L-1 Elasticity and Plasticity

When the shape or size of a body has been altered by the application of a force or a
system of forces, there is usually some tendency for the body to recover its original shape or size
on the removal of the force. This property of the body by virtue of which it tends to regain its
original shape or size on the removal of deforming force is called elasticity.
The property of the body by virtue of which it tends to retain the altered size and shape
on removal of deforming forces is called plasticity.
1.2 Stress and Strain
Stress is a quantity that characterizes the strength of the forces causing the deformation,
on a force per unit area basis. The deforming force per unite area of the body is called stress.
The SI unit of stress is the Pascal (abbreviated Pa, and named for the 17
th
century French
scientist and philosopher Blaise Pascal). One Pascal equals one Newton per square meter.1
Pascal = 1Pa = 1N/m
2
. Strain is a quantity which describes the resulting deformation. Strain is
the fractional deformation produced in a body when it is subjected to a set of deforming forces.
Strain being ratio has no units.
There are following three types of stress and strain
(i) Tensile and compressive stress and strain
(ii) Bulk stress and strain
(iii) Shear stress and strain






A
Initial
state
l
o

1.3 Tensile and Compressive Stress and Strain

An object in tension
Tensile stress at the cross section is defined as the ratio of the force

F to the cross
sectional area A.
Tensile stress =
A
F

The tensile strain of the object is equal to the fractional change in length, which is the
ratio of the elongation A to the original length
o
.
Tensile strain =
o o
o

A
=

Tensile strain is stretch per unit length

Initial
state
Initial
state

F









An object in compression
When forces on the ends of a bar are pushes rather than pulls the bar is in compression
and the stress is a compressive stress. The compressive strain of an object is defined in the same
way as tensile strain, but A has the apposite direction.
1.4 Bulk Stress and Strain







An object under bulk stress

Pressure plays the role of stress in a volume deformation.
The force

F per unit area is called the pressure

A
F
P

=
A
lo

F
l
h
Initial
state
x
11
F
11
F
Bulk stress = P A , an increase in pressure. The fractional change in volume that is the
ratio of the volume change V A to the original volume V
o,
is called as bulk strain.
Bulk (volume) strain =
0
V
V A

Volume strain is the change in volume per unit volume.
Shear Stress and Strain










An object under shear stress
Shear strain is defined as the ratio of the displacement x to the transverse dimension h
Shear strain =
h
x

1.5 Hookes Law
Hookes law states that within the elastic limit, the stress developed is directly
proportional to the strain. The constant of proportionality is the elastic modulus ((or modulus of
elasticity).
Strain
Stress
= elastic modulus (Hookes law)











Stress - Strain diagram
If we plot a graph between stress and strain we get a curve as shown in Fig. 1.5 and it is
called stress - strain diagram. It is clear from this graph that Hookes law holds good only for
the straight line portion of the curve
1.6 Elastic Moduli
1.6.1 Three kinds of elastic molduli
The coefficient of elasticity or modulus of elasticity indicates how a specimen behaves
when subjected to given stress. This has the same units as stress that is Nm
-2
or Pa.
Table 1.1 Three kinds of elastic moduli
Elastic Modulus Definition Nature of strain
Youngs modulus (Y)
Tensile stress
Tensile strain
Change of shape and size
Bulk modulus (B)
Bulk stress
Bulk strain
Change of size but not shape
Shear modulus or
Rigidity modulus (S)
Shear stress
Shear strain
Change of shape but not size


Strain
Plastic range
0
S
t
r
e
s
s


Elastic limit
Elastic range
Permanent
set



Table 1. 2 Approximate elastic moduli
Material
Youngs Modulus
Y(Pa)
Bulk Modulus
B(Pa)
Shear Modulus
S(Pa)
Aluminium 7.0x10
10
7.5x10
10
2.5x10
10

Brass 9.0 x10
10
6.0 x10
10
3.5 x10
10

Copper 11 x10
10
14 x10
10
4.4 x10
10

Crown Glass 6.0 x10
10
5.0 x10
10
2.5 x10
10

Iron 21 x10
10
16 x10
10
7.7 x10
10

Lead 1.6 x10
10
4.1 x10
10
0.6 x10
10

Nickel 21 x10
10
17 x10
10
7.8 x10
10

Steel 20 x10
10
16 x10
10
7.5 x10
10

Worked Example 1.1: A steel rod 2.0m long has a cross sectional area of 0.30cm
2
. The rod is
now hung by one end from a support structure and a 550kg milling
machine is hung from the rods lower end. The Youngs modulus of
steel is 20x10
10
Pa. Determine the stress, the strain and the elongation of
the rod.
Pa
m
s m kg
A
F
Stress
8
2 5
2
10 8 . 1
10 0 . 3
) / 8 . 9 ( ) 550 (
=

= =

4
10
8
10 0 . 9
10 20
10 8 . 1

=

= =
A
=
Pa
Pa
Y
Stress
Strain
o

Elongation = A = (strain) x
o
= (9.0x10
-4
) (2.0m)
= 0.0018m = 1.8mm

Worked Example 1.2: The bulk modulus of water is 2.1Gpa. Calculate the volume
contraction of 100mL of water when subjected to a pressure of
1.5Mpa.
Bulk modulus B
o
V V
P
/ (A
A
=

Pa
Pa mL
B
P Vo
V
9
6
10 1 . 2
) 10 5 . 1 ( ) 100 ( ) (

=
A
= A
= 0.071mL
Worked Example 1.3: A box shaped piece of gelatin dessert has a top area of 15cm
2

and a height of 3cm. When a shearing force of 0.50N is applied to the
upper surface, the upper surface displaces 4mm relative to the bottom
surface. What are the shearing stress, the shearing strain, and the shear
modulus for the gelatin?
Pa
m
N
face of area
force gential
stress Shear 333
10 15
50 . 0 tan
2 4
=

= =


1333 . 0
3
4 . 0
= = =
cm
cm
height
nt displaceme
strain Shear

stress 333Pa
ShearModulus
strain 0.133
= = = 2.5kPa
1.7 Twisting Couple on a Cylinder (or Wire)-Jist of theory behind Torsional Pendulum
The twisting of a structural member about its longitudinal axis by two equal and opposite
torques is expressed through a certain angle. The stress seen in this situation is not tensile or
compressive, it is said to be shearing or shear stress. The strain in this case is measured by an
angle in unit of radians
Let us consider a cylindrical rod of length l and radius r with its upper end fixed. Let a
twisting couple-be applied to the lower end of the rod in a plane perpendicular to its length and
let the rod twist through an angle (radians). While the rod is twisted restoring couple acts in
the opposite direction and in the position of equilibrium, the twisting couple is equal and
opposite to the restoring couple. To calculate this couple, let us consider the solid cylinder to be
made up of a larger number of concentric thin walled cylinders. Let us consider one such hollow
cylinder of radius x, and radial thickness dx. When the rod is twisted through an angle , the
angle through which the rim of the cylinder is sheared is .
Twisting couple per unit twist C= Nr
4
/2
This twisting couple per unit twist of the wire is called the torsional rigidity or modulus
of torsion of the cylinder of wire. It is evident form this relation that the couple required is
proportional to the fourth power of the radius.
Disc
Torsionally flexible elastic wire
Fixed End
1.8 Torsion Pendulum For complete derivation see our notes discussed in class
Definition
A torsion pendulum is an oscillator for which the restoring force is torsion
Description
The device as shown in Fig 1.7 consisting of a disc or other body of large moment of
inertia mounted on one end of a torsionally flexible elastic rod wire whose other end is held
fixed; if the disc is twisted and released, it will undergo simple harmonic motion, provided the
torque in the rod is proportional to the angle of twist.
Theory
When the disc is rotated in a horizontal plane so as to twist the wire, the various elements
of the wire undergo shearing strains. Restoring couples, which tend to restore the unstrained
conditions, are called into action. Now when the disc is released, it starts executing torsional
vibrations. If the angle of twist at the lower end of the wire is , then the restoring couple is C ,
where C is the torsional rigidity of the wire, This couple acting on the disc produces in it an
angular acceleration given by Equation(1).










Fig. 1.7 Torsion Pendulum
C =
2
2
dt
d
I
u
(1)
where I is the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of the wire. The minus sign
indicates that the couple C tends to decrease the twist. Equation (1) can be rewritten as
u
u
I
C
dt
d
=
2
2
(2)
The above relation shows that the angular acceleration is proportional to the angular
displacement and is always directed towards the mean position. Hence the motion of the disc
is simple harmonic motion and the time period of the vibration will be given by
T = 2
on Accelerati
nt Displaceme

|
.
|

\
|

=
u
u
t
I
C
2
or T = 2 I/C
(2) Determination of Torsional Rigidity
For determining the modulus of rigidity N the time period of the pendulum is found (i)
when the disc is empty, and (ii) when a regular body is placed on the disc with axis of wire
passing through the centre of gravity of the body. If T is the time period of the pendulum in first
case and T
1
in the second case, then we have
T = 2
C
I
(10)
and T
1
= 2
C
I

I I +
(11)
where I is the moment of inertia of the disc and I
1
the moment of inertia of the regular
body placed on the disc. From relations (10) and (11), we have
T
1
2
T
2
=
C
I
1
2
4t
(12)
or
2 2
1
1
2
4
T T
I
C

=
t
(13)
For a wire of modulus of rigidity N, length l and radius r, we have

l
Nr
C
2
4
t
= (14)
Equating (13) and (14), we have
l
Nr
T T
I
2
4
4
2 2
1
1
2
t t
=

(15)
or
4 2 2
1
1
) (
8
r T T
lI
N

=
t
(16)
Thus, the value of N can be determined.
Worked Example 1.10: A torsion pendulum is made using a steel wire of diameter
0.5mm and sphere of diameter 3cm. The rigidity modulus of steel is 80
GPa and density of the material of the sphere is 11300 kg/m
3
. I f the
period of oscillation is 2 second, find the length of the wire.
4 2
8
r T
I
N
t
=
For sphere, I = 2/5 MR
2

M = volume density
M = 4/3 (3/2 10
-2
)
3
11300 = 0.1598 kg
I = 2/5 0.1598 (3/2 10
-2
)
2
= 0.14382 10
-4
kgm
2

4
0.5
9 2 3
80 10 2 10
2 4
NT r
2
4
8 I
8 0.14382 10

= = =

t
t
| |
|
\ .
5.531m l










Bending of Beams
A beam is a rod or bar of uniform crosssection (circular or rectangular) whose length is
very much greater than its thickness as shown in Fig. 1.8.
The beam is considered to be made up of a large number of thin plane layers called
surfaces placed one above the other. Consider a beam to be bent into an arc of a circle by the
application of an external couple as shown Fig. 1.9 Taking the longitudinal section ABCD of the
bent beam the layers in the upper half are elongated while those in the lower half are
compressed.






Fig. 1.8 A beam
In the middle there is a layer (MN) which is not elongated or compressed due to bending
of the beam. This layer is called the neutral surface and the line (MN) at which the neutral
layer intersects the plane of bending is called the neutral axis.










Fig.1.9 Bending of a beam
It is obvious that the length of the filament increases or decreases in proportion to its
distance away from the neutral axis MN.
The layers below MN are compressed and those above MN are elongated and there will
be such pairs of layers one above MN and one below MN experiencing same forces of
elongation and compression due to bending and each pair forms a couple.
The resultant of the moments of all these internal couples are called the internal bending
moment and in the equilibrium condition, this is equal to the external bending moment.
Uniform Bending
The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent beam forms an arc of a circle.
The elevation in the beam is produced. This bending is called uniform bending.
Consider a beam (or bar) AB arranged horizontally on two knife edges C and D
symmetrically so that AC = BD = a as shown in Fig. 1.12





Fig. 1.12 Uniform Bending
The beam is loaded with equal weights W and W at the ends A and B.
The reactions on the knife edges at C and D are equal to W and W acting vertical upwards.
The external bending moment on the part AF of the beam is
= W x AF W x CF = W (AF CF)
= W x AC = W x a (1)
Internal bending moment =
R
YI
g
(2)
where
Y - Youngs modulus of the material of the bar
I
g
- Geometrical moment of inertia of the cross-section of beam
D
F
C
O
y
R
l/2 E
F
C
R - Radius of curvature of the bar at F
In the equilibrium position,
external bending moment = internal bending moment
R
YI
Wa
g
= (3)
Since for a given value of W, the values of a, Y and I
g
are constants, R is constant so that
the beam is bent uniformly into an arc of a circle of radius R.
CD = l and y is the elevation of the midpoint E of the beam so that y = EF
Then from the property of the circle as shown in Fig. 1.13











Fig. 1.13 Circle Property
EF (2R EF) = (CE)
2
(4)

y (2R y) = |
.
|

\
|
2
l
2
(5)

y 2R =
4
2
l
(y
2
is negligible) (6)
y =
R 8
2
l
(7)
or
2
8
R
1
l
y
= (8)
From (3) and (8), Wa =
g
2
I
8
Y
y

or
y I
a l W
Y
g
8
2
= (9)
If the beam is of rectangular cross-section,
12
3 bd
I
g
= , where b is the breath and d is the
thickness of beam. If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W = Mg
Hence
y bd
a Mgl
Y
3
2
2
3
= (10)
from which Y the Youngs modulus of the material of the bar is determined.
Experiment
A rectangular beam (or bar) AB of uniform section is supported horizontally on two
knife edges A and B as shown in Fig. 1.14








Fig. 1.14 Uniform bending experiment
Two weight hangers of equal masses are suspended from the ands of the beam. A pin is
arranged vertically at the mid-point of the beam. A microscope is focused on the tip of the pin.
Initial reading of the microscope in the vertical scale is noted.
Equal weights are added to both hangers simultaneously and the reading of the
microscope in the vertical scale in noted.
The experiment is repeated for decreasing order of magnitude of the equal masses.
The observations are then tabulated and the mean elevation (y) at the mid point of the bar
is determined.
Table 1.3 Uniform bending experimental observation
Load in Kg
Microscope reading elevation Mean elevation(y)
for
a load of M.
Load increasing Load decreasing Mean
W

W+50 gms
W+100 gms
W+150 gms
W+200 gms
W+250 gms

The length of the bar between the knife edges l is measured. The distance of one of the
weight hangers from the nearest knife edge p is measured. The breadth (b) and thickness (d) of
the bar are measured using vernier calipers and screw gauge.
The youngs modulus of the material of the beam is determined by the relation
y bd
l a g M
Y
3
2
2
3
= Nm
-2
Worked Example 1.11: Uniform rectangular bar 1 m long 2 cm broad and 0.5 cm thick
is supported on its flat face symmetrically on two knife edges 70 cm
apart. I f loads of 200 g are hung from the two ends, find the elevation at
the center of the bar. Youngs modulus of the material of the bar is 18 x
10
10
Pa.
The distance between the nearer knife edge and the point of suspension
a=15x10
-2
m
Elevation at the centre,

3
2
2
3
d Yb
l a g M
y =
3 2 2 10
2 2 3
) 10 5 . 0 ( 10 2 10 18 2
7 . 0 10 15 8 . 9 10 200 3




=
= 4.802 x 10
-4
m
Non-Uniform Bending
If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, the depression i produced will not form an arc of a
circle. This type of bending is called non-uniform bending.
Consider a uniform beam (or rod or bar) AB of length l arranged horizontally on two
knife edges K
1
and K
2
near the ends A and B as shown in Fig. 1.15








Fig. 1.15 Non. uniform bending
A weight W is applied at the midpoint E of the beam. The reaction at each knife edge is
equal to W/2 in the upward direction and y is the depression at the midpoint E.
The bent beam is considered to be equivalent to two single inverted cantilevers, fixed at E
each of length |
.
|

\
|
2
l
and each loaded at K
1
and K
2
with a weight
2
W

In the case of a cantilever of length l and load W,
the depression =
Y I
l W
g
3
3

E
K2 K1
B A
W/2 W/2
W
Hence, for cantilever of length |
.
|

\
|
2

and load |
.
|

\
|
2
W
, the depression is Equation(1).
y =
Y I
l W
g
3
2 2
3
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
(1)

or
Y I
l W
y
g
48
3
= (2)
If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W is
W = Mg (3)
If the beam is a rectangular, I
g
=
12
3
bd
, where b is the breadth and d is the thickness of the
beam.
Hence
Y
bd
l Mg
y
12
48
3
3
= (4)

Y bd
gl M
y
3
3
48
12
= (5)
or
y bd
gl M
Y
3
3
4
= Nm
-2
(6)
The value of youngs modulus, Y can be determined by the above equation.
Experiment
The given beam AB of rectangular cross section is arranged horizontally on two knife
edges K
1
and K
2
near the ends A and B as shown in Fig. 1.16





B
A
K1 K2


Fig. 1.16 Non-uniform bending experiment
A weight hanger is suspended and a pin is fixed vertically at mid-point . A microscope is
focused on the tip of the pin.
The initial reading on the vertical scale of the microscope is taken.
A suitable mass M is added to the hanger. The beam is depressed. The cross wire is
adjusted to coincide with the tip of the pin. The reading of the microscope is noted. The
depression corresponding to the mass M is found.
The experiment is repeated by increasing and decreasing the mass step by step. The
corresponding readings are tabulated. The average value of depression, y is found from the
observations.

Table 1.4 Non -uniform bending experimental observations
Load in Kg
Microscope readings for depression Mean depression,y
for
a load of M
Load increasing
cm
Load decreasing
cm
Mean
cm
W
W+50 gms
W+100 gms
W+150 gms
W+200 gms
W+250 gms

The breadth b, the thickness d and length l of the beam are measured. The value of Y for
the material of the beam is found by the relation.
y bd
g M
Y
3
3
4

=