A partially nonlinear finite element analysis of heat and mass transfer in a capillary-porous body under the influence of a pressure

gradient
R. W. Lewis and W. J. Ferguson Department of Civil Engineering, Swansea, U.K. University College of Swansea, Singleton Park,

This paper presents a finite element analysis for a coupled heat and mass transfer problem under the influence of a pressure gradient. The numerical modelpresented is partially nonlinear, where some of the material properties are held constant during the solution process, and is compared with a fully nonlinear model, where all material properties are permitted to vary as the solution progresses.

Keywords: capillary-porous,

pressure gradient

Introduction process of the transfer of heat and mass of a substance are amongst the most important sections of modern science and have great practical importance in many technological areas such as chemical engineering, the construction industry, and soil science. The occurrence of heat and mass transfer problems within industry are wide and varied and the examples mentioned are just a few. A characteristic feature of the phenomena of heat and mass transfer in the areas mentioned is their interdependence, when heat and mass transfer become one combined process. It appears that the first engineering analysis of the drying of solids was carried out by Lewis, who proposed that the drying of a solid material represents a balance between the processes of diffusion of moisture and of the evaporation of moisture from the material surface. The idea of moisture transfer by diffusion was further developed by Sherwood2*3, who discussed the possibility of moisture vaporizing within the porous body and moisture transfer occurring by diffusion of vapor to the surface. More sophisticated models were proposed, which were derived from either a classical approach, Krischer4, and Philip and De Vries, or in aphenomenological manner, Luikov6, Huang et al., and HarThe

Address reprint requests to Prof. Lewis at the Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Swansea, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2, 8PP, England. Received 1992 18 December 1991; revised 21 April 1992; accepted 5 May

marthy. Only Luikov discusses the possibility of incorporating the gaseous pressure within the porous media into his model. His system of coupled partial differential equations was the more general and could be applied to any body, which can be idealized as capillary-porous in which heat and mass transfer takes place. Whitaker developed a system of equations from a mechanical approach that demonstrated the necessity of taking into account the gas phase momentum equation, even below the boiling point of water. His approach formed the basis of models by Perre et al. and Quintard and Puiggali. Moyne and Degoviannii* and Degovianni and Moyne13 showed that above the boiling point of water the pressure gradient becomes a significant driving force. Utilizing the thermodynamics of irreversible processes, 0nsager4,5, Luikovlj, defined a coupled system of partial differential equations that described the variation of temperature, moisture content, and pressure within a capillary-porous body. Analytical solutions to Luikovs system of equations exist in only one dimension8; hence they can be used for only the simplest of problems. To solve any realistic engineering problems having inherent intricate geometrical contigurations and complex boundary conditions, resort must be made to a numerical technique. Comini and Lewis I9were the first to employ a numerical technique; the finite element method, to solve the Luikov equations in real engineering situations. They took as an example problems involving a foundation basement and brick drying. The results obtained were restricted to the case where the material properties were assumed to be constant. This work was developed by Thomas et al.* and Thomas* such that the material properties were fully nonlinear and could vary with

0 1993 Butterworth-Heinemann

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Heat and mass transfer in capillary-porous

body: R. W. Lewis and W. J. Ferguson Mass transfer equation

either temperature or moisture content as the numerical solution progressed. Lewis and Ferguson2 developed this work further to include the pressure term in the coupled heat and mass transfer equations. Previously, the pressure term had been assumed constant throughout the domain of interest, and its effect on the numerical solution negligible. However, during an intense period of drying, a total pressure gradient arises within the material. As a result of this pressure gradient an additional transfer of moisture and heat takes place because of the filtration motion of the liquid and vapor contained within the capillary porous body. The total pressure gradient appears within the material as a result of evaporation and the resistance of the porous skeleton vapor motion. A system of partial differential equations resulted, which describes the interaction between heat, moisture, and pressure in a capillary-porous body. For a nonhomogeneous problem, where the specific mass capacity varies from material to material, a discontinuity in the moisture content will arise across the material boundaries. By introducing the concept of moisture potential, as demonstrated in the partially nonlinear formulation, the discontinuity can be overcome. The relationship between moisture content and moisture potential is analogous to that of enthalpy and temperature. Both the moisture content and enthalpy are discontinuous across internal material boundaries, whereas moisture potential and temperature are C(0) continuous. In this paper we will demonstrate how the finite element method can be employed to solve the three degree of freedom Luikov equations. A comparison is made between two formulations of the Luikov equations, first, a fully nonlinear formulation, which was developed by Ferguson and Lewis23, where all material properties are allowed to vary with the relevant working variable, and second, a partially nonlinear formulation where some material properties are held constant.

The mass balance for one of the bound materials, vapor or liquid, follows from the law of mass conservation
G%P,) -=

a7

-divj,,,+Z;

(1)

The mass flux in a capillary-porous body is the sum of the mass flux due to diffusion and the mass flux due to filtration. The filtration mass flux occurs because of the presence of a total pressure gradient within the body, which brings about a filtration transfer of the liquid and vapor mixture. The diffusion mass flux is related not only to the moisture content gradient but also to the temperature gradient; this effect is more commonly known as the Soret effect. The mass flux can be described as j, = jd, where jd, = - a,p,(Vm + 8VT)
+ jfil (2)

jfi, = jifi, + jzf;/ = - k,VP Equation (1) represents the mass balance for the i bound material. However, by summing for all the material components, i.e., i = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4, the mass balance for the material as a whole can be obtained. The summation of the source and the sink terms equals zero. Hence, after substituting equation (2) into equation (1) we obtain a(mp,) = div (a,p,Vm

a7

+ a,p,SVT

+ k,VP)

(3)

Luiko@ introduced the concept of moisture potential, which is related to moisture content by the following relationship
m=c,U

(4)

Conservation

equations

In addition, the coefficient of moisture diffusivity is related to the coefficient of moisture conductivity by
a, k =--!L PO cm (5)

In the derivation of the partial differential equations, the following assumptions were made in order to define the fully nonlinear model of temperature, moisture content, and pressure:
l l

On introducing equations and rearranging becomes

pOc,,,g

(4) and (5) into equation (3)

The mass is present only as liquid and vapor. The movement of moisture in the capillary-porous body is sufficiently slow so that in practice the temperature of the liquid, the vapor, and the body are equal at coincident points. Chemical reactions associated with water loss are not taken into account. Dimensional changes that occur within the material, due to a temperature or moisture content change, are comparatively small and can be ignored.

= k,,,SV2T + k,,,VU + k,V2P

(6)

Heat transfer equation

The balance of the thermal energy within the capillary-porous body is given by Luiko@
cppOE = -divj,

- i hiZi - i c,j,VT i=o i=o

(7)

where the isobaric specific heat is denoted by ci

The following subscripts are used to describe the various components of the material: 0 = porous body skeleton; 1 = vapor; 2 = liquid; 3 = solid; and 4 = inert gas.

(8)

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Heat and mass transfer

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R. W. Lewis and W. J. Ferguson

However, in capillary-porous bodies, provided that the equivalent Reynolds number, Reey, is ~20, the convective heat transfer component is small in comparison with the conductive component. In the majority of cases of heat and mass transfer in capillary-porous bodies the equivalent Reynolds numbers are considerably less than unity. Therefore the convective heat transfer term is assumed to be negligible i c,j,VT-0 i=o (9)

Summing the mass balance equation (1) with respect to

i = 1 and 4, we obtain
d(p,

(ml + mJ) = -div(j,

&-

+ j,) + I, + Z4

(15)

The specific mass content of the vapor-gas mixture is determined by the pressure and temperature

(16)
On differentiating equation (16) and assuming T* >> c, and T >> db and letting
Mllb c zzP R TP,,

Therefore the simplified form of the thermal energy balance within a capillary-porous body is represented by Pl,c, g = - divj, - 2 h,Z, i=o (10)

(17)

we obtain d(m,+mA)=c dT On substituting (15) we obtain

p,.cD$

The heat flux is usually related to the temperature gradient, but in the case of coupled heat and mass transfer, the heat flux is also related, albeit weakly, to the moisture gradient. This effect is more commonly known as the Dufour effect; however, this is usually considered to be insignificant for capillary-porous bodies. We can therefore write the heat flux as j, = - k,VT
(11)

dp p ar equations

(18) (14) and (18) into equation

= k,,V=P - P,.E~

(19)

The source or sink term is due to the phase change of the liquid or vapor contained within the body structure. Hence f: h,Z;
i=o = -hdiv

Introducing equation (4) and rearranging, we obtain the governing equation for the pressure variation within the capillary-porous body.
p$$ = -ek,SV=T -

l k,VU

+ k,,(l -

l )V*P
(20)

amzpo

Vm + NT + &VP [

I) (12) amp0
k + Ak,V2P

Governing system of equations

Substituting equations (4), (5), (1 I), and (12) into equation (10) and rearranging we obtain

Equations (6), (13), and (20) form the governing system of equations that describe the variation of temperature, moisture potential, and pressure within a capillary-porous body. This system of equations was used by Ferguson and Lewis22,23 to solve practical engineering problems.
Cq; = K,,V2T + K,,V=U + K13V2P

= (k, + eAk,S)V*T
Pressure equation

+ l Ak,V2U

(13)

For a closed system, an equation representing the change in pressure is required. Diffusion of vapor and air in the capillaries is small in comparison with filtration transfer. j, + j, = -k,VP
(14)

Cm:

= K,,V*T

+ K2,V2U + K2,V2P

(21)

C$

= K,,VT

+ K,,V2U

+ K3,V2P

where

K,,

C, = POCS = (k, +

l hk,,$)

Cm = PoCm K,, = Ehk, Kx = km K32 = - l k,,,

c&I = PoCp

K,, = Ehkp Kz = kg

K2, = k,,,S K3, = -&k,

Kx3 = k,(l

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Heat and mass transfer

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R. W. Lewis and W. J. Ferguson

Boundary conditions
The boundary
T= T,

conditions

associated

with the partially nonlinear system of equations are on I, (22) (23) (24) (25)

kqg

+&

+ a,(T

- T,) + (1 - E)(Y,A(U- U,) = 0

on I2 on I3

u=
k,,,g

u,
+ j, + k,,$$ + cxu(U - U,) = 0

on I4 on

P = P,

rs

(26)

The first term in equation (23) is the amount of heat passing into the body; the second and third terms are the heat supplied at the surface; and the last term is the amount of heat expended in the phase change of the liquid. For equation (25), the first term describes the supply of moisture to the surface under the influence of a temperature gradient, whereas the final two terms describe the amount of moisture drawn off from the surface. Equations (22), (24), and (26) describe the Dirichlet boundary condition for the moisture, temperature, and pressure, respectively. Although the surface boundary conditions, equations (22) to (26), are expressed in terms of moisture potential, U, which is unique to Luikovs system of coupled partial differential equations, a more widely accepted method of defining the boundary conditions is to express them in terms of absolute humidity, as de. However, the major drawback is that tailed by Keey 24 discontinuities would arise across the internal material boundaries. By introducing the concept of moisture potential as the driving force, discontinuities do not occur. Equations (23) and (25) may be written in a generalized form as follows
K,,+;+J,:= 0

A, = F(l 4 A,=

l )KI,

-~ Kz+qS kq

C$(l 4
J, = f$jq 4

_ l )

J,,, = Kz2 r

slj, 1 m4
- k

Finite element formulation

The variation of the temperature, pressure, and moisture potential throughout the domain of interest, Cl, is approximated in terms of the nodal values, T,y, Us, and P, as Ti:
s=l

Nsky)T,W

(29)

(27)

u = Ii N, (x, YW,
s=l

(0

(30)

(31) where
J; = A, (T - T,) + A,(U JZ,=A,(T-T,)+A,(U-U,)+J, KIF, A, = k, - U,) + J,

If the approximation given by equations (29), (30), and (31) are substituted into equations (21) a residual is obtained, which is then minimized using the Galerkin method. This requires that the integral of the weighted errors over the domain, R, must be zero, with the shape functions, N,, being used as the weighting functions, as described by Zienkiewicz25.

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Heat and mass transfer in capillary-porous

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+ K,ZV2U + K,,V2P - Cqz

f K2,V2U + K,,V2P - C,,,:

1 1
I

da = 0

da = 0
dfl = 0

(32)

+ K,,V2U + K3,V2P - Cp;

The application of Greens theorem (integration by parts) and the introduction of the generalized boundary conditions to equations (32) produces a system of differential equations that may be written in matrix form as K(O)@ + C(@)$ + J(Q) = 0 (33) matrices.

(
3

+ pP+*

- W-J) 2Ar + J = 0 (34)

where K(Q) and C(Q) are solution-dependent

K= (3;

;i

E;.)

The superscript n refers to the time level and A T refers to the timestep. The Lees three-level time stepping scheme has the advantage of solving for the time level n + 1, by evaluating the coefficient matrices at time level n, which avoids the need for an iterative solver. Wood2 and Wood and Lewisz8 showed that this scheme was stable even though oscillations appeared in the solution when a convective boundary condition was used. The noise can be dampened to an acceptable level by introducing a maximum permissible timestep.

Application The problem to be investigated consists of a crosssection through a container wall, which is designed to prevent the temperature and moisture levels from exceeding preset levels above which damage to the containers contents would occur. The cross-section of the container, shown in Figure I, is one-dimensional. The example consists of an epoxy resin container wall with air inside. Inserted into the epoxy resin container wall is a layer that acts as a moisture barrier. The moisture barrier is positioned within the epoxy resin wall to prevent excessive moisture migration in the x-direction from the epoxy resin exterior to the air entrapped within the container. To numerically achieve the effect of a moisture barrier tilm, a small value, compared to the values used for the epoxy resin and air, was used for the coefficient of moisture conductivity, k,. Although the moisture barrier is designed to prevent an excessive migration of moisture, it is not intended to act as a thermal insulator nor to provide an air-tight seal; therefore the gradients of temperature and pressure are not affected by the presence of the barrier film. Luikovs three degree of freedom system of partial differential equations describes the behavior of temperature, moisture content, and pressure within a capillary-porous body. Clearly air is a gas and not a capillaryporous body, but, treating it as a material similar to solid materials and idealizing it as a capillary-porous body, it is intended to obtain the moisture variation within the central section of the container to a first order of approximation. An obvious limitation in treating the entrapped air in this manner is that we cannot predict the air movement or circulation by convection within the

Typical matrix elements are

Timestepping

algorithms

The numerical solution of equation (33) is achieved by using the Lees three-level time stepping scheme26, which employs the finite difference technique in time.

Appl. Math. Modelling,

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Heat and mass transfer in capillary-porous I 8

body: R. W. Lewis and W. J. Ferguson

Insulated.

Epoxy resin.

Air.

Boundary edge.

4 B ,I ///////////////// 1,,,,,,,,,,1 I I I I I /.

P
e

\ /v//I %,I,

I
*
* 0.
Figure 1. Cross-section of the epoxy resin container

Insulated.
45.0mm 47.5mm 50.0mm 4

Moisture barrier.

Table 1. Material property

PO

Material

properties

for the fully nonlinear formulation Moisture barrier 55.0

S.I. units kg/m3 1170.0

Epoxy resin

Air 1.19 at 20C 1.13 at 35C 1.08 at 50C 2.30*106 92.04 at 20C 99.45 at 50C 6.00*10- 1.86*10~* at 40% mc 9.33*10m2 at 80% mc 1012.0 5.00*10~2 0.3 at 20C 1.0 at 50C 6.00*10~3

k, kg a, c, cP E 6

J/kg J/hr.m.K kg/hr.m.N.m-* m/h? J1kg.K kg/kg.N.m-

2.30*106 512.0 at 20C 794.0 at 50C 4.50*10m5 3.52*10m6 at 50% mc 1.86*10m5 at 100% mc 1400.0 5.00*10~2 0.3 6.00*10m3

2.30*1 O6 154.8 4.20*10-* 1.69*10m6 2343.0 5.00*10-2 0.3 6.00*10-3

kg/kg.K

container, which are brought about by the temperature difference and variation in density of the air within the central enclosed section of the container. An alternative to modelling the air as a capillary-porous body would be to apply a boundary condition to the air/resin interface. However, Figure 1 shows only a cross-section through the container wall; the internal temperature, moisture potential, and pressure equilibrium values are not known. Hence, a boundary condition applied to the air/ resin interface would not be practical. Air has highly nonlinear material properties, and these are shown alongside the material properties for the epoxy resin and the moisture barrier in Table 1. The material properties presented in Table I are those used in the numerical simulation employing the fully nonlinear model. The material properties used in the partially nonlinear solution were those given in Table 1 except that pO, E, 8, and c, were held constant and were taken as the mean of those values used for the fully nonlinear

model. As previously stated, this epoxy resin container example is a one-dimensional problem. Flow occurs only in the x-direction and not in the y-direction; hence, faces AC and BD are assumed to be insulated because there is no flow either into or out of the body through these faces. The initial conditions throughout the domain of interest were temperature 2oC, moisture potential SOM, and pressure 1 atmosphere. Along face CD a flux type boundary condition, with a ramp loading, was applied to the temperature and moisture potential, whilst for the pressure term there was a fixed-point boundary condition, also with a ramp loading. The boundary conditions increased linearly from the initial conditions to the epoxy containers steady state conditions of temperature 5oC, moisture potential 100M and pressure 2 atmospheres. The ramp loadings of the tixed point pressure boundary condition and of the ambient temperature and moisture potential are shown in Figure 2. Along sides

20

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Heat and mass transfer in capillary-porous

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AC and BD there was assumed to be a nonconducting boundary condition. The finite element mesh used for the numerical solutions of both the fully and the partially nonlinear formulations is shown in Figure 3. Figures 4 to 6 show the variation of temperature against time; Figures 7 to 9 show the variation of moisture potential against time; and Figures 10 to 12 show the variation of pressure against time for nodes 3, 75, and 123, respectively. The nodes for which results are presented lie along the x-axis, i.e., the center line of the section of the epoxy resin container wall under analysis. The problem is one-dimensional, in the Xdirection; therefore, no flow occurs in the y-direction. Temperature. 51

For a given x-coordinate value along the center line, the variation of temperature, moisture potential and pressure versus time is identical for any position along theyaxis with the same x-coordinate. Two curves are presented in each figure, one represents the numerical solution from the fully nonlinear model, where the thermophysical properties are permitted to vary, and the other represents the numerical solution from the partially nonlinear model, where, in this example, the thermophysical properties are held constant. The variation of moisture within the capillary-porous body with time is expressed in terms of moisture potential, Figures 7 to 9. The fully nonlinear heat and mass Pressure.

Moisture Potential.

atms

0.01
Figure 2. Ramp loading boundary

Time.

(HE)

Time.

(Hrs)

Time. (Hrs)

conditions

75

123

Figure 3.

Finite element

discretization

of the epoxy resin container

0.0

0.03

0:

3.5

02

015

02

05s

0.4

CA5

03

8:

0.0

0.05

O.?

0.8

01

025

1
0.4

03

035

Time. (Hrs) Figure 4. Temperature vs. time at node 3 Figure 5. Temperature

Time. (Hrs) vs. time at node 75

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Heat and mass transfer

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R. W. Lewis and W. J. Ferguson

I-.Sl 00 0.M c.t 0.8 I 02 1 OZS I Oil I 0s I 0.4

Jo-tidy Nm-inw. ;lAy No0-bw.r

. 0

:m

x8

do

&

6io &I

&a

930

c&o

Time. (Hrs) Figure 6. Temperature vs. time at node 123 Figure 9. Moisture

Time. (Hrs) potential vs. time at node 123

Time. (Hrs)

Figure 7.

Moisture

potential vs. time at node 3

Figure 10.

Pressure vs. time at node 3

200

do do Ga &I
Time. (Hrs)

40 &I

s& &I

50

50

2s

250

Time. (Hrs) Figure 11. Pressure vs. time at node 75

Figure 8.

Moisture

potential vs. time at node 75

22

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Heat and mass transfer

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R. W. Lewis and W. J. Ferguson

Figure 12.

Pressure

vs. time at node 123

transfer model calculates the moisture distribution within the body in terms of moisture content, while the partially nonlinear model evaluates the moisture distribution in terms of moisture potential. Moisture content is related to moisture potential according to equation (4), provided that the specific mass capacity, c,, is constant. In a nonhomogeneous body, the moisture content would produce a discontinuity across the material boundaries of the body, which, unless there was a finely graded finite element mesh at these boundaries, would cause problems while solving the fully nonlinear model. Luikov introduced the concept of moisture potential to overcome this difficulty, because moisture potential is a continuous function across the internal material boundaries, i.e., it is C(0) continuous. The discontinuity in moisture content and the relationship to moisture potential is analogous to heat content and temperature. However, in this example, the specific mass capacity is constant throughout the whole of the domain of interest-the specific mass capacity for the epoxy resin is equal to the specific mass capacities for both the moisture barrier and the air. Hence no discontinuities occur across material boundaries, because the moisture content and the transient moisture content solutions obtained by the fully nonlinear model can be converted to moisture potential according to equation (4). The effect of permitting the thermophysical properties to vary can be seen in the transient temperature solutions. Figures 4 to 6. which were obtained from the two numerical models. In this example, permitting the material properties to vary with either temperature, moisture content, or pressure causes the solution obtained from the fully nonlinear model to reach steady state equilibrium conditions, from the assumed initial conditions, faster than does the partially nonlinear solution, where all thermophysical properties were held constant. Although the difference in the transient temperature solutions is not significant, the effect becomes more prominent as we proceed toward the interior of the

container, node 3, Figure 4, away from the external wall, where the boundary conditions are applied. The numerical solutions presented in the moisture potential versus time graphs, Figures 7 to 9, demonstrate and highlight the effect of varying the material properties as the solution proceeds toward steady state. Once again, the fully nonlinear solution reaches steady state equilibrium faster than does the partially nonlinear solution. This effect is most prominent, although not significant, at node 3, Figure 7, where the fully nonlinear solution reaches a value of 90M in 480 hrs, whereas the partially nonlinear solution reaches the same value in 640 hrs, clearly indicating the consequences of nonlinear thermophysical properties on the numerical solution. The difference between the two numerical solutions for pressure versus time, Figures 10 to 12, is not significant and is caused by the effect of the moisture gradient. For both numerical models the values of the moisture filtration coefficient, k,, and the coefficient of humid air capacity, c,, were held constant. Because the system of partial differential equations that describe heat and mass transfer are coupled, both the temperature gradient and the moisture gradient affect the transient pressure solution. However, in this example the temperature has reached steady-state equilibrium at all nodes by 0.4 hr, and, thereafter the temperature gradient will be zero. The temperature gradient therefore has little or no effect on the transient pressure solution, which is affected solely by the moisture and pressure gradients. Conclusions In the example presented in this paper, the numerical solutions obtained from the fully nonlinear model for temperature, moisture potential, and pressure reached steady state equilibrium more quickly than did the numerical solution from the partially nonlinear model. Although the difference between the two solutions was insignificant, this is not always the case. The fully nonlinear solution is dictated by the nonlinear behavior of the materials under examination, and the degree of variation between the fully and partially nonlinear numerical solutions will be dependent on these material properties. For other engineering problems, where the specific mass capacity is not constant between materials, the partially nonlinear model would be used to solve the problem so as to avoid a discontinuity in moisture content across the material boundaries. Acknowledgments WJF is grateful for the support of the Science and Engineering Research Council for a research scholarship to carry out this work. Nomenclature 1; volumetric rial capacity of the source of the mate-

Appl. Math. Modelling,

1993, Vol. 17, January

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Heat and mass transfer in capillary-porous M P R Re,, T u 2

body: R. W. Lewis and W. J. Ferguson 8

9

S E PO n h

molecular mass of humid air total pressure of humid air inside the body, kN/m universal gas constant equivalent Reynolds number temperature, C moisture potential, M moisture diffusivity, m/s degree of saturation of the capillaries within the body moisture capacity, kg/kg*M coefficient of humid air capacity, kg*m*/ kgkN heat capacity, J/kg.C specific enthalpy density of mass transfer flow density of diffusion mass transfer flow density of filtration mass transfer flow heat flux coefftcient of moisture conductivity, kg/ rn.s-M moisture filtration coefficient, kg*m/s+kN coefficient of thermal conductivity, W/m.C moisture content convective mass transfer coefficient, kg/ m-s.M convective heat transfer coefftcient, W/C~m* thermogradient coefficient, M/K ratio of vapor diffusion to total diffusion dry density, kg/m3 bulk porosity of the body latent heat of vaporization of water, J/kg

10

I1 12

Harmarthy, T. Z. Simultaneous moisture and heat transfer in a porous system with particular reference to drying. Z and EC Fundamentals 1969, S(l), 92-103 Whitaker, S. Simultaneous heat, mass and momentum transfer in porous media: A theory of drying, Advances in Heat Transfer, eds. J. P. Hartnett and T. F. Irvine, vol. 13, Academic Press, New York, 1977, pp. 119-204 Pen-e, P., Fohr, J. P., and Amaud, G. A model of drying applied to softwoods: The effect of gaseous pressure below the boiling point. Drying 89, eds. M. Rogues and A. S. Mujumdar, Hemisphere, New York, 1989, pp. 91-98 Quintard, M. and Puiggali, J-P. Numerical modelling of transport processes during the drying of a granular porous medium. J.
Heat Technol. 1986, 4(2), 37-57

13 14 15 16 17 18

Moyne, C. and Degovianni, A. Importance ofgas phase momentum equation in drying above the boiling point of water. Drying 85, eds. R. Toei and A. S. Mujumdar, Hemisphere, New York, 1985, pp. 109-116 Degovianni, A. and Moyne, C. Conductivite thermique de materieux poreux humides: evaluation theorique et possibilite de mesure. Int. _I. Heat Mass Transfer 1987, 30(11), 2225-2245 Onsager, L. Reciprocal relations in irreversible processes I. Phys. Rev. 1931, 37, 405-426 Onsager, L. Reciprocal relations in irreversible processes II.
Phys. Rev. 1931, 38, 2265-2279

Luikov, A. V. Heat and mass transfer. MIR Publishers, Moscow, 1980 Luikov, A. V. Heat and mass transfer in capillary-porous bodies. Adv. Heat Transfer 1964, 1, 123-184 Smirnov, M. S. On a system of differential equations for highly intensive heat and mass transfer. Znt. J. Heat Mass Transfer
1962, 5, 521-524

19 20 21 22

Comini, G. and Lewis, R. W. A numerical solution of two dimensional problems involving heat and mass transfer. Int. J.
Heat Mass Transfer 1976, 19, 1387-1392

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Union 1957, 38, 222-232

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1993, Vol. 17, January