Chapter 27: The Imperial Republic

At the end of the 19th century, the US expanded to new lands that were often non-contiguous, already heavily populated, unattractive to American settlers, and unlikely to become states Stirrings of Imperialism: The New The experience of dealing with the Indians set a precedent for dealing with dependent Manifest Destiny colonists (or, Reasons for The closing of the frontier sparked fears that natural resources were in short supply Expansion) A more aggressive foreign policy could be an outlet for the dissatisfied populists, silverites, and laborers America was exporting more than ever; from 1870 to 1900 increased from $392 million to $1.4 billion Imperialist fever in Europe caused fears that America would be left behind Many used Social Darwinism to argue that strong nations must dominate weak ones to survive 1885 John Fiske published an article that said that white people were destined to control all unestablished civilizations 1885 Clergyman Josiah Strong's book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis said that the white race represented civil liberty and pure Christianity, and was divinely commissioned to spread over the earth 1890 academic John W. Burgess's study Political Science and Comparative Law said that white people had the best political talent, so was their duty to help the less fortunate races, against their will if necessary 1890 Navy captain Alfred Thayer Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History argued that the greatest historical nations were those with sea power, and that colonies (among others) were required for sea power to serve as suppliers of raw materials, markets, and naval bases; also advocated the building of the Panama Canal and the acquisition of Hawaii 1870s and 1880s the US government launched a shipbuilding program, so by 1900 America was 3rd in naval power in the world Hemispheric Hegemony 1880s Republic secretary of state James G. Blaine believed that America must seek markets for its surplus; October 1889 helped organize the first Pan-American Congress, with 19 nations represented, which created the weak Pan-American Union as a clearinghouse for distributing information to member nations 1895 the Cleveland administration sided with Venezuela in a border dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana; Britain only submitted the matter to arbitration when America threatened war US wanted to acquire because was an important way station on the way to and from China, wanted to establish a permanent naval base at Pearl Harbor, and had a growing American population 1500 BCE was settled by Polynesian people, developed an agricultural and fishing society with self-sufficient islands and communities under chieftains which often fought to gain

Hawaii

control over other communities; by 1810, King Kamehameha I had established dominance The King helped American traders develop a mutually beneficial trade between Hawaii and China But the Americans also established missions and sugar plantations Hawaiian society was devastated by American-brought disease, missionaries, liquor, firearms, and commercial economy 1840s American G. P. Judd governed Hawaii as prime minister under King Kamehameha III 1887 the US and Hawaii signed a treaty allowing the US to open a naval base at Pearl Harbor The Hawaiian economy was now based on growing sugar to export to America (an 1875 agreement made for its duty-free importation), but the plantation system displaced natives from their lands and imported Asian immigrants as workers But 1890 the US ended the duty-free agreement, so the economy was devastated; the American planters decided the only way to recover was to become part of the US, so 1893 staged a rebellion, and nationalist Queen Liluokalani (coronated 1891) yielded her power; however, Hawaii would not be officially annexed until 1898

Samoa

The US wanted to acquire because was a way station for ships in the Pacific and because wanted the harbor at Pago Pago 1878 the Hayes administration and the Samoan princes signed a treaty for an American naval station at Pago Pago; but the treaty also bound the US to arbitrate conflicts between Samoa and other nations But Britain and Germany also signed treaties with the Samoan princes; for a decade, the three countries fought for dominance and came close to war, then they unsuccessfully agreed to form a protectorate and share power, so 1899 they split Samoa between the US and Germany while Britain got other Pacific territories

The SpanishAmerican War: Controversy over 1868-1878 the Cubans unsuccessfully fought for independence from Spain 1895 they revolted again because of Spanish misrule and the economic devastation caused by Cuba the high duties of the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Both the Cubans and the Spaniards committed atrocities, but the American press made it appear that the Spaniards were behind all of them, ex. Spanish General Valeriano Weyler's concentration camps American public opinion was influenced by: The sensationalist yellow journalism of competing newspaper publishers Joseph Pulitzer (the New York World) and William Randolph Hearst (the New York Journal) The growing population of Cuban immigrants who organized to support the Cuban rebels But President Cleveland proclaimed neutrality 1897 President McKinley formally protested Spain's unhumane conduct, and Spain feared American intervention, so it recalled Weyler, changed concentration camp policy, and granted Cuba autonomy; American involvement seemed to have been averted But February 1898 the chances of peaceful settlement were eliminated by: The press got a hold of a private letter of Spanish minister Dupuy de Lome that said McKinley was weak and sought popular support; though many Americans agreed with Lome, the public was angered because it came from a foreigner

 The explosion of the American battleship Maine in Havana harbor; most believed that the Spanish had sunk it, while evidence suggests that the explosion was an internal accident McKinley still wanted to keep peace, so got Spain to agree to end the fighting and concentration camps But Congress and the public were not satisfied, so April 1898 Congress declared war A Splendid The war only lasted 5 months because the Cuban rebels had already weakened the Spanish Little War (or, forces; more than ten times more troops died from disease than in battle the Difficulties of The American army were short of modern arms, light uniforms appropriate for the warm a Quick and climate, medical services, quality food, and experienced soldiers (had to rely on locally Dirty War) organized National Guard units) Racial tensions: The many black soldiers, some volunteers and some from the four black regiments of the regular army, resented the segregation to which they were subject The American black soldiers felt the injustice of their situation when they saw that the blacks fighting on the Cuban side fought as equals alongside the whites (ex. black general Antonio Maceo) Seizing the Philippines Assistance Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt was a strong imperialist and pro-war, so told the Pacific squadron commander Commodore George Dewey to attack the Spanish in the Philippines if war broke out So May 1989 Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay and became a hero of war; several months later, the Spanish would surrender the city of Manila The goal of war was beginning to shift from freeing Cuba to stripping Spain of its colonies The Americans mobilized inefficiently and on short notice, ex. under Army commanding general Nelson A. Miles Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera snuck past the American Navy into Santiago harbor General William R. Shafter moved toward Santiago and on the way defeated the Spanish at Las Guasimos, El Caney, and San Juan Hill The Rough Riders under Theodore Roosevelt were famed for their bold charge up Kettle Hill in the Battle of San Juan Hill Shafter was unable to attack Santiago because of disease and the risk of mines to the Navy, but July Spain decided that Santiago was lost, so Cervera tried to escape but was defeated, and the Spanish army surrendered Also, an American army began an unopposed occupation of Puerto Rico August an armistice was signed in which Spain recognized Cubas independence, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam, and accepted the continued American occupation of Manila

The Battle for Cuba

Puerto Rico and 1508 Spain gained Puerto Rico when Ponce de Leon arrived there the United States The native Arawak people died off from disease, brutality, and poverty, so Puerto Rican society had a Spanish ruling class and an African work force, and the economy was based on coffee and sugar plantations Starting 1820s, the Puerto Ricans began resisting Spanish rule, ex. The 1868 Lares Rebellion, but all were crushed; still, caused the 1873 abolition of slavery and their representation in the Spanish parliament 1898 Spain granted it some independence in response to political pressure under Luis Munoz

The Debate over the Philippines The annexation of the Philippines caused debate because seemed ominous for the US to (also, the control a large, populated territory on the other side of the world Election of 1900) McKinley was reluctant to annex, but felt that he had to because could not return them to Spain, give them to another imperialist power, or let them self-govern December 1898 the Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American war, confirmed the terms of the armistice, and gave the Philippines to America for $20 million despite initial Spanish hesitation But had been fierce debate in America over the Treaty: Those who opposed ratification: Opposed annexation because was immoral, would bring in inferior Asian races, would bring in cheap laborers whom American laborers could not compete with, would require a large standing army and entangling foreign alliances, would cause competition in sugar, or would create subjects in a republic 1898 the upper-class in the Northeast organized the Anti-Imperialist League Those who supported ratification: Supported because believed war and imperialism were healthy and revitalizing, the US could dominate trade in the Orient, the Republican party would be seen favorably for gaining new territory, and it would be easy to annex the already-possessed Philippines Argued that gaining subjects was not an issue because the US already had subjects, the Indians The fate of the treaty was decided when Bryan unexpectedly supported ratification because wanted to make it the subject of a 1900 national referendum In the election of 1900, McKinley with vice president Theodore Roosevelt beat Bryan again The Republic as Empire: Governing the Colonies (esp. Cuba)

Rivera But 1898-1900 American troops occupied the island until the Foraker Act established a formal colonial government with an American governor, American-elected upper house, Puerto-Rican elected lower house, and US power to amend or veto legislation; still agitation for independence 1917 Jones Act declared that Puerto Rico was US territory and made all Puerto Ricans American citizens The sugar industry benefited from the now duty-free American market, so Americans established large sugar plantations, so Puerto Rico became dependent on international sugar prices and imported food Some Puerto Ricans wanted independence and stability, while others wanted closer ties to the US The annexation of Puerto Rico was rather non-controversial in the US

The acquisitions that presented the least challenges were Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico, Guam, Tutuila, and the smaller, lesser populated Pacific islands Cuba was more difficult to govern: Until 1902, American troops occupied it and build infrastructure, reorganized the government and economy, and set the precedent of US economic domination of the island 1901 a Cuban constitution was drafted that did not mention the US, so Congress passed the Platt Amendment that forbade Cuba from making treaties, allowed the US to establish naval stations in Cuba, and allowed the US to intervene in Cuba to preserve life, liberty, and property; so Cuba was left with little political independence

 Cuba was also made economically dependent by absentee American ownership of infrastructure and natural resources and the increasing dominance of sugar production Cuban resistance would flare up intermittently, ex. US troops returned in 1906-1909 and in 1912 The Philippine War 1898-1902 the Philippine War was much deadlier than the Spanish-American War, and both Americans and Cubans used similar brutal tactics Emilio Aguinaldo led the Filipino resistance; General Arthur MacArthur led the US troops American tactics grew more brutal in part because of the realization that the resistance was stronger than assumed; most POWs were treated as murderers and executed, and entire communities were put in concentration camps while their villages were destroyed 1901 American possession was secured by the capture of Aguinaldo, though isolated fighting would continue until 1906 1901 William Howard Taft became the Philippines' first governor; have broad local autonomy, built infrastructure, reformed the government and finance system, and established a public health system The Philippine economy would become dependent on that of the US The Philippines would not gain independence until 1946 American interest in Asia increased because of the acquisition of the Philippines, the newly weak China, and the descent other imperial nations upon China (China was in effect granting them control over spheres of territory) 1899 McKinley and Secretary of State John Hay's Open Door Policy: Asked that England, Germany, Russia, France, Japan, and Italy respect the rights of other nations in their spheres, that Chinese officials continue to collect tariff duties in all spheres, and that nations not discriminate against other nations in port dues and railroad rates in their own spheres Goals were to allow free, peaceful trade with China and to keep the illusion of Chinese sovereignty But the imperialist nations did not accept the Policy, but Hay announced that all the powers had accepted it, but the US could not force the nations to follow it without going to war But McKinley and Hay won their support by helping to put down the Boxer Rebellion In the 1900 Boxer Rebellion, the Boxers (a secret, nationalistic martial-arts society) seiged the British embassy in Beijing but August 1900 were defeated by international troops The Spanish-American War revealed problems in the supply, training, and coordination of the American military Under Secretary of War Elihu Root, the army was enlarged fourfold, federal army standards were established for the National Guard, officer training schools were created, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff was established to supervise and coordinate the military and plan for possible wars

The Open Door

A Modern Military System

 The Big Stick: At the time, there was little public interest in foreign affairs, so the President could act more America and the freely in such affairs World, 1901-1917: Roosevelt and Theodore Roosevelt believed that American power should be used in the world Civilization He believed that civilized nations were mostly white, economically developed, and industrialized, while uncivilized nations were nonwhite, Latin, or Slavic, economically undeveloped, and unindustrialized Therefore, civilized nations had the right and duty to intervene in uncivilized nations to preserve stability for both nations Protecting the Open Door in Asia 1904 the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur in Manchuria, so Roosevelt, at Japans request, mediated the conflict; had Russia recognize Japans territorial gains, and had Japan agree to stop fighting and expanding, and secretly ensured with Japan the USs continued trading rights in the region; would win the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize But the Japanese were now the largest Pacific power and were beginning to exclude American trade in its territories, so Roosevelt sent some of the navys new Great White Fleet to warn Japan of the USs potential power 1902 financially troubled Venezuela began to default on debts to European bankers, so European navies blockaded their coast and German ships attacked its ports, and rumors that Germany wanted to establish a permanent base there, so Roosevelt pressured the German navy to withdraw with the threat of US navy power So 1904 he announced the Roosevelt Corollary [to the Monroe Doctrine] that said that the US had the right to not only oppose European intervention, but also to intervene in the domestic affairs of unstable or weak neighbors The Corollary was put into use when the US set up a receivership in the Dominican Republic (1903 a revolution replaced its corrupt and bankrupt government, but the new government was still deeply in debt) that took over Dominican customs in order to manage the Republics debt The Platt Amendment was another example of Americas iron-fistedness At first, Roosevelt wanted to built the canal across Nicaragua, but switched to Panama because the French company behind a failed, 40% completed channel project offered its holdings for sale for $40 million The US and Colombian ambassadors agreed that the US would receive perpetual rights to a strip of land across Colombia in exchange for a $250,000 annual payment, but the Colombian senate refused to ratify it and demanded at least $20 million So 1903 Roosevelt and French chief engineer Philippe Bunau-Varilla organized, financed, and supported a revolution in Panama that overthrew the non-cooperating government and installed one that agreed with the US's terms 1914 the Panama Canal opened

The Iron-Fisted Neighbor

The Panama Canal

Taft and Dollar New president Taft furthered the US's economic interests overseas but with little regard for world stability, ex. secretary of state Philander C. Knox aggressively extended investments in Diplomacy undeveloped regions (dollar diplomacy) An example of dollar diplomacy occurred in Nicaragua when 1909 the US helped the rebelling faction gain power, then offered the new government substational loans, then 1911

defended that government against another insurrection Diplomacy and Morality New president Woodrow Wilson had relatively little experience in international affairs Wilson was in some approaches similar to Roosevelt and Taft; occupied the uncooperative Dominican Republic, occupied the unstable Haiti, bought the Danish West Indies from Denmark (renamed the Virgin Islands) to keep Germany from getting them, and signed a treaty with Nicaragua that gave the US exclusive canal-building rights and the right to intervene in Nicaraguan affairs But Wilson also differed from the previous presidents, as seen by his dealings with Mexico: Corrupt Mexican dictator Porfirio Diaz had allowed American economic presence in Mexico, but 1910 was overthrown by popular leader Francisco Madero who was hostile to US business So 1913 the US encouraged reactionary general Victoriano Huerta to depose Madero, but new president Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's government because it murdered Madero At first Wilson hoped to end the regime by simply refusing to recognize it, but ended up openly intervening because October 1913 Huerta established a full military dictatorship, and April 1914 Huerta's officers refused to apologize for briefly arresting American sailors from the U.S.S. Dolphin; wanted, but did not get, bloodless intervention August 1914 the rebel Mexican forces under Venustiano Carranza captured Mexico City and forced Huerta to flee But Carranzo refused to accept American guidelines for creating a new government, so Wilson had considered supporting lieutenant Pancho Villa's bid for power, but October 1915 he granted preliminary recognition to the Carranza government Wilson abandoned Villa after his military position deteriorated, so 1916 Villa retaliated and invaded New Mexico with his bandits; the US force's unfruitful but bloody pursuit of Villa heightened tensions with Mexico But Wilson withdrew US troops at the last minute, and March 1917 officially recognized Carranza's regime