, Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20566-7 [4] Cohen, Mark Nathan (1977) The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture, New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02016-3. [5] See Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel. [13] Burckhardt, Jacob (1878), The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (http:/ / www. boisestate. edu/ courses/ hy309/ docs/ burckhardt/ burckhardt. html), trans S.G.C Middlemore, republished in 1990 ISBN 0-14-044534-X [15] William W. Hallo & William Kelly Simpson, The Ancient Near East: A History, Holt Rinehart and Winston Publishers, 1997 [16] Jack Sasson, The Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, New York, 1995 [17] Marc Van de Mieroop, History of the Ancient Near East: Ca. 3000323 BC., Blackwell Publishers, 2003 [19] Grant, Edward. The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1996. [20] More; Charles. Understanding the Industrial Revolution (2000) online edition (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=102816164) [22] Reuters The State of the World (http:/ / stateoftheworld. reuters. com) The story of the 21st century [26] Chandler, T. Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987. [27] Modelski, G. World Cities:3000 to 2000. Washington, DC: FAROS 2000, 2003. [28] The very word "civilization" comes from the Latin civilis, meaning "civil," related to civis, meaning "citizen," and civitas, meaning "city" or "city-state." [29] Ascalone, Enrico. Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 1). Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-25266-7). [30] Lloyd, Seton. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest. [31] Allchin, Bridget (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. New York: Viking. [32] Allchin, Raymond (ed.) (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. New York: Cambridge University Press. [34] "The Sun God and the Wind Deity at [[Kizil Caves|Kizil (http:/ / www. transoxiana. org/ Eran/ Articles/ tianshu. html)]," by Tianshu Zhu,] in Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I, Webfestschrift Marshak: ran ud Anrn, 2003. [35] Marija Gimbutas. The Language of the Goddess, Harpercollins, 1989, ISBN 0-06-250356-1. [36] Turner, Patricia, and Charles Russell Coulter, Dictionary of Ancient Deities, New York, Oxford University Press, 2001. [38] Patrick Symmes, "History in the Remaking: a temple complex in Turkey that predates even the Pyramids is rewriting the story of human evolution," Newsweek, March 1, 2010, pp. 4648. [39] Wells, H. G. (1921), 'The Outline of History: Being A Plain History of Life and Mankind' (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rTAMAAAAIAAJ& client=firefox-a), New York, Macmillan Company, p.137. [40] Chadwick, John (1976) The Mycenaean World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29037-6. [41] Mylonas, George E. (1966), Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-03523-7. [44] Miller, James. Daoism: A Short Introduction (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003). ISBN 1-85168-315-1 [47] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Plato (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ plato/ ) [50] PDF: A Bibliography of Alexander the Great (http:/ / hum. ucalgary. ca/ wheckel/ bibl/ alex-bibl. pdf) by Waldemar Heckel [51] Alexander III the Great (http:/ / virtualreligion. net/ iho/ alexander. html), entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith [53] Morgan, L. H. (1877). Ancient society (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=V2hURbcPp0YC); or, Researches in the lines of human progress from savagery, through barbarism to civilization. New York: H. Holt and Company. [54] " Central America (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761574502/ Central_America. html)". MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?id=1257007771573674) 2009-10-31. [56] Camp, J. M., & Dinsmoor, W. B. (1984). Ancient Athenian building methods (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7ChJMHxovjUC). Excavations of the Athenian Agora, no. 21. [Athens]: American School of Classical Studies at Athens. [57] Drachmann, A. G. (1963). The mechanical technology of Greek and Roman antiquity, a study of the literary sources. Copenhagen: Munksgaard. [58] Oleson, J. P. (1984). Greek and Roman mechanical water-lifting devices: the history of a technology. Phoenix, 16 : Tome supplmentaire. Dordrecht: Reidel. [60] Edward Gibbon. "General Observations on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West" (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ source/ gibbon-fall. html), from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook. Brief excerpts of Gibbon's theories. [61] Gibbon, Edward (1906). in J.B. Bury (with an Introduction by W.E.H. Lecky): The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volumes II, III, and IX). New York: Fred de Fau and Co..

History of the world

[62] Bury, John Bagnall (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ secondary/ BURLAT/ home. html). Macmillan & Co., Ltd.. [63] Bryce, J. B. (1907). The Holy Roman empire (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0jNI4vCO7d8C). New York: MacMillan. [67] Fred Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ med/ donner. html) Chapter 6 [68] Golden age of Arab and Islamic Culture (http:/ / trboard. org/ modules/ makale/ makale. php?id=57) [71] The Black Death and AIDS: CCR5-{Delta}32 in genetics and history (http:/ / qjmed. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 99/ 8/ 497). S.K. Cohn, Jr and L.T. Weaver. Oxford Journals. [72] Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1989) Joseph R. Strayer, editor in chief, ISBN 0-684-19073-7 [73] Rudimentary chronology of civil and ecclesiastical history, art, literature and civilisation, from the earliest period to 1856 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=r2gBAAAAQAAJ). (1857). London: John Weale. [74] McManners, J. (2002). The Oxford history of Christianity (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Rgm7NIEKCbgC). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [75] Pater, W. (1873). Studies in the history of the renaissance (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aS4CAAAAQAAJ). London: Macmillan and. [78] Buell, Paul D. (2003), Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., ISBN 0-8108-4571-7 [79] Howorth, Henry H. History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part I: The Mongols Proper and the Kalmuks. New York: Burt Frankin, 1965 (reprint of London edition, 1876). [80] Mason, R.H.P and Caiger, J.G, A History of Japan, Revised Edition, Tuttle Publishing, 2004 [81] See Nihon Shoki, volumes 19, Story of Kinmei. (http:/ / applepig. idv. tw/ kuon/ furu/ text/ syoki/ syoki19_2. htm#sk19_11)"Nihon Shoki [82] Sansom (1958) pp. 210211. [83] Encyclopedia of World History, Vol I, P464 Three Kingdoms, Korea, Edited by Marsha E. Ackermann, Michael J. Schroeder, Janice J. Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur, Mark F. Whitters, ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4 [84] Korea through the Ages Vol. 1 p113 [85] . [86] . [87] . [88] . [89] . [90] Recent Advances in the Archaeology of the Fiji/West-Polynesia Region" (http:/ / www. anthropology. hawaii. edu/ Alumni/ addison/ publications/ Sand_Addison_2008. pdf) 2008: Vol 21. University of Otago Studies in Prehistoric Anthropology.] [91] "Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WRapfjQ_iTEC& lpg=PA87& ots=zaLs4Yarz1& pg=PA87), Patrick Vinton Kirch; Roger C. Green (2001) [92] "Geraghty, P., 1994. Linguistic evidence for the Tongan empire" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xOlI8czLshIC& lpg=PP1& pg=PA233), Geraghty, P., 1994 in "Language Contact and Change in the Austronesian World: pp.236-39. [93] History of the Inca Empire (http:/ / trailingincas. info/ ) Inca history, society and religion. [94] Map and Timeline (http:/ / www. timespacemap. com/ search/ eventsearch. htm?_what="inca+ empire"& _maptype=1) of Inca events [95] "Early Modern," historically speaking, refers to Western European history from 1501 (after the widely accepted end of the Late Middle Ages; the transition period was the 15th century) to either 1750 or c. 17901800, by which ever epoch is favored by a school of scholars defining the periodwhich, in many cases of periodization, differs as well within a discipline such as art, philosophy or history. [96] The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge. (1918). New York: Encyclopedia Americana Corp. Page 539 (cf., The European Renaissance which flourished from the 14th to the 16th century [...]) [97] Briffault, R. (1919). The making of humanity. London: G. Allen & Unwin ltd. 371 pages (cf. [...] humanism of the Renaissance [...]) [98] The freethinker. (1881). London: G.W. Foote. Page 394 (cf., [...] scientific revolution began with the Italian Renaissance about 1500 [...]) [99] BBC Science and Nature, Leonardo da Vinci (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ science/ leonardo/ ) Retrieved on May 12, 2007 [100] BBC History, Michelangelo (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ historic_figures/ michelangelo. shtml) Retrieved on May 12, 2007 [101] The Age of Enlightenment has also been referred to as the Age of Reason. Historians also include the late 17th century, which is typically known as the Age of Reason or Age of Rationalism, as part of the Enlightenment; however, contemporary historians have considered the Age of Reason distinct to the ideas developed in the Enlightenment. The use of the term here includes both Ages under a single all-inclusive time-frame. [102] Sedgwick, W. T., & Tyler, H. W. (1917). A short history of science (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KdsEAAAAYAAJ). New York: The Macmillan company. [103] Joel L. Kraemer (1992), Humanism in the Renaissance of Islam, p. 1 & 148, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-07259-4. [104] Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 13001650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-333-61386-4. [105] Ebrey, Walthall, Palais. (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-13384-4. [106] Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66991-X (paperback). [107] Grant, A. J. (1913). A history of Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YJBCAAAAIAAJ). London; Longmans, Green and Co.

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History of the world

[108] Lavisse, E. (1891). General view of the political history of Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=nHk4AAAAMAAJ). New York: Longmans, Green and Co. [109] Postan, M. M., & Miller, E. (1987). The Cambridge economic history of Europe. Vol.2, Trade and industry in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [110] Breasted, J. H., & Robinson, J. H. (1920). History of Europe, ancient and medieval: Earliest man, the Orient, Greece and Rome (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=BFsAAAAAYAAJ). Boston: Ginn and. [111] Thatcher, O. J., Schwill, F., & Hassall, A. (1909). A general history of Europe, 3501900 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ORAMAAAAYAAJ). London: Murray. [112] Nida, W. L. (1913). The dawn of American history in Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zLcXAAAAIAAJ). New York: Macmillian. [113] Robinson, J. H., Breasted, J. H., & Smith, E. P. (1921). A general history of Europe, from the origins of civilization to the present time (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Wl0AAAAAYAAJ). Boston: Ginn and company. [114] Goodrich, S. G. (1840). The second book of history, combined with geography; containing the modern history of Europe, Asia, and Africa (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ETMFAAAAYAAJ). Illustrated by Engravings and colored maps, and designed as a sequel to "The first book of history. Boston: Hickling, Swan and Brewer. [115] Turner, E. R. (1921). Europe since 1870 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tNoLAAAAYAAJ). Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. [116] Weir, A. (1886). The historical basis of modern Europe (17601815): an introductory study to the general history of Europe in the nineteenth century (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tLkfAAAAMAAJ). London: S. Sonnenschein, Lowrey. [117] Hallam, H. (1837). View of the state of Europe during the middle ages (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3ixjAAAAMAAJ). London: J. Murray. [118] Russell, W., & Lady of Massachusetts. (1810). The history of modern Europe, particularly France, England, and Scotland with a view of the progress of society, from the rise of those kingdoms, to the late revolutions on the continent (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=X5a28RAi25AC). Hanover, N.H.: Printed by and for Charles and Wm. S. Spear. [119] Ogg, F. A., & Sharp, W. R. (1926). Economic development of modern Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=McA9AAAAIAAJ). New York: Macmillan. [120] Ricardo Duchesne, "Asia First?" (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ doi/ pdf/ 10. 1111/ j. 1540-5923. 2006. 00168. x?cookieSet=1), The Journal of the Historical Society, Vol. 6, Issue 1 (March 2006), pp.6991 [121] Jonathan Locke Hart, Empires and Colonies, Cambridge, Polity, 2008, p. 54 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LnevC1FYdnEC& pg=PA54). [122] "The Mughal Empire" (http:/ / www. sscnet. ucla. edu/ southasia/ History/ Mughals/ mughals. html) [123] Beard, C. (1902). The industrial revolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dnJMAAAAIAAJ). S. Sonnenschein & co., lim., 1919. [124] Grosvenor, E. A. (1899). Contemporary history of the world, ' Partition of Africa, Asia, and Oceania (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DVQPAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA141)'. New York and Boston: T.Y. Crowell & Co. [125] Imperialism (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ mod/ modsbook34. html). Internet Modern History Sourcebook, fordham.edu. [126] Robinson, J. H., Breasted, J. H., & Beard, C. A. (1914). Outlines of European history (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=s0AiAAAAMAAJ). Boston: Ginn. [127] McIntyre, W. D. (1977). The Commonwealth of nations: Origins and impact, 18691971. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press [128] Russia., Crawford, J. M., & World's Columbian Exposition. (1893). Siberia and the Great Siberian Railway: With a general map (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eulxAAAAIAAJ). Industries of Russia, v. 5. St. Petersburg: The Departmen [129] Korff, S. A. (1921). Russia in the Far East. Washington: The Endowment. [130] Wood, N. (1984). John Locke and agrarian capitalism. Berkeley: University of California Press. [131] Walton, T. R. (1994). The Spanish treasure fleets. Sarasota, Fla: Pineapple Press [133] Wolfgang Keller and Carol Shiue (http:/ / www. nber. org/ cgi-bin/ author_papers. pl?author=carol_shiue), nber.org. [137] TIME Archives (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ archive/ collections/ 0,21428,c_writers,00. shtml) The greatest writers of the 20th Century [138] Etemad, B. (2007). Possessing the world: taking the measurements of colonisation from the eighteenth to the twentieth century. European expansion and global interaction, v. 6. New York: Berghahn Books. [139] Wells, H. G. (1922). The Outline of History: Being A Plain History of Life and Mankind (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FGgMAAAAIAAJ). New York: The Review of Reviews. Page 1200. [140] Herrmann David G (1996). The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War. [142] Bunyan, James and H. H. Fisher, eds. The Bolshevik Revolution, 19171918: Documents and Materials (Stanford, 1961; first ed. 1934). [143] Reed, John. Ten Days that Shook the World (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ reed/ 1919/ 10days/ 10days/ index. htm). 1919, 1st Edition, published by BONI & Liveright, Inc. for International Publishers. Transcribed and marked by David Walters for John Reed Internet Archive (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ reed/ works/ index. htm). Penguin Books; 1st edition. June 1, 1980. ISBN 0-14-018293-4. Retrieved May 14, 2005. [144] Trotsky, Leon. The History of the Russian Revolution (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ archive/ trotsky/ works/ 1930-hrr/ index. htm). Translated by Max Eastman, 1932. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 8083994. ISBN 0-913460-83-4. Transcribed for the World Wide Web by John Gowland (Australia), Alphanos Pangas (Greece) and David Walters (United States). Pathfinder Press edition. June 1, 1980. ISBN 0-87348-829-6. Retrieved May 14, 2005.

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[145] Davis, W. S., Anderson, W., & Tyler, M. W. (1918). The roots of the war; a non-technical history of Europe, 18701914, AD (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DOtGAAAAIAAJ). New York: Century. [148] An Insider's Guide to the UN, Linda Fasulo, Yale University Press (November 1, 2003), hardcover, 272 pages, ISBN 0-300-10155-4 [149] United Nations: The First Fifty Years, Stanley Mesler, Atlantic Monthly Press (March 1, 1997), hardcover, 416 pages, ISBN 0-87113-656-2 [150] Avery, S. (2004). The globalist papers. Louisville, Ky: [Compari]. [152] Race for the Superbomb (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ bomb/ ), PBS website on the history of the H-bomb [153] As irrefutably demonstrated by a number of incidents, most prominently the October 1962 Cuban missile crisis. [154] Brown, Archie, et al., eds.: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982). [155] Gilbert, Martin: The Routledge Atlas of Russian History (London: Routledge, 2002). [156] Goldman, Minton: The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Connecticut: Global Studies, Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc., 1986). [157] Richard H. Schultz, Wayne A. Downing, Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, W. Bradley Stock, "Special Operations Forces: Roles And Missions In The Aftermath Of The Cold War". 1996. Page 59 [158] Caraley, D. (2004). American hegemony: preventive war, Iraq, and imposing democracy. New York: Academy of Political Science. Page viii [159] After 1970s, the United States superpower status has came into question as that country's economic supremacy began to show signs of slippage. For more see, McCormick, T. J. (1995). America's half-century: United States foreign policy in the Cold War and after. The American moment. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Page 155 [160] Chamberlain, Muriel Evelyn. Decolonization: The Fall of the European Empires (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=T6zBLY312-wC). Historical Association studies. Oxford, UK: Malden, MA, 1999. [161] Abernethy, David B. The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 14151980 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC). 2000. [162] Stern, N. H., Jean-Jacques Dethier, and F. Halsey Rogers. Growth and Empowerment: Making Development Happen (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=V7KgWjcvcUkC). Munich lectures in economics. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2005. [163] Weiss, Thomas George. UN Voices: The Struggle for Development and Social Justice. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005. Pages 3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5cxA4LwpKVoC& pg=PA3). [164] Europe Recast: A History of European Union by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 978-0-333-98734-6 [165] Understanding the European Union 3rd ed by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) ISBN 978-1-4039-4451-1 [166] The Institutions of the European Union edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton, 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0-19-870052-0 [167] The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004) ISBN 978-1-58542-345-3 [168] Lallana, Emmanuel C., and Margaret N. Uy, "The Information Age". [172] Clayton, Julie. (Ed.). 50 Years of DNA, Palgrave MacMillan Press, 2003. ISBN 978-1-4039-1479-8 [173] Watson, James D. The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA (Norton Critical Editions). ISBN 978-0-393-95075-5 [174] Calladine, Chris R.; Drew, Horace R.; Luisi, Ben F. and Travers, Andrew A. Understanding DNA, Elsevier Academic Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-12-155089-9 [176] Ensembl (http:/ / www. ensembl. org/ ) The Ensembl Genome Browser Project [180] McGaughey, William, Five Epochs of Civilization, Thistlerose, 2000, ISBN 0-9605630-3-2 [181] Earth Radiation Budget, http:/ / marine. rutgers. edu/ mrs/ education/ class/ yuri/ erb. html [182] Wood, R.W. (1909). Note on the Theory of the Greenhouse, Philosophical Magazine '17', p. 319320. For the text of this online, see http:/ / www. wmconnolley. org. uk/ sci/ wood_rw. 1909. html [183] Edwards, A. R. (2005). The sustainability revolution: portrait of a paradigm shift. Gabriola, BC: New Society. p. 52 [184] "Foreword", Energy and Power (A Scientific American Book), pp. viiviii. [185] M. King Hubbert, "The Energy Resources of the Earth", Energy and Power (A Scientific American Book), pp. 3140. [186] Renewable energy (http:/ / www. sefi. unep. org) (UNEP); Global Trends In Sustainable Energy Investment (http:/ / sefi. unep. org/ english/ globaltrends) (UNEP). [187] NREL (http:/ / www. nrel. gov) US National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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References
Williams, H. S. (1904). The historians' history of the world; a comprehensive narrative of the rise and development of nations as recorded by over two thousand of the great writers of all ages. New York: The Outlook Company; [etc.]. Blainey, Geoffery (2000). A Short History Of The World. Penguin Books, Victoria. ISBN 0-670-88036-1 Gombrich, Ernst H. A Little History of the World. Yale. UK and USA, 2005. H.G. Wells (1920), The Outline of History Volume One (http://books.google.com/ books?id=-64EAAAAYAAJ), New York, MacMillan. H. Spodek (2001), The World's History: combined volume, Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall. G. Parker (1997), The Times Atlas of World History, London, Times Books. The Biosphere (A Scientific American Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1970, ISBN 0-7167-0945-7. This seminal book, originally a 1970 Scientific American magazine issue, covered virtually every major concern and concept that has since been debated regarding materials and energy resources, population trends and environmental degradation. Energy and Power (A Scientific American Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1971, ISBN 0-7167-0938-4. Jared Diamond (1996). Guns, Germs, and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN0-393-03891-2. Fernand Braudel (1996). The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-20308-9. Fernand Braudel (1973). Capitalism and Material Life, 14001800. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN0-06-010454-6. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, Free Press, 1992, ISBN 0-02-910975-2. Marshall Hodgson, Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World History, Cambridge, 1993. Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy, Princeton, 2000. Clive Ponting, World History: a New Perspective, London, 2000. Ronald Wright, A Short History of Progress, Toronto, Anansi, 2004, ISBN 0-88784-706-4. Guy Ankerl, Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western, Geneva, INUPRESS, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5.

Further reading
Louis-Henri FOURNET, "Diagrammatic Chart of World History", Editions Sides (1986) ISBN 978-2-868-61096-6 David Landes, "The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor", New York, W. W. Norton & Company (1999) ISBN 978-0-393-31888-3 David Landes, "Why Europe and the West? Why Not China?", Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20:2, 3, 2006. Ricardo Duchesne, "Asia First?", The Journal of the Historical Society, Vol. 6, Issue 1 (March 2006), pp.6991 (http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1540-5923.2006.00168.x?cookieSet=1) (PDF) William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1963. Larry Gonick, The Cartoon History of the Universe, Volume One, Main Street Books, 1997, ISBN 978-0-385-26520-1, Volume Two, Main Street Books, 1994, ISBN 978-0-385-42093-8, Volume Three, W. W. Norton & Company, 2002, ISBN 978-0-393-32403-7.

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External links
Crash Course World History (https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLBDA2E52FB1EF80C9) British Museum - A History of the World (http://www.britishmuseum.org/channel/object_stories/ a_history_of_the_world.aspx) Civilisation (http://documentarystorm.com/civilisation/) | documentarystorm.com

Civilization
Civilization (or civilisation in British English) is a society with a high level of cultural and technological development and specifically a society that has agriculture and a city or territorial state.[1][2] The emergence of civilization is generally associated with the Neolithic, or Agricultural Revolution, which occurred in various locations between 8,000 and 5,000 BCE, specifically in southwestern and southern Asia, northern and central Africa and Central America.[3] This revolution marked the beginning of stable agriculture and animal domestication which enabled economies and cities to develop. The next era of civilization was antiquity or the Axial age in the period between 800 BCE200 BCE during which a series of male sages, prophets, religious reformers and philosophers, from China, India, Iran, Israel and Greece, changed the direction of civilizations. This was followed by the middle ages and the early modern period with the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam and the age of discovery. Civilization made a gradual transition to modernity when scientific methods were developed which led many to believe that the use of science would lead to all knowledge, thus throwing back the shroud of myth and new information about the world was discovered via empirical observation,[4] versus the historic use of reason and innate knowledge. Judgements of how civilized a society is, are based on methods and extent of agriculture, trade routes, division of labor, a special governing class, and urbanism. Secondary elements include a developed transportation system, writing, standardized measurement, currency, contractual and tort-based legal systems, art, architecture, mathematics, scientific understanding, metallurgy, political structures, and organized religion. In a classical context, people were called "civilized" to set them apart from barbarians, savages, and primitive culture while in a modern-day context, "civilized people" have been contrasted with indigenous people or tribal societies. Use of the word "civilized" may be controversial because it could imply superiority or inferiority.

Etymology
The word civilization comes from the Latin civilis, meaning civil, related to the Latin civis, meaning citizen, and civitas, meaning city or city-state.[5] In the sixth century, the Byzantine Emperor Justinian oversaw the consolidation of Roman civil law. The resulting collection is called the Corpus Juris Civilis. In the 11th century, professors at the University of Bologna, Western Europe's first university, rediscovered the Corpus Juris Civilis, and its influence began to be felt across Europe. In 1388, the word civil

Ancient Egypt is a canonical example of an early culture considered a civilization

Civilization appeared in English meaning "of or related to citizens."[6] In 1704, civilization was used to mean "a law which makes a criminal process into a civil case." Civilization was not used in its modern sense to mean "the opposite of barbarism"as contrasted to civility, meaning politeness or civil virtueuntil the second half of the 18th century. According to Emile Benveniste (1954[7]), the earliest written occurrence in English of civilisation in its modern sense may be found in Adam Ferguson's An Essay on the History of Civil Society (Edinburgh, 1767 p.2): "Not only the individual advances from infancy to manhood, but the species itself from rudeness to civilisation." It should be noted that this usage incorporates the concept of superiority and maturity of "civilized" existence, as contrasted to "rudeness", which is used to denote coarseness, as in a lack of refinement or "civility." Before Benveniste's inquiries, the New English Dictionary quoted James Boswell's conversation with Samuel Johnson concerning the inclusion of Civilization in Johnson's dictionary: On Monday, March 23 (1772), I found him busy, preparing a fourth edition of his folio Dictionary... He would not admit civilization, but only civility. With great deference to him I thought civilization, from to civilize, better in the sense opposed to barbarity than civility, as it is better to have a distinct word for each sense, than one word with two senses, which civility is, in his way of using it. Benveniste demonstrated that previous occurrences could be found, which explained the quick adoption of Johnson's definition. In 1775 the dictionary of Ast defined civilization as "the state of being civilized; the act of civilizing",[7] and the term was frequently used by Adam Smith in An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776).[7] Beside Smith and Ferguson, John Millar also used it in 1771 in his Observations concerning the distinction of ranks in society.[7] The history of the word in English appears to be connected with the parallel development in French, which may be the original source. As the first occurrence of civilization in French was found by Benveniste in the Marquis de Mirabeau's L'Ami des hommes ou trait de la population (written in 1756 but published in 1757), Benveniste's query was to know if the English word derived from the French, or if both evolved independently a question which needed more research. According to him, the word civilization may in fact have been used by Ferguson as soon as 1759.[7] Furthermore, Benveniste notes that, contrasted to civility, a static term, civilization conveys a sense of dynamism. He thus writes that: It was not only a historical view of society; it was also an optimist and resolutely non theological interpretation of its evolution which asserted itself, sometimes at the insu of those who proclaimed it, and even if some of them, and first of all Mirabeau, still counted religion as the first factor of 'civilization.[7][8] In the late 1700s and early 1800s, both during the French revolution, and in English, "civilization" was referred to in the singular, never the plural, because it referred to the progress of humanity as a whole. This is still the case in French.[] More recently "civilizations" is sometimes used as a synonym for the broader term "cultures" in both popular and academic circles.[9] However, the concepts of civilization and culture are not always considered interchangeable. For example, a small nomadic tribe may be judged not to have a civilization, but it would surely be judged to have a culture (defined as "the arts, customs, habits... beliefs, values, behavior and material habits that constitute a people's way of life"). Civilization is not always seen as an improvement. One historically important distinction between culture and civilization stems from the writings of Rousseau, and particularly his work concerning education, Emile. In this perspective, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accordance with human nature, and "human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original prediscursive or prerational natural unity". (See noble savage.) From this notion, a new approach was developed especially in Germany, first by Johann Gottfried Herder, and later by philosophers such as Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. This sees cultures (plural) as natural organisms which are not defined by "conscious, rational, deliberative acts" but rather a kind of pre-rational "folk spirit". Civilization, in contrast, though more rational and more successful concerning

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Civilization material progress, is seen as un-natural, and leads to "vices of social life" such as guile, hypocrisy, envy, and avarice.[] During World War II, Leo Strauss, having fled Germany, argued in New York that this approach to civilization was behind Nazism and German militarism and nihilism.[10] Also the early socialist theorist Charles Fourier used the word civilization in a negative sense and as such "Fouriers contempt for the respectable thinkers and ideologies of his age was so intense that he always used the terms philosopher and civilization in a pejorative sense. In his lexicon civilization was a depraved order, a synonym for perfidy and constraint...Even at its pettiest and most myopic, however, Fouriers attack on civilization had qualities not to be found in the writing of any other social critic of his time." [11] In his book The Philosophy of Civilization, Albert Schweitzer outlined the idea that there are dual opinions within society: one regarding civilization as purely material and another regarding civilization as both ethical and material. He stated that the current world crisis was, then in 1923, due to a humanity having lost the ethical conception of civilization. In this same work, he defined civilization, saying that it "is the sum total of all progress made by man in every sphere of action and from every point of view in so far as the progress helps towards the spiritual perfecting of individuals as the progress of all progress."

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Characteristics
Social scientists such as V. Gordon Childe have named a number of traits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society.[12] Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, literacy, and other cultural traits. All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence. Growing food on farms results in a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as irrigation and crop rotation. Grain surpluses have been especially important because they can be stored for a long time. A surplus of food permits some people to do things besides produce food for a living: early civilizations included artisans, priests and priestesses, and other people with specialized 26th century BCE Sumerian cuneiform script in careers. A surplus of food results in a division of labor and a more Sumerian language, listing gifts to the high priestess of Adab on the occasion of her election. diverse range of human activity, a defining trait of civilizations. One of the earliest examples of human writing. However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture. It is possible that food surpluses and relatively large scale social organization and division of labor predates plant and animal domestication.[13] Civilizations have distinctly different settlement patterns from other societies. The word civilization is sometimes simply defined as "'living in cities'".[14] Non-farmers tend to gather in cities to work and to trade.

Civilization

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Compared with other societies, civilizations have a more complex political structure, namely the state.[16] State societies are more stratified[17] than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes. The ruling class, normally concentrated in the cities, has control over much of the surplus and exercises its will through the actions of a government or bureaucracy. Morton Fried, a conflict theorist, and Elman Service, an integration theorist, have classified human cultures based on political systems and social inequality. This system of classification contains four categories:[citation needed] Hunter-gatherer bands, which are generally egalitarian.[18] Horticultural/pastoral societies in which there are generally two inherited social classes; chief and commoner. Highly stratified structures, or chiefdoms, with several inherited social classes: king, noble, freemen, serf and slave. Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.[19]
"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384322 BCE), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" [15] Gary B. Ferngren

Economically, civilizations display more complex patterns of ownership and exchange than less organized societies. Living in one place allows people to accumulate more personal possessions than nomadic people. Some people also acquire landed property, or private ownership of the land. Because a percentage of people in civilizations do not grow their own food, they must trade their goods and services for food in a market system, or receive food through the levy of tribute, redistributive taxation, tariffs or tithes from the food producing segment of the population. Early civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for these increasingly complex transactions. To oversimplify, in a village the potter makes a pot for the brewer and the brewer compensates the potter by giving him a certain amount of beer. In a city, the potter may need a new roof, the roofer may need new shoes, the cobbler may need new horseshoes, the blacksmith may need a new coat, and the tanner may need a new pot. These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time. A monetary system is a way of organizing these obligations to ensure that they are fulfilled fairly. Writing, developed first by people in Sumer, is considered a hallmark of civilization and "appears to accompany the rise of complex administrative bureaucracies or the conquest state."[20] Traders and bureaucrats relied on writing to keep accurate records. Like money, writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other. However, writing is not always necessary for civilization. The Inca civilization of the Andes did not use writing at all, yet it still functioned as a society. Aided by their division of labor and central government planning, civilizations have developed many other diverse cultural traits. These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science and technology. Through history, successful civilizations have spread, taking over more and more territory, and assimilating more and more previously-uncivilized people. Nevertheless, some tribes or people remain uncivilized even to this day. These cultures are called by some "primitive," a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. "Primitive" implies in some way that a culture is "first" (Latin = primus), that it has not changed since the dawn of humanity, though this has been demonstrated not to be true. Specifically, as all of today's cultures are contemporaries, today's so-called primitive cultures are in no way antecedent to those we consider civilized. Anthropologists today use the term "non-literate" to describe these peoples.

Civilization Civilization has been spread by colonization, invasion, religious conversion, the extension of bureaucratic control and trade, and by introducing agriculture and writing to non-literate peoples. Some non-civilized people may willingly adapt to civilized behaviour. But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominance that civilization engenders.

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Cultural identity
"Civilization" can also refer to the culture of a complex society, not just the society itself. Every society, civilization or not, has a specific set of ideas and customs, and a certain set of manufactures and arts that make it unique. Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion, and complex customs associated with the elite. The intricate culture associated with civilization has a tendency to spread to and influence other cultures, sometimes assimilating them into the civilization (a classic example being Chinese civilization and its influence on nearby civilizations such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam). Many civilizations are actually large cultural spheres containing many nations and regions. The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity. Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as discrete units. Early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler,[21] uses the German word "Kultur," "culture," for what many call a "civilization". Spengler believes a civilization's coherence is based on a single primary cultural symbol. Cultures experience cycles of birth, life, decline, and death, often supplanted by a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol. Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as, "...the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable."[21] This "unified culture" concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian Arnold J. Toynbee in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization processes in his multi-volume A Study of History, which traced the rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five "arrested civilizations." Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a "creative minority", through moral or religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes. Samuel P. Huntington defines civilization as "the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species." Huntington's theories about civilizations are discussed below.[22]

Complex systems
Another group of theorists, making use of systems theory, looks at a civilization as a complex system, i.e., a framework by which a group of objects can be analyzed that work in concert to produce some result. Civilizations can be seen as networks of cities that emerge from pre-urban cultures, and The clash of civilizations according to Huntington. are defined by the economic, political, military, diplomatic, social, and cultural interactions among them. Any organization is a complex social system, and a civilization is a large organization. Systems theory helps guard against superficial but misleading analogies in the study and description of civilizations. Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges, and political/diplomatic/military relations. These spheres often occur on different scales. For example, trade

Civilization networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensive trade routes, including the Silk Road through Central Asia and Indian Ocean sea routes linking the Roman Empire, Persian Empire, India, and China, were well established 2000 years ago, when these civilizations scarcely shared any political, diplomatic, military, or cultural relations. The first evidence of such long distance trade is in the ancient world. During the Uruk period Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan.[23] Resin found later in the Royal Tombs of Ur [24] it is suggested was traded northwards from Mozambique. Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single "world system", a process known as globalization. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began, and what sort of integration cultural, technological, economic, political, or military-diplomatic is the key indicator in determining the extent of a civilization. David Wilkinson has proposed that economic and military-diplomatic integration of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations resulted in the creation of what he calls the "Central Civilization" around 1500 BCE.[25] Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century. According to Wilkinson, civilizations can be culturally heterogeneous, like the Central Civilization, or homogeneous, like the Japanese civilization. What Huntington calls the "clash of civilizations" might be characterized by Wilkinson as a clash of cultural spheres within a single global civilization. Others point to the Crusades as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies have expanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recent European colonialism.

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Future
Political scientist Samuel Huntington[26] has argued that the defining characteristic of the 21st century will be a clash of civilizations. According to Huntington, conflicts between civilizations will supplant the conflicts between nation-states and ideologies that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries. These views have been strongly challenged by others like Edward Said, Muhammed Asadi and Amartya Sen.[27] Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris have argued that the "true clash of civilizations" between the Muslim world and the West is caused by the Muslim rejection of the West's more liberal sexual values, rather than a difference in political ideology, although they note that this lack of tolerance is likely to lead to an eventual rejection of (true) democracy.[28] In Identity and Violence Sen questions if people should be divided along the lines of a supposed 'civilization', defined by religion and culture only. He argues that this ignores the many others identities that make up people and leads to a focus on differences. Some environmental scientists see the world entering a Planetary Phase of Civilization, characterized by a shift away from independent, disconnected nation-states to a world of increased global connectivity with worldwide institutions, environmental challenges, economic systems, and consciousness.[29][30] In an attempt to better understand what a Planetary Phase of Civilization might look like in the current context of declining natural resources and increasing consumption, the Global scenario group used scenario analysis to arrive at three archetypal futures: Barbarization, in which increasing conflicts result in either a fortress world or complete societal breakdown; Conventional Worlds, in which market forces or Policy reform slowly precipitate more sustainable practices; and a Great Transition, in which either the sum of fragmented Eco-Communalism movements add up to a sustainable world or globally coordinated efforts and initiatives result in a new sustainability paradigm.[31] Author Derrick Jensen argues that modern civilization is intrinsically directed towards the domination of the environment and humanity itself in a harmful and destructive fashion.[32] The Kardashev scale classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently known to exist (see also: Civilizations and the Future, Space

Civilization civilization).

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Fall of civilizations
There have been many explanations put forward for the collapse of civilization. Some focus on historical examples, and others on general theory. Ibn Khaldn's Muqaddimah influenced theories of the analysis, growth and decline of the Islamic civilization.[33] He suggested repeated invasions from nomadic peoples limited development and led to social collapse. Edward Gibbon's work The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was a well-known and detailed analysis of the fall of Roman civilization. Gibbon suggested the final act of the collapse of Rome was the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. For Gibbon: The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the cause of the destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest; and, as soon as time or accident had removed the artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure of its own weight. The story of the ruin is simple and obvious; and instead of inquiring why the Roman Empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it has subsisted for so long.[Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 2nd ed., vol. 4, ed. by J. B. Bury (London, 1909), pp.173174.-Chapter XXXVIII: Reign Of Clovis.--Part VI. General Observations On The Fall Of The Roman Empire In The West.] Theodor Mommsen in his "History of Rome (Mommsen)", suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and he also tended towards a biological analogy of "genesis," "growth," "senescence," "collapse" and "decay." Oswald Spengler, in his "Decline of the West" rejected Petrarch's chronological division, and suggested that there had been only eight "mature civilizations." Growing cultures, he argued, tend to develop into imperialistic civilizations which expand and ultimately collapse, with democratic forms of government ushering in plutocracy and ultimately imperialism. Arnold J. Toynbee in his "A Study of History" suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen. The cause of the fall of a civilization occurred when a cultural elite became a parasitic elite, leading to the rise of internal and external proletariats. Joseph Tainter in "The Collapse of Complex Societies" suggested that there were diminishing returns to complexity, due to which, as states achieved a maximum permissible complexity, they would decline when further increases actually produced a negative return. Tainter suggested that Rome achieved this figure in the 2nd century CE. Jared Diamond in his 2005 book "Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed" suggests five major reasons for the collapse of 41 studied cultures: environmental damage, such as deforestation and soil erosion; climate change; dependence upon long-distance trade for needed resources; increasing levels of internal and external violence, such as war or invasion; and societal responses to internal and environmental problems.

Peter Turchin in his Historical Dynamics [34] and Andrey Korotayev et al. in their Introduction to Social Macrodynamics, Secular Cycles, and Millennial Trends [35] suggest a number of mathematical models describing collapse of agrarian civilizations. For example, the basic logic of Turchin's "fiscal-demographic" model can be outlined as follows: during the initial phase of a sociodemographic cycle we observe relatively high levels of per capita production and consumption, which leads not only to relatively high population growth rates, but also to relatively high rates of surplus production. As a result, during this phase the population can afford to pay taxes without great problems, the taxes are quite easily collectible, and the population growth is accompanied by the growth of state revenues. During the intermediate phase, the increasing overpopulation leads to the decrease of

Civilization per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state. As a result, during this phase the state starts experiencing considerable fiscal problems. During the final pre-collapse phases the overpopulation leads to further decrease of per capita production, the surplus production further decreases, state revenues shrink, but the state needs more and more resources to control the growing (though with lower and lower rates) population. Eventually this leads to famines, epidemics, state breakdown, and demographic and civilization collapse (Peter Turchin. Historical Dynamics. Princeton University Press, 2003:121127). Peter Heather argues in his book The Fall of the Roman Empire: a New History of Rome and the Barbarians[36] that this civilization did not end for moral or economic reasons, but because centuries of contact with barbarians across the frontier generated its own nemesis by making them a much more sophisticated and dangerous adversary. The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire. Although this argument is specific to Rome, it can also be applied to the Asiatic Empire of the Egyptians, to the Han and Tang dynasties of China, to the Muslim Abbasid Caliphate, and others. Bryan Ward-Perkins, in his book The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization,[37] shows the real horrors associated with the collapse of a civilization for the people who suffer its effects, unlike many revisionist historians who downplay this. The collapse of complex society meant that even basic plumbing disappeared from the continent for 1,000 years. Similar Dark Age collapses are seen with the Late Bronze Age collapse in the Eastern Mediterranean, the collapse of the Maya, on Easter Island and elsewhere. Arthur Demarest argues in Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization,[38] using a holistic perspective to the most recent evidence from archaeology, paleoecology, and epigraphy, that no one explanation is sufficient but that a series of erratic, complex events, including loss of soil fertility, drought and rising levels of internal and external violence led to the disintegration of the courts of Mayan kingdoms which began a spiral of decline and decay. He argues that the collapse of the Maya has lessons for civilization today. Jeffrey A. McNeely has recently suggested that "A review of historical evidence shows that past civilizations have tended to over-exploit their forests, and that such abuse of important resources has been a significant factor in the decline of the over-exploiting society."[39] Thomas Homer-Dixon in "The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of Civilization [40]", considers that the fall in the energy return on investments; the energy expended to energy yield ratio, is central to limiting the survival of civilizations. The degree of social complexity is associated strongly, he suggests, with the amount of disposable energy environmental, economic and technological systems allow. When this amount decreases civilizations either have to access new energy sources or they will collapse.

29

Civilization

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History
Early civilizations
The process of sedentarization is first thought to have occurred around 12,000 BCE in the Levant region of southwest Asia though other regions around the world soon followed. The emergence of civilization is generally associated with the Neolithic, or Agricultural Revolution, which occurred in various locations between 8,000 and 5,000 BCE, specifically in Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread in prehistory: the Fertile Crescent (11,000 BP), the Yangtze and Yellow River basins (9000 southwestern/southern Asia, BP) and the New Guinea Highlands (90006000 BP), Central Mexico (50004000 BP), northern/central Africa and Central Northern South America (50004000 BP), sub-Saharan Africa (50004000 BP, exact [41] [] America. This revolution marked location unknown), eastern USA (40003000 BP). the beginning of stable agriculture and animal domestication which enabled economies and cities to develop. The following articles discuss the development of major early civilizations. Neolithic Bronze Age South Asia Indus Valley Civilization Ancient Near East Mesopotamia Levant / Canaan Bronze Age Anatolia / Aegean Bronze Age Europe Bronze Age China Africa Ancient Egypt Ancient Somalia (Punt) Kush Axum Nok

Pre-Columbian Americas Norte Chico / Caral Olmec Zapotec civilization

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Antiquity (Axial Age)

Karl Jaspers, the German historical philosopher, proposed that the ancient civilizations were affected greatly by an Axial Age in the period between 800 BCE200 BCE during which a series of male sages, prophets, religious reformers and philosophers, from China, India, Iran, Israel and Greece, changed the direction of civilizations.[42] William H. McNeill proposed that this period of history was one in which culture contact between previously separate civilizations saw the "closure of the oecumene", and led to accelerated social change from China to the Mediterranean, associated with the spread of coinage, larger empires and new religions. This view has recently been championed by Christopher Chase-Dunn and other world systems theorists. Mediterranean civilizations of the Classical Period Ancient Greece Ancient Rome Hellenistic civilization Middle East Persia since the Achaemenids Second Temple Judaism Ancient India Ancient China (Qin Dynasty, Han Dynasty) Ancient Nomads (Xiongnu, Huns, Kok Turk Empire)

Medieval to Early Modern

Christendom Western Christianity Eastern Christianity Islamic World Islamic Golden Age Caliphate Somalia Adal Sultanate Ajuuraan Empire Warsangali Empire Mongol-Turkish (Ilkhanate, Timurid Empire) Mughal India Ottoman Empire Asia Chola Empire, Tamilnadu, India Pandya Empire, Tamilnadu, India Chera Kingdom, Tamilnadu, India Pallava Kingdom, Tamilnadu, India Sui China Tang China Song China Goryeo Korea Mongol Empire (Yuan)

Ming China Feudal Japan

Civilization Confucian Vietnam Southeast Asia Funan, Chenla, Champa, Anghor Cambodia Dvaravati, Hariphunchai, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya Kingdom, pre Modern Thailand Pagan Burma Sri Vijaya, Sailendra, Mataram and Majapahit

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Mesomerican civilizations Toltec Aztec civilization Maya civilization Andean civilizations Chimor Kingdom of Cusco/Inca Empire Aymara African civilizations Wagadou Mali Empire Songhai Empire Ashanti Empire Abyssinia Benin Empire

Modernity
Western world Western Europe North America South America Australia and New Zealand Intermediate world Eastern Europe Slavic world Greece Greater Middle East Arab world Iranian world Israel Turkic world Eastern world East Asia Japan Korea South Asia Southeast Asia Malay world

Civilization Sub-Saharan Africa Examples of civilizations

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The Great Mosque of Kairouan (Kairouan, Tunisia), also called the Mosque of Uqba, is the oldest mosque in North Africa and one of the most important monuments of Islamic civilization.[43][44]

The city of Mohenjo-daro, built around 2600 BCE by the Indus valley civilization, spanning Pakistan, India and Afghanistan is one of the world's earliest cities.

The Acropolis, directly influencing architecture and engineering in Western, Islamic, and Eastern civilizations up to the present day, 2400 years after construction.

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The Roman Forum, the political, economic, cultural, and religious center of the Ancient Rome civilization, during the Republic and later Empire, its ruins still visible today in modern-day Rome.

The Great Wall of China

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ civilization [2] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=YN_kGDvNCqEC [3] "Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration", Anil K. Gupta*, Current Science, Vol. 87, No. 1, 10 July 2004 (http:/ / repository. ias. ac. in/ 21961/ 1/ 333. pdf) [4] Baird, F. E., & Kaufmann, W. A. (2008). Philosophic classics: From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Prentice Hall. [5] Larry E. Sullivan (2009), The SAGE glossary of the social and behavioral sciences (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3041K2Zv76AC& pg=PT73), Editions SAGE, p. 73 [6] "Civil", Merriam-Webster, 226. [7] mile Benveniste, "Civilisation. Contribution l'histoire du mot" (Civilisation. Contribution to the history of the word), 1954, published in Problmes de linguistique gnrale, Editions Gallimard, 1966, pp.336345 (translated by Mary Elizabeth Meek as Problems in general linguistics, 2 vols., 1971) [8] Benveniste (French): Ce n'tait pas seulement une vue historique de la socit; c'tait aussi une interprtation optimiste et rsolument non thologique de son volution qui s'affirmait, parfois l'insu de ceux qui la proclamaient, et mme si certains, et d'abord Mirabeau, comptaient encore la religion comme le premier facteur de la "civilization". [9] "Civilization" (1974), Encyclopdia Britannica 15th ed. Vol. II, Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc., 956. Retrieved 25 August 2007. [10] " On German Nihilism (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ LeoStraussOnGermanNihilism1941)" (1999, originally a 1941 lecture), Interpretation 26, no. 3 edited by David Janssens and Daniel Tanguay. [11] Johnathan Beecher. Charles Fourier: the visionary and his world. University of California Press. 1986. Pgs. 195-196 [12] Gordon Childe, V., What Happened in History (Penguin, 1942) and Man Makes Himself (Harmondsworth, 1951) [14] Tom Standage (2005), A History of the World in 6 Glasses, Walker & Company, 25. [15] Gary B. Ferngren (2002). " Science and religion: a historical introduction (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC& pg=PA33& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". JHU Press. p.33. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0 [16] Grinin, Leonid E (Ed) et al (2004), "The Early State and its Alternatives and Analogues" (Ichitel) [17] Bondarenko, Dmitri et al (2004), "Alternatives to Social Evolution" in Grinin op cit. [18] DeVore, Irven, and Lee, Richard (1999) "Man the Hunter" (Aldine) [20] Pauketat, Timothy R. 169. [21] Spengler, Oswald, Decline of the West: Perspectives of World History (1919)

Civilization
[22] Samuel P. Huntington (1997), The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LO4xG-bH1CQC& pg=PA43), Simon and Schuster, p. 43 [23] Algaze, Guillermo, The Uruk World System: The Dynamics of Expansion of Early Mesopotamian Civilization" (Second Edition, 2004) (ISBN 978-0-226-01382-4) [24] http:/ / www. mesopotamia. co. uk/ tombs/ index. html [25] Wilkinson, David, The Power Configuration Sequence of the Central World System, 1500700 BCE (http:/ / jwsr. ucr. edu/ archive/ vol10/ number3/ pdf/ jwsr-v10n3-wilkinson. pdf) (2001) [26] Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, (Simon & Schuster, 1996) [29] Orion > Thoughts on America (http:/ / www. orionsociety. org/ pages/ oo/ sidebars/ America/ Rockefeller. html) [30] Kosmos Journal Paths to Planetary Civilization (http:/ / www. kosmosjournal. org/ kjo/ backissue/ s2006/ laszlo-1. shtml) [31] GTinitiative.org (http:/ / www. gtinitiative. org/ documents/ Great_Transitions. pdf) [32] Jensen, Derrick (2006), "Endgame: The Problem of Civilisation", Vol 1 & Vol 2 (Seven Stories Press) [33] Massimo Campanini (2005), Studies on Ibn Khaldn (http:/ / books. google. fr/ books?id=5DoasQxzvNQC& pg=PA75), Polimetrica s.a.s., p. 75 [34] http:/ / www. eeb. uconn. edu/ faculty/ turchin/ HistDyn. htm [35] http:/ / cliodynamics. ru/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=172& Itemid=70 [38] ISBN 0-521-53390-2 [39] McNeely, Jeffrey A. (1994) "Lessons of the past: Forests and Biodiversity" (Vol 3, No 1 1994. Biodiversity and Conservation) [40] http:/ / www. theupsideofdown. com [41] "Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration", Anil K. Gupta*, Current Science, Vol. 87, No. 1, 10 July 2004 (http:/ / repository. ias. ac. in/ 21961/ 1/ 333. pdf) [42] Tarnas, Richard (1993). The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas that Have Shaped Our World View (Ballantine Books) [43] Hans Kung, Tracing the Way : Spiritual Dimensions of the World Religions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sm0BfUKwct0C& pg=PA248), Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006, p. 248 [44] Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya (Muslim Heritage) (http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ topics/ default. cfm?TaxonomyTypeID=101& TaxonomySubTypeID=19& TaxonomyThirdLevelID=280& ArticleID=1176)

35

References
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Kradin, Nikolay. Archaeological Criteria of Civilization. Social Evolution & History, Vol. 5, No 1 (2006): 89108. ISSN 1681-4363. Lansing, Elizabeth (1971). The Sumerians: Inventors and Builders. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-036357-9. Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. trans. Edward W. Wagner, with Edward J. Shultz. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN0-674-61575-1. McGaughey, William (2000). Five Epochs of Civilization. Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. ISBN0-9605630-3-2. Nahm, Andrew C. (1983). A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History. Elizabeth, N.J.: Hollym International. ISBN0-930878-23-X. Oliphant, Margaret (1992). The Atlas of the Ancient World: Charting the Great Civilizations of the Past. London: Ebury. ISBN0-09-177040-8. Rogerson, John (1985). Atlas of the Bible. New York: Infobase Publishing. ISBN0-8160-1206-7. Sandall, Roger (2001). The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays. Boulder, Colo.: Westview. ISBN0-8133-3863-8. Sansom, George (1958). A History of Japan: To 1334. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN0-8047-0523-2. Southworth, John Van Duyn (1968). The Ancient Fleets: The Story of Naval Warfare Under Oars, 2600 B.C.1597 A.D. New York: Twayne. Thomas, Hugh (1981). An Unfinished History of the World (rev. ed.). London: Pan. ISBN0-330-26458-3. Yap, Yong; and Arthur Cotterell (1975). The Early Civilization of China. New York: Putnam. ISBN0-399-11595-1. A. Nuri Yurdusev, International Relations and the Philosophy of History: A Civilizational Approach (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, Dahia Ibo Shabaka, (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN0-395-87274-X.

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External links
The dictionary definition of civilization at Wiktionary Quotations related to Civilization at Wikiquote "The Elements of Civilization." (http://www.mrdowling.com/603-civilization.html) Common Core Standards based lesson for middle school students

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

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