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Increasing transformational leadership through enhancing self-efcacy

Susan Fitzgerald and Nicola S. Schutte
University of New England, Armidale, Australia
Abstract
Purpose The present study aims to examine whether an intervention designed to increase self-efcacy for transformational leadership results in more transformational leadership self-efcacy and a higher level of transformational leadership. In previous research higher levels of emotional intelligence have been found to be associated with more transformational leadership; thus the present study also seeks to examine whether higher emotional intelligence makes individuals more receptive to self-efcacy-based leadership training. Design/methodology/approach The study used an experimental design. Participants were randomly assigned to either a self-efcacy expressive writing condition or a control writing condition. Participants were 118 managers who completed measures of self-efcacy, transformational leadership and emotional intelligence at the start of the study and again completed measures of self-efcacy, and transformational leadership after the intervention. Findings Managers in the intervention condition showed signicantly greater transformational leadership self-efcacy and higher transformational leadership scores than the control group managers at post-test. Further, those higher in emotional intelligence were more responsive to the intervention. Practical implications The intervention holds promise as a low cost and easy to implement method of facilitating development of transformational leadership. Originality/value The nding that an intervention aimed at increasing self-efcacy can increase transformational leadership extends previous research on both self-efcacy and transformational leadership. This result suggests that leadership self-efcacy may be an important component of transformational leadership. The nding that individuals higher in emotional intelligence beneted most from the intervention extends previous ndings regarding the importance of emotional intelligence in organisational settings. Emotional intelligence may facilitate individuals openness to change. Keywords Transformational leadership, Creative writing, Emotional intelligence Paper type Research paper

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Received 10 May 2009 Revised 25 November 2009 Accepted 25 November 2009

Transformational leadership, a motivational leadership style which involves presenting a clear organisational vision and inspiring employees to work towards this vision through establishing connections with employees, understanding employees needs, and helping employees reach their potential, contributes to good outcomes for an organisation. Adaptive emotional functioning, dened as emotional intelligence, may be a foundation for the development of transformational leadership, making individuals more receptive to development of this leadership style. Self-efcacy is the belief that one can successfully show a set of behaviours in order to bring about a good outcome. Self-efcacy for showing transformational leadership characteristics may be a vehicle for increasing transformational leadership and may interact with emotional intelligence in bringing about positive outcomes.

Journal of Management Development Vol. 29 No. 5, 2010 pp. 495-505 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0262-1711 DOI 10.1108/02621711011039240

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Transformational leadership Transformational leadership motivates and inspires employees by raising their awareness of the value of the tasks they perform and the importance of organisational goals, and by drawing on employees intrinsic needs (Bass, 1998). Transformational leadership is based on the connections between leaders and other employees; an effective transformational leader understands the needs and motivations of others and tries to help them reach their full potential (Bass and Avolio, 1994). Podsakoff et al. (1990) identied the following six key transformational leadership characteristics: (1) Identifying and articulating a vision. (2) Providing an appropriate model. (3) Fostering the acceptance of group goals. (4) Communicating high performance expectations. (5) Providing individualised support. (6) High levels of charisma. Research indicates that transformational leadership is an asset to organisations (Bass and Riggio, 2005). Organisations with transformational leadership cultures tend to be more effective, for example by being better able to adapt to change (Bass and Riggio, 2005). Transformational leadership is related to employees perceptions of effectiveness of a leader and satisfaction with a leader (Bass and Riggio, 2005), enhanced motivation (Yukl, 1998), greater effort, better job performance and greater job satisfaction (Bryman, 1992; Howell and Frost, 1989; Lowe et al., 1996), greater innovative work behaviour (Reuvers et al., 2008) and greater involvement with a work team (Savic and Pagon, 2008). Emotional intelligence Mandell and Pherwani (2003) found that more adaptive emotional functioning, operationalised as emotional intelligence, predicted a higher level of transformational leadership. It may be that emotional intelligence provides a foundation on which transformational leadership behaviours can build. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence (Mayer et al., 2004) proposes that emotional intelligence consists of the interrelated functions of: (1) perception of emotion in the self and others; (2) using emotion to facilitate decision making; (3) understanding emotion in the self and others; and (4) managing emotion in the self and others. Other models of emotional intelligence, such as the one developed by Bar-On (2000), propose a broader conceptualisation that includes basic emotional functions as well as characteristics, such as good interpersonal relationships and stress tolerance, that may arise from effective emotional functioning. The components identied as comprising emotional intelligence within the major models have tended to group together, such that individuals who score high on one component also score high on the other components (Mayer et al., 2004; Schutte et al., 1998), suggesting that emotional intelligence consists of integrated functions. Emotional intelligence has been dened

and measured both an ability (Mayer et al., 2004), similar to cognitive intelligence, and as a trait (Neubauer and Freudenthaler, 2005; Petrides and Furnham, 2003). Claims that emotional intelligence may be the most important predictor of career success (Goleman, 1997) have captured the attention of the corporate sector. While some of these claims may be exaggerated (Mayer et al., 2000), ndings that emotional intelligence can predict aspects of work performance have inuenced the business world (Cherniss and Goleman, 2001). Self-efcacy Self-efcacy is the cognitive process by which a person evaluates his or her ability to perform a certain task (Bandura, 1997). Bandura (1994) dened self-efcacy as individuals beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise inuence over events that affect their lives. Self-efcacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave (p. 78). Higher self-efcacy has been found to be associated with good outcomes in a variety of realms of life (Bandura, 1997), including greater job satisfaction and better work performance (Judge and Bono, 2001). Judge and Bonos (2001) meta analysis of 217 associations between level of self-efcacy and work-related performance showed a large effect size of r 0:37. Of the eight predictors of work-performance, which included experience and conscientiousness, examined in the Judge and Bono (2001) meta-analysis, self-efcacy had the second strongest association with performance, second only to general mental ability. While general mental ability is difcult to alter, self-efcacy may be changeable. According to Bandura (1986, 1997) the following four factors determine the level of an individuals self-efcacy beliefs in a given realm of life: (1) Personal mastery experiences. (2) Vicarious mastery experiences. (3) Verbal persuasion. (4) Physiological and affective states. Personal accomplishments lead to the expectation of future good outcomes. Vicarious mastery experiences involving observation of a similar other who is successful can also lead to the expectation of future good outcomes for the self. Verbal persuasion or the assurance by others than one can achieve a good outcome, bolsters self-efcacy. Because physiological and affective states (such as a very high level of arousal or negative mood) can inuence perception of efcacy, reduction or re-interpretation of such states can lead to higher perceived self-efcacy. Research-based evidence suggests that self-efcacy beliefs are agents of change determining outcomes in a variety of realms (Bandura, 1997, 2000). The realm most investigated in this context is mental health. Research in this area has focused on the relationship between increases in self-efcacy for psychotherapy outcomes during standard psychotherapy for a problem, such as systematic desensitisation for phobias (Bandura, 1997). This research has found that clients with greater increases in self-efcacy have better treatment outcomes for a variety of problems (Bandura, 1997, 2000). Several studies have evaluated the effects of interventions specically intended to raise self-efcacy. Some of these studies have included other components such as

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reinforcement (e.g. Luszczynska et al., 2006; Southard, 2006; Weinberg et al., 1984), which make it difcult to determine the value of the self-efcacy components on their own. Other self-efcacy intervention studies have drawn on only one or two of the four self-efcacy sources (e.g. Gist et al., 1989). Two studies have examined the effect of interventions drawing on all four sources of self-efcacy to increase self-efcacy and a behaviour related to self-efcacy. Nichols et al. (2009) found that providing work-book based pre-natal breastfeeding training which drew on all four sources of self-efcacy resulted in new mothers showing greater breastfeeding self-efcacy and more exclusive breastfeeding. Allison and Keller (2004) found that a self-efcacy intervention consisting of all four self-efcacy sources led to greater improvements in physical-activity performance in older adults. Expressive writing The expressive writing paradigm (e.g. King, 2001; Pennebaker and Beall, 1986; Lepore and Smyth, 2002) involves individuals disclosing in writing their thoughts and feelings relating to an important aspect of their life for 15 to 20 minutes at a time on three or four consecutive days. Studies using expressive writing interventions have shown that individuals who write about meaningful experiences, ranging from traumatic events (Lepore and Smyth, 2002), to life goals (King, 2001), to romantic relationships (Slatcher and Pennebaker, 2006), to intensely positive experiences (Burton and King, 2004), show improved outcomes ranging from better mood to improved mental and physical health. Frattaroli (2006) conducted an extensive meta-analysis of the effects of such disclosure and reported that expressive writing brings about signicant positive outcomes. Reecting on and writing about events may encourage cognitive processing and restructuring and provide a greater sense of mastery over events (King, 2001, 2002; Pennebaker, 2002; Pennebaker et al., 2003). As changes in self-efcacy for a realm are based on cognitive processes involving attention to and interpretation of sources of self-efcacy, the expressive writing paradigm may hold promise for facilitating changes in self-efcacy. Changes in self-efcacy for multi-faceted and largely cognitively based competencies, such as those associated with transformational leadership, may be especially affected through expressive writing. Aims of the study An aim of the present research was to determine whether an expressive writing-based intervention drawing on the four sources of self-efcacy in relation to transformational leadership results in higher transformational leadership self-efcacy and more transformational leadership behaviour. Given the good outcomes associated with higher levels of transformational leadership, identifying causes of transformational leadership and methods for increasing transformational leadership are important: H1. An intervention drawing on theoretically grounded sources of self-efcacy to increase transformational leadership self-efcacy will result in higher transformational leadership self-efcacy. H2. An intervention drawing on theoretically grounded sources of self-efcacy to increase transformational leadership self-efcacy will result in more transformational leadership.

Another aim of the study was to examine whether those high in emotional intelligence would benet more from such a self-efcacy intervention. Because higher levels of emotional intelligence have been found to be associated with more transformational leadership (Mandell and Pherwani, 2003), higher levels of emotional intelligence may facilitate acquisition of transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership behaviour: H3. Higher emotional intelligence will result in individuals in a transformational leadership intervention increasing more in transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership behaviour. Research design and methodology Research design An experimental design, with random assignment to either an intervention and control condition, examined the effect of a program designed to enhance transformational leadership self-efcacy. Outcomes measured were transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership. Assessment of the relationship between emotional intelligence assessed at pre-test with change in transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership allowed examination of whether those higher in emotional intelligence before the intervention would show greater increases in transformational leadership. Methodology Participants. Participants in the study were 118 managers of Australian retail travel businesses who were recruited during monthly manager meetings. They participated voluntarily and were free to withdraw from the study at any time. The participants included 41 males and 77 females with a mean age of 27.93 (SD 3:63). The 118 participants were recruited from among 149 managers originally approached. The 61 participants who were randomly assigned to the self-efcacy expressive writing intervention condition had a mean age of 28.03 (SD 3:72) and included 18 men and 43 women. The 57 participants who were randomly assigned to the control writing group had a mean age of 27.82 (SD 3:57) and included 23 men and 34 women. Measures Transformational leadership. The Global Transformational Leadership (GTL) Scale (Carless et al., 2000) has evidence of convergent and discriminant validity and in previous research had internal reliability, as assessed by Cronbachs alpha, of 0.93 (Carless et al., 2000). Participants rated to what extent they performed the behaviours described by the scale items during the past three weeks. Higher scores indicate more transformational leadership behaviour. A sample item is created motivating business plans and ensured ownership by all team members. In the present study Cronbachs Alpha was 0.94. Transformational leadership self-efcacy. A transformational leadership scale was created using Banduras (2001) manual for creating realm-specic self-efcacy measures. The 15 items comprising the scale were based on transformational leadership theory and research (Bass, 1998; Bass and Avolio, 1994; Bass and Riggio, 2005; Podsakoff et al., 1990). Participants rated how condent they were about their ability to show the behaviours described by the items. Higher scores indicated greater

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self-efcacy. Sample items included condence in giving encouragement and recognition to all team members and condence in delegating responsibility to team members to facilitate their development. In the present study internal reliability, as assessed by Cronbachs Alpha, was 0.95. Emotional intelligence. The assessing emotions scale (Schutte et al., 1998) assesses characteristic emotional intelligence and is based on Salovey and Mayers (1990) original model of emotional intelligence. Previous research has found evidence of validity for the scale and internal reliability, as assessed by Cronbachs Alpha, of 0.87 to 0.92 (Schutte et al., 2009). In the present study Cronbachs Alpha was 0.91. Intervention and control condition writing instructions. Participants randomly received either self-efcacy writing instructions or control writing instructions. Both sets of instructions asked participants to write for at least 20 minutes a day for three days during their work week. The self-efcacy writing instructions asked participants to reect in writing on their deepest thoughts and feelings relating to transformational leadership by drawing on experiences during the past workday or a recent workday in the past. The instructions prompted participants to reect on experiences that related to their own leadership success, observing examples of leadership behaviour, encouragement by others of their leadership behaviours, and physical feelings and emotions related to their leadership behaviour. The instructions gave examples of leadership behaviour based on Bass (1998) theory of transformational leadership. The full writing instructions are available upon request from the corresponding author. The control group instructions asked participants to reect in writing on non-work activities of the past day. Participants in both groups were asked to record how many minutes they spent writing per day. As part of the post-assessment, participants in both groups were asked on how many days they had written and on how many of the days they had written for at least 20 minutes. Procedure. Participants completed pre-measures at the manager meeting at which they were recruited. Pre-measures were the measures of transformational leadership behaviour, transformational leadership self-efcacy, and emotional intelligence. Participants placed a code name they would remember, but that could not be used to identify them, on the pre-questionnaires. Separate from return of the completed pre measures, participants provided an e-mail contact address so that they could be reminded when the three-week post measure completion time approached. After sealing their completed pre-measures in an envelope and returning this, participants received a package with writing instructions, with packages randomised for self-efcacy writing instructions and control writing instructions. This package also contained, separately from the writing instructions, the two post measures and a stamped envelope for return of the post measures. Participants were asked to write according to the instructions at the end of three consecutive work days and to complete the post measures three weeks later. The post measures assessed transformational leadership behaviour and transformational leadership self-efcacy. Participants placed their code name on the post questionnaires so that pre and post information for each participant could be matched.

Findings Between groups t-tests showed that there were no signicant differences between groups at pre-intervention in transformational leadership self-efcacy, transformational leadership scores, or emotional intelligence. All 61 of the intervention group participants and all 57 of the control group participants reported writing on at least three days. In the intervention group, 11 participants reported not writing for at least 20 minutes on at least one day. In the control group, ten participants reported not writing for at least 20 minutes on at least one day. In line with a conservative analysis approach, those who did not write for the full 20 minutes each day were included in the statistical analyses. The impact of the writing intervention on transformational leadership self-efcacy and behaviour was assessed using two one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVAs) with treatment group as the independent variable. In the rst ANCOVA pre leadership self-efcacy was the covariate and post self-efcacy was the dependent measure. In the second ANCOVA pre leadership was the covariate and post leadership was the dependent measure. Table I shows the means for the intervention and control groups on the pre and post-intervention measures of self-efcacy and leadership. Participants in the self-efcacy expressive-writing intervention group showed signicantly greater transformational leadership self-efcacy at post-test than those in the control group, F1; 115 176:93, p 0:001, partial h 2 0:61. Participants in the self-efcacy expressive-writing intervention group also showed signicantly more transformational leadership at post-test than those in the control group, F1; 115 19:36, p 0:001, partial h 2 0:14. Correlations between emotional intelligence and change scores in the intervention group tested the hypothesis that high levels of emotional intelligence at pre-intervention would be associated with greater increases in transformational leadership self-efcacy and greater increases in transformational leadership for participants in the intervention group. Change scores were computed for pre to post transformational leadership self-efcacy and for pre to post transformational leadership. In the intervention group, higher emotional intelligence at pre-measure was associated with greater increases in transformational leadership self-efcacy, r 60 0:54, p 0:001, and greater increases in transformational leadership scores, r 60 0:58, p 0:001.

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Transformational leadership self-efcacy M SD Self-efcacy group Pre Post Control group Pre Post 45.95 59.03 43.95 45.18 9.74 11.081 14.54 13.80

Transformational leadership M SD 78.62 84.31 83.35 83.91 15.54 15.31 14.57 13.97

Table I. Means and standard deviations for self-efcacy expressive writing and control groups on pre and post-intervention measures of transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership

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Discussion Managers participating in a transformational leadership self-efcacy expressive writing intervention showed signicantly greater transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership scores after the intervention than managers in a control writing condition. These results have implications for self-efcacy theory. The ndings suggest that self-efcacy may be an important component of transformational leadership. The results also support the utility of the expressive writing approach and suggest an empowering and low-cost approach to enhancing transformational leadership. The results of the study are congruent with the results of other studies (Allison and Keller, 2004; Nichols et al., 2009) that have examined whether targeting the sources of self-efcacy proposed by Bandura (1997) induces positive change in other realms. As well as having implications for transformational leadership development, the ndings suggest a promising avenue of research exploring self-efcacy based interventions to enhance other organisational outcomes. The original expressive writing paradigm studies focused on the effects of writing on individuals dealing with trauma (e.g. Pennebaker and Beall, 1986). More recent research has extended the paradigm to individuals writing about positive or formative experiences in order to increase positive attributes (e.g. King, 2001; Wing et al., 2006). The nding that an expressive writing intervention focusing on transformational leadership can enhance leadership extends ndings on the use of the writing paradigm in the area of personal strength building. The nding that self-efcacy focused expressive writing may be an effective approach for enhancing transformational leadership has practical implications for the design and delivery of leadership training programs. A structured writing task is a low-cost training method that could be adapted for use, either on its own or in conjunction with other training methods, across a range of industries. The nding that those with higher emotional intelligence showed greater increases in transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership behaviour scores has both theoretical and practical implications. It may be that insights into their own and others emotional functioning that are components of emotional intelligence allowed the managers in the intervention condition to be more open to change and to more readily process and incorporate self-efcacy information into their belief system. The nding suggests selecting those with higher levels of emotional intelligence or attempting to build emotional intelligence along with other skills may optimise the effectiveness of leadership training programs. Future research could examine these possibilities. The present study is exploratory and has some limitations. First, participants in the study were managers in one type of industry in Australia. Future research might replicate the present ndings in other industries or cultures. Second, the measures used in the study were self-report measures. Future research might use 360-degree measures in assessing transformational leadership and might look at possible increases in organisational performance as indices of effective transformational leadership. In conclusion, the results of this study indicate that self-efcacy focused expressive writing can result in an increase in transformational leadership self-efcacy and transformational leadership scores. Those with higher emotional intelligence were more responsive to the intervention as evidenced by their greater increases in both leadership self-efcacy and leadership scores.

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Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J.M., Hall, L.E., Haggerty, D.J., Cooper, J.T., Golden, C.J. and Dornheim, L. (1998), Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence, Personality and Individual Differences, Vol. 25, pp. 167-77. Slatcher, R.B. and Pennebaker, J.W. (2006), How do I love thee? Let me count the words: the social effects of expressive writing, Psychological Science, Vol. 17, pp. 660-4. Southard, V. (2006), A randomized control trial of the application of efcacy training to balance assessment, Physical and Occupational Therapy in Geriatrics, Vol. 25, pp. 51-66. Weinberg, R.S., Hughes, H.H., Critelli, E.R. and Jackson, A. (1984), Effects of preexisting and manipulated self-efcacy on weight loss in a self-control program, Journal of Research in Personality, Vol. 18, pp. 353-8. Wing, J.F., Schutte, N.S. and Byrne, B. (2006), The effect of positive writing on emotional intelligence and life satisfaction, Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 62, pp. 1291-302. Yukl, G. (1998), Leadership in Organizations, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. About the authors Susan Fitzgerald is a Manager and Trainer with Flight Centre in Australia. She holds an honours degree in psychology. Nicola S. Schutte is an Associate Professor at the University of New England in Australia. She is the author of over 60 journal articles and four books. Much of her recent work focuses on emotional intelligence and self-efcacy. Nicola Schutte is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: nschutte@une.edu.au

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