CHAPTER I GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITION OF KANYAKUAMRI DISTRICT

Introduction
Kanyakumari District, the smallest District in Tamil Nadu is a southern most District of India with its headquarters at Nagercoil 1. The District lies between 77o05 and 77o036 and 4o03 and 8o35 of the northern latitudes with well defined boundaries 2. The first available evidence about Kanyakumari is found in Tritiya Upanishad which belongs to 6th century B.C.It gives information about Kanyakumari and its physical features3.Periplus of Erythreansea, a work from I century A. D also mentions the existence of Cape Comorin which was once a part of Chera kingdom 4. The total area of Tamilnadu is 130, 058 sq. kms. Kanyakumari District occupies 1684 sq.kms. It is 1.2 9% of the total area of Tamil nadu5. The Kanyakumari District was a part of the ancient Travancore state. The Malayalam literary works refer to this area as Venad, Nanjilnadu and Edanadu 6.After Indias independendance linguistic groups in several places and provinces of India carried on agitation for the re-organisation of states on the basis of language 7. On 29th December 1952 the Government of India appointed the states re organisation Commission 8. On the basis of report on 1st November 1956 the four Southern most taluks of Travancore state such as Thovala, Agasteeswaram, Kalkulam and Vilavancode were taken out of Trivandrum District of Travancore Cochin province of state. These four taluks formed the modern Kanyakumari District. Gonvenor of Madras accepted this Re-organization. The integration of Tamil speaking areas with Madras state happened during the congress ministry headed by Kamaraj. The newly organized state of Kerala came into existence on 1st November 19569.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Kanya kumari District statistcs (2002-2003) P.1 M. Gopalakrishnan Kanya Kumari District Gazatteer, Madras, 1981, P.5 Narayanavalli, Tritiya upanishad, Madras, 1981, P. K.N. Neelakantasastri Foreign notes of south India from Megastenese to Malman, Madras 1931P.5 M. Gopalakrishnan OP. Cit, P.5. I.H.Hacker, Hundrad years in Travancore (1806-1906) london, 1902, P.12 Report on the state Re organization commission, 1955, p.1 Ibid File No: 4012 Dated 31.10.1956 Revenue section, Madras Archives Egmore 8`

The District derived its name from goddess Kumari Bhagavathi Amman to whom the temple is dedicated10. The famous virgin temple is situated in the Southern most tip of the subcontinent11. The word Kanyakumari consists of two parts Kanni and Kumari and both bears the same meaning virgin. Kanyakumari District is in triangular shape. It is the end of the Indian peninsula surrounded by Arabian Sea, in the West, Bay of Bengal in the East and Indian ocean in the South. Kanyakumari District was a part of ancient Travancore .Even though it is a small District in TamilNadu. The density of population is high next to Chennai. The thickly populated areas in the District are Nagercoil, Thuckala, Marthandam and Thiruvattar12. According to the census report of 2001 the population is 17, 20, 250 Kalkulam Taluk in the first place. Vilavancode comes next to Kalkulam. Agasteeswaram and Thovala take their place respectively The District is divided into four taluks for purpose of revenue development and administration. There are also four Muncipal towns. Nagercoil, Kuzhithurai, Padmanabhapuram and Colachal. For the purpose of administration, the district has been divided into 9 community Development blocks, 224 village Panchayats 64 town panchayats and one town Ship13. The four taluks of Kanyakumari District have cultural heritage and religious legacy. The author of periplus of the Erythrean sea visited this region in 78 A.D14. Thovala Taluk with its head quarters at Bhoothapandi is located nearly western ghats of Mahendragiri. Azhakia Pandipuram was the regional capital of medival Pandyas. It is another important place in this taluk Aramboly is an outlet, mountain pass from Kanyakumari to other Districts of TamilNadu15. Kalkulam, with its headquarters at Thuckala has historical heritage Mandakkad is the wellknown religious centre in this taluk which is famous for the annual festival of this temple. There is a Church in the earliest capital of erst while Travancore state, Thiruvithancode was the capital of Venattu Adikal. Indian rare earth limited factory
10 11 12 13 14

M. Immanuel, The Dravidian line ages, Nagercoil 2002 p.106 M.Gopalakrishnan, Kanyakumari District Gazateer Madras- 1981 P. 11 S.G. Barker, Report of Industrial survey of Travancore, Trivandrum 1937, p.207. District Credit plan, Madras 1978 p.7 N. Muhammed Husain, Padmanabhapuram through ages (A thesis from Madura Kamaraj University) 1994. p.19 Ibid

15

of Government of India is situated at Manavalakkuruchi 16. Pechippara and Perunchani dams are the main water reservoirs. Muttom is noted for the light house17. Vilavancode Taluk has its head quarters at Kuzhithurai. There is a historically famous Jain temple at Chitharal. A well known beach Thengappattanam is situated in this Taluk. It is 7k.m away from Kuzhithurai. Kuzhithura is situated in the highways of Trivandrum Nagercoil route. Vavubali very famous in Kuzhithurai is celebrated once in a year in the month of July. It is the festival of harvest. Geographical location. Mountains and Hills The mountaneous region of Kanyakumari District is very extensive. The mountains are of different elevation climate and vegetation 18. The important mountains and hills are Kattamalai, Velimalai and Thadagamalai. There is no big mountain in this district, However there are small mountains in the northern and eastern sides. Maruthuvamalai is situated in the National Highway of Kalkulam taluk. It contains a number of medicinal herbs. So this mountain is full of medicinal herbs. Teak, blackwood, ebony and vengai are found abundantly in the Mahendragiri mountain area 19. Maruthuvamalai has its height 440 feet. Another famous mountain in this District is Mahendragiri and its height is 5427 feet20. The western ghats run parallel to the west coast and found National Frontier in stretching towards East upto Aramboly in the South. The hilly regions are really extensive. The western ghats around this district are being the birth place for the most of the rivers of the District. Mahendragiri and Agasthyarkudam are the most important peaks in the western ghats of Kanyakumari District. However among them Velimala in the Kalkulam taluk and Maruthuvamala in the Agasteeswaram taluks are isolated hills 21. The cliffs add to the natural beauty of the District. Passes The famous Aramboly pass is located in this District at a distance of 15 kms. from Nagercoil to
16 17 18 19 20 21

Aralvaymozhi (Aramboly).

The height of the Western ghats is

N. Muhammed Husian op.cit, p.20 Ibid S.A. Rama Natha Iyer, History of Travancore, Madrass, 1981 p.21 Husain op.cit p.5 Pillai K.. A Monograph, The Suchindram Temple, Madras 1952, p.2 Ibid P.9

diminished considerably they end at Aramboly. This serves as a good pass between Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli districts. Being strategically important place, this pass has played a great in the military history of Travancore 22. The Aramboly pass is the shortcut to Nedumangad of Kerala. Hence it is a connecting link between Tirunelveli and kerala. Rivers Rivers are the important sources of irrigation in kanyakuamri District. Kanyakumari District has many rivers such as Thampravarani and Palayar. The only major river in this District is Thambaravarni other wise known as Kuzhithurai river locally. The two main tributaries of this river are Kodayar and Paraliyar 23. The Pazhayar is southernmost river of India. Number of streams, which raised from western ghats, flow through various parts of the District and joined with pazhayar. The water of these rivers is used for irrigation facilities24. The Kodayar rises from Moolatchal mountains in the southern part of Muthukuzhivayal plateau. The topography of western ghats and abundance of rainfall make pazhayar river more or less full often there is flood during the rainy season. The Kodayar river flows at Pechipparai and its water diverted by a channel and join the paraliyar at Ponmanai from where the combined water of two rivers are led by net work of channels to irrigate the paddy fields in and around Agasteeswaram taluk. The main tributaries or Kodayar are Chittar I and Chittar II. The origin of these rivers are western ghats and it confluences with Arabian sea near Thengappattanam. The paraliyar originate from the north of Mahendragiri peak and flows through Aruvikkarai and Thiruvattar and it finally merged with Tambravarani river25. The Vadaseri river popularly known as Paraliyar is one of the most important rivers in the District. Many small streams combine to form this river. This river flows through the Taluks of Thovala and Agasteeswaram and ends at Manakudi near Kanyakuamri Valliar is a small river originates near Asambu hill and passes through Kalkulam taluk and finally merged with Arabian sea. Apart from the above rivers, there are small rivers namely ponnivaikkal, big tanks at Therur, Azhakia Pandipuram, Parakkai, Puthery and Thazhakudy are also found in

22 23

Kanyakumari Mavattam, Pothuvibaram Government of Tamil Nadu. Madras 1988 p.2 Srikumaran Nair.S. Irrigation source in Kanyakuamri District, an article published in the Arinjar AnnaCollege, Annual magazine 1987 p.8. Imperial Gazatteer of India Vol. I. New Delhi, 1979 p.402 Leela Tamilvanan, Kanyakumari Mavattam (Tamil) Madras, 1986, p.28.

24 25

the District26.

These rivers have added fertility and beauty to the District. In order to

store water a dam was constructed at Ponmanai in 1953 above the rivers.

Dams
Kanyakumari District has sufficient dam such as Pechippara, Perunchani, Chittar I and Chittar II. These dams were constructed by Travancore ruler Srimooalm Tirunal27. Important Places Kanyakumari Kanyakumari is the Southern most tip of Indian peninsula. It has a total area of 11.08 square miles. In Kanyakumari has many shopping centres and coffee shops, hotels are existed here and Crafts items are sold here. This place is an important pilgrim tourist centre of India. Nagercoil Nagercoil is the Southern most large town and head quarters of the District. It has an area of 480 square miles. It consisted of places like Vadiveswaram, Ozhukinasery, Kottar and Vadasery. Nagercoil owes much its present position and importance due to the effort of Christian Missionaries.They started schools, hospitals, seminaries for the improvement of town. The oldest news paper in Travancore named Travancore times started from here. Lace industry was Introduced by Christian Missionary Mrs. Mault in 19th century28. The lace of this area had a great demand . Neyoor It is a village in Kalkulam taluk. It has a reputed hospital of C.S.I Diocese. It was founded in 1852 and it has become the chief centre of medical activities of London Missionary Society29. It has a market called Monday market. vegetables fruits and fish. It is famous for the

Nanjinad Nanjinad comprised of Thovala and Agasteeswaram, the two southern most taluks of the state. The name is emerged out of paddy fields from the area. The paddy
26 27 28 29

Ibid Husain op.cit p.6 S. Hecter. The History of Christian Missionaries of South Travancore, 1965 p.41 Ibid

fields of this region covering nearly 55,000 acres are irrigated by Kothayar irrigation projects. Tamil is the mother tongue of majority inhabitants. The chief cultivation of this area is irrigated by Kothayar irrigation projects. Tamil is the mother tongue of majority inhabitants. Jaggery making, gardening, handloom weaving , mat weaving and pottery are common cottage industries The majority of the lands were owned by land lords. It supplied rice to all area of Travancore. From the early period the people of Nanjilnad enjoyed the sympathy of Travancore rulers30. Suchindrum People believed that Indra took bath and got purification from Suchindrum. So the name is called as Suchindrum. In the month of Dhanu a car festival is conducted by temple authorities a large crowd attracting here in Suchindrum31. Padmanabhapuram It is the historical town with a mile north of Udayagiri fort.It is famous for paddy fields and coconut plantations. It was the capital of Travancore state once. Here a famous palace is existing. The wall of the palace is decorated with pictures. The palace has a Sthanumalaya perumal temple. Thamarakkulam It is a village in Agasteeswaram taluk, with an area of 6.21 square miles. Palayar flows through Tamarakkulam and reaches at Manakudi lake. It is full of paddy fields and coconut plantations32. Thengappattanam This was ancient extensive commercial village and sea port in Vilavancode Taluk, It is situated six miles west of Kuzhithurai. It is on the bank of Tampravarni and it is enolowed with many extensive coconut grooves. Formerly timber was floated down from the forest to interior parts of the region through this river 33. It is a well known beach attracting tourists. Thiruvattar It is a beautiful village in Kalkulam Taluk. It is situated at the bank of Thampravarni. Here a popular temple is dedicated to Adikesava perumal, which is one of
30 31 32 33

Ibid p.46 Ibid Ibid Ibid

the famous temples in South India. The temple has been decorated with pictures. It contains fact regarding early history of the country. There is a market at Attoor in the vicnity of Thiruvattar. Tapioco, jack, mango, pine apple etc. are sold here by the agriculturists34. Thiruvithamcode It is a village in Kalkulam Taluk, situated in the South west of Padmanabhapuram. The name derived from Srivalumcode which means goddess of prosperity resides. Here the ruins of an old palace are found. Mostly people are merchants in this area. They had trade with other states. A church from this place is considered as one of the old churches in India. Marthandam It is a suburb municipal town of Kuzhithura. This place has loomed into importance recently due to the rural construction of work organized by local YMCA. It is also a London Mission centre. Many schools, hospitals, are located here. A famous market is also here. In this market vegetables, fruits and varieties of fish are the main items of trade35. Mulakumoodu It is a village in Kalkulam Taluk. It is situated on the western side of Thuckalai. There is a tile factory at this place. This area is a Christian Centre and has an old Convent with orphanage attached to it36. Kaliyakkavila It is the border area to Kerala state. It is situated two miles South west of Kuzhithura in Vilavancode Taluk. An important public market functions here on Mondays and Thursdays. The bulls are sold here at Padanthalumoodu in the outskirts of Kaliyakkavila. Kaliyakkavilai is famous for fish trade.

Alakiapandipuram This is a small village in Thovala taluk, about ten miles of north of Nagercoil, on the road leading to Mahendragiri. There is a rock cut temple here which is believed to be more than 1200 years old. The temple contains inscriptions of Chola and other
34 35 36

Ibid Ibid Ibid p.64

kings. These inscriptions speak about Muthaliyars, a dynasty and also the inscriptions reveal their capital was Alakiapandipuram. This place was a busy trade centre during the reign of cholas37. Eraniel Town Eraniel is a place in Kalkulam taluk having an area of 4.72 sq.miles. It is a famous weaving centre. Weavers form the majority of the population. Agriculture and manufacture of jaggery are the other important occupations of the in habitants38. Kadiappattanam It has a sea-coast in Kalkuklam Taluk 5 miles South-East of Eraniel. It was one of the Sea-ports. A light house was erected at muttom, the neighbouring coastal hamlet for the guidance of mariners. The port however dwindled into unimportance after inter portal convention. There is a Roman Catholic Church in this locality. Here one crocodile rock existed on the sea39. Kadiappattanam was famous for fishing. The merchants from other areas came here for the purchase of fish. Kaliyal It is a hilly area in Vilavanode taluk, having an area of 67.18 sq.km including the hills. It is situated 7 miles north east of Kuzhithurai and 5 mile west of Kodayar 40. Kaliyal is famous for rubber estates. Kottar It is a suburb of Nagercoil in Agasteeswaram taluk. It is situated on the main road from Trivandrum to Cape Comorin. It has been a trading centre from very early days of Chola and Pandya. It is a busy centre for trade. The inhabitants are weavers, money changers, goldsmiths and black smiths. It is full of narrow crowd streets with number of shops. There is a weaving colony and fine cloths texture manufactured here have been appreciated and admired in the foreign countries. A Police station, A magistrate court and a school are important institutions in this place 41. St Xaviers church at Kottar is very famous among the pilgrims. Mahendragiri

37 38 39 40 41

N. Muhammed Husain op.cit.p.25 T.K. Velupillai Vol. IV. Op.cit.p.619 Ibid p.628 Ibid p.629 Ibid p.629

This is the southern most peak in Travancore ghats with an elevation of 5370 ft. It is in Agasteeswaram taluk. Now it is a centre for ISRO station 42. This place is famous for tea estates. Manakudi It is a coastal village. The palayar mingles with Arabian sea in Manakudi. It is in Agasteeswaram taluk. It is located between the backwater and sea. Many salt pans are found in this area43. Mailadi It is a village in Agasteeswaram taluk, Here the first protestant church was started by Ringle Taubc in 181044. The place is notable for missionary works. There is an important market in this place. Vegetables, paddy and fruits are sold here.

Channels
In Kanyakumari District the main charnels are pandyankal, Thovala charnel and Ananda Victoria Marthandavarman (AVM) canal. These channels mainly work for fertility and fecundity of this region. Divisions of the District into sub region Kanyakumari District is divided into three homogenous sub regions, based on physio geographic and socio economic factors. Subregion I The sub region consists of Thovala block of Thovala taluk, Agasteeswaram and Rajakkamangalam block of Agsteeswaram taluk. The climate in this region is generally hot and the average rainfall is 1,120mm. The soil is mostly red loam. The major crops in this area are paddy tapiaco and coconut. This sub-region is however better developed in industries than sub region II. First and Second spinning mills are situated here and this area surrounds Nagercoil Muncipality where there are cluster on of small industries. A chain of roads of 593 kms.it has been provided. Three rivers are flowing to a length of 37.5 kms45. Subregion II This area consists of Thuckalay, Thiruvattar and Kurunthancode blocks in Kalkulam taluk. The climate is cool and average rainfall is 1680 mm. The soil is red loam. The
42 43 44 45

Ibid p.634 Ibid Ibid p634 District plan, KK.Dt, Government of Tamil nadu, 1978, Madras p.1

major crops grown in the area paddy, tapioca, coconut, palmyra and fruit trees. The area is industrially backward. The total length of the roads passing this region is 50 kms. Five rivers flow to a length of 60kms46. Sub region -III The area consists of Melpuram, Killiyoor blocks of Vilavancode Taluk. The climate is cool and annual rainfall is 1550mm. The soils are red loam. The majority crops grown in this area are paddy, coconut, palmyra and fruit trees. The area also industrially backward. The total length of the roads are 39 kms. The rivers run in this area for the a distance 14 kms47. Plateaus and Plains The north west part of this District is mountaneous one. The south west part of this region is a fertile plateau 48. The western ghats are situated in the north east part of this District. The mountainous terrain in the north and eastern portion of the District is a vast plateau land in the midst of elevated hill tops. The slopes of the hills are generally precipitous some of them are spread out, There are a number of plantations in this region49. The District is famous for jack, mango, and plantains.The middle part of the District particularly Agasteeswaram taluk, is plain land suitable for cultivation. In fact the traditional name of taluk is Agasteeswaram50. Rock and Minerals . The District has important minerals available in the District such as lime stones, deposits are in Thovala and Agasteeswaram blocks. Granite is available in Thiruvattar, Thuckala and Kurunthancode and Agasteeswaram blocks51. The Vilavancode taluk has a deposit of mica 52. Manavalakkurichi has a large deposit of rare minerals from the sand are of that place. Thorium is the important mineral found here. It is used in atomic plant. The clay of the District has a good content of granite deposits53.
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

Ibid p.2 Ibid M. Gopala Krishnan op.cit p.5 Ibid p.4 Ibid Credit plan op.cit , p.7 T.K.Velupilla, Travancore state manual vol VI, TVM, 1906, p.50 Ibid

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Flora and Fauna The special characterstics of this District are the flora and fauna diversity, beauty and economic value. The flora combines the charresteristics features of Kerala and eastern coast. The sea coast with it Sandy, Alluvial soil is suited for cultivation of Coconut palm54. In the northern and eastern part of the District, immense growth of palmyra trees, tamarined tree, Mango tree etc. Portia and banyan tree are seen everywhere in the District with abundance in Agasteeswaram and Thovala taluks. The trees like goose berry, coconut rubber, pepper, supporta, teakwood etc. also found here. There are fifty four varieties of Mango trees, three varieties of guava trees in the interior. Plantain and tapiaca of different varieties are cultivated on a large scale except in the sand tract along the sea coast55. All type of vegetables, especially brinjal, tomato, chilly ladys finger, drumstick etc. are also found in the District. Cotton is cultivated in and around Aralvaymozhi and Thovalai. Thovala is also famous for different varieties of flowers like jasmine, pavizhamalli. From Thovala a large quantity of flowers including all varieities are exported to neighbouring state. The Flora of this division is highly good. There is a variation on nature of vegetation. Flora of the Cape Comorin The vegetation is typically xerophytic. Association of many trees including acacia vegetation consisting of number of typical xerophytic herbs including grasses as perots, eragrostis, clors and elusive.

Fauna The fauna of the District belonging to the great Indo Malay oriental region. The fauna is equal to hilly regions56. The faura of the District may be divided in to two division. 1. The Low country from the north as for as Nagercoil 2. The low country south of Nagercoil.
54 55 56

Nagam Aiya op.cit, .123 T.K. Velupillai Vol 3. Op.cit.P.586 M. Gopalakrishnan, op.cit p.27

11

The fauna of this division resembles in general that of the east coast loris gracilis is fairly common in the low land of Agasteeswaram taluk. Panthon (felis paradus)is found in this district. In and around Kanyakumari are found the while throated munia, the grey patridge the small while sevengre culture the little brown clove, the Indian ring dove, brown headed gull and palm swift. There are also several species of darco, wild animal like elephant, tiger, monkey etc. found in the forest. Crows, green parrots and other ordinary varieties are found. This District is notable for special domestication of cattle like cows, buffallows, goats and sheep. As per annual report, Kanyakumari in the year 1998, there are 168791 cows and 85682 buffaloes and sheep in the District57. Trees Varieties of tree available in this District. Teak This is called as king of woods as it is most highly priced under favourable circumstances and perhaps the most useful timber trees of India. It generally grows to the height of 80 to 100 feet. It grows in open forest and every nook and corrner of the District. Its strength and durability are well known for house building and for furniture58. Anjili (Jungle jack) The lofty and hard some tree(height 100 150 feet) are grown in District forest. It is also an economically profitable tree. It grows very rapidly on yellow loam with a rainfall exceeding 60 inches, reaching it manufacturing 25 to 4 inches its wood is bright yellow turning to brown. The ark yields brown and fruit is edible. The tree is good for making furniture and building construction. Jack This is a valuable fruit and timber is much planted and grows largely all over the District. It grows best in rich red soil with a rainfall of not less than 50 inches. It lives more than 200 years. It is cultivated in low lands for fruits and along the roads for shadow. It attains a height about 80 -100 feet with thick spreading branches. The green fruits are used in curries. It is a tree for building construction59. Mango tree
57 58 59

Kanyakumari Mavattam Pothuvibaran, 1988 Op.citp.19 Nagam Aiya V. Vol.IV Op.cit.p.31 Ibid p.86

12

It is also economically valuable tree. This tree found all over the District. In the low elevation much planted. Its flowering season is January. Its fruit ripes in May to July. It is used to make canoes it beans the action of salt water well 60. It gives annual income to the people. Cotton tree This large and stately tree with very large and showy flowers. Its wood is whitish course grained and used for floating boats. So it is used for making canoes. Cotton or wool is used for stuffing pillows cushion c. It is also an income giving tree. Silk worms make its leaves as food. Large honey bee makes it nest safely in this tree61. Tamarind It is planted largely for its fruits. Its fruits has a high market, it has grown in forest and in villages. The timber which is hard, heavy and durable, is converted to many useful purposes, in building, for mills, it has also medicinal use. The Laurel It is another beautiful tree common on the banks of river. Its seed is used for making oils. It has a market value. Cashew nut It originally belongs to west Indies. Now it is common all over India. Two kinds of oils can be prepared from hard fruits. The wood is used for fuel. It has a market value and cashew industries flourish in this District.

Bamboo The Bamboo is the gigantic grass. It has seven varieties. It is used for making flute and ladder etc. So it has a marketing among the people. Reed It can be found throughout the District. Mostly this shrubs grow in forests. It is using for thatching huts, freeing basket making. It is used as a fibre62. The Government took efforts to cultivate teak trees in an area of 800 acres and a match factory in this District. A big area in the form this District is alloted for beedi
60 61 62

Ibid p.86 Ibid Ibid

13

cultivation63.

The Forest Department has a Timber Dept. at Nagercoil and many other

saw mills throughout the district. A portion of the available wood is utilized for wooden electrical accessories furniture and construction materials. Most of portion of woods like jungle jack and teak are sent to outside of the District. Medicinal trees and plants. The number of medicinal plants are seen in this district. It is used in medicines this plants have economic value. The native doctors use very large variety shrubs as medicine. Some trees are more poisonous Kanjiram or Yetinarum comes first. It is middle size tree. It is also available in the District. The seeds of this trees are most values in native and European medicines and well known for clearing muddy water. It is also used for remedy for diabates. Nirmuli It is a plant commonly by the side of paddy fields. This plant is used for curing many diseases. Kuppameni It is also a medicinal plant which is found throughout the District. It is a medicine for many diseases especially for children64. Elumichai (Lemon Plant) Lime juice is much used in the medicine by native practitioners. It is used as a drink. This fruit is used as a vegetable for making pickles.

Veliparuthi This plant is used not only for milky juice but also for medicine. The juice of this leaves mixed with chunam is applied extremely in rheumantic swelling of limbs65. Orilatamara The leaves and tender stalks and are used as decotion and electuary. It has a marketing for medicine. It is also mixed with oil as cooling liment for head Thottavadi (Touch me not) This is a common sensitive plant. It is mixed with gingerly for many disease. Kariveppila (Bay leaf)
63 64 65

Kanyakumari mavatta, Pothuvibaram op.cit p.2 Nagam Aiya.V. Vol. I Op.cit. p.99 Ibid p.103

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It is used for making curry as well as medicinal use. It has a high marketing. Its another uses making oil to the growing of hair, some other disease cured by this bay leaf. Nelli (Gooseberry) This is one of the common trees in the District. This is also used for making pickles. It has also demand among the people. It it is mixed with honey it will cure many disease66. Ginger It can rarely be found in the District. It has good demand among the people. It is used for pickles and many other side dishes. Especially it is used for curing fever and stomachache problems67. Flowering and ornamental plants Palsa or Povarasu This is a middle sized tree. Its flower has a very stricking appearance bright scarlet coralas. Saralkonnai (Cassia fistula) This is easily recognised. It is found all over the District. Its flowers are very attractive one. Sankupushpam (Clitroealerkerandata) This is a common creeper with pretty blue or white flowers. It has medicinal use. It can be found in garden68. Muraunga (Erythrira indica) A small tree with scarlet flowers much growing in this area. It has good demand among the people. It is used for support of betel vines and serving as an excellent hedge plane. It is used for all kind of side dishes. Kashurimanjal (Curcumamatica) An ornamental beautiful plant is found in abundance in the District forest with flowers. It is a medicine. It has a good market among the people. Kattumallika (Jasminun agastifolium) The flowers of this twining shrub are large we can be found this plant in forest and nearer places. It is used for medicine.
66 67 68

Ibid p.110. Ibid Ibid

15

Kattujiraka mulla (Jasmiminum histum) This is a fine looking plant and very desirable in gardens in gardens from its white fragrant flowers. It is found in gardens. Lotus The large white or rose coloured flowers lotus is common in tanks and ponds of the part of the District. It has a high market. Parijatham or Pavizhamalli The bright and red flowers of this small tree give very lovely and attractive appearance, especially in the evening and nights. It gives very delicious fragrance.

Forests
Kanyakumari District has a number of wild animals found in this forest. The temperature and the land in this District is favourable for the growth of valuable trees in the forest namely teak wood, black wood, rose wood, Vengai, ebony bamboo, canes, reed and other tress in an area of 800 acres and match wood in 600 acres 69. The forest also contains trees like sillam, arpisi, it using for making boats. Rubber trees are growing plenty in the forest. The important forest products of this District are honey, wax, mango, cashew, palmyrah etc. A number of cashew, Cardamoms estates are found in the hills at Thovala and Kalkulam taluks. The forest is under the control of forest department. The forest has shrubs, bushes decidous species and grass46. There is a reserved forest which includes areas of 44,799 hectres. An extent area 3605 hectres unclassed forests 19,000 hectre found here70. Most of the forests area are of numerous streams and rivers. The jungles have 6000 species of gigantic timber tree and 3500 other plants. Many of which have economic value. Plantations of cardamom and tea are seen in the higher elevation, ginger, turmeric, flourish in the lower elevation71.

Southern tropical dry deciduous forests

69 4 70 71

Kanyakumari Mavattam Pothuvibaram, Government of TamilNadu, madras, 1988 p.2 Ibid . p. 50 Ibid

16

The forest is ranging from an altitude or 200 to 600 mm. Stretching in Keerippara, Mangalomottai, (lower Kodayar) Maruphuparu near Kulasekharam 72. Alakiapandipuram range and Kuttiyar region of Pechippara are located here. Some areas were cleared in this region for plantation by forest department. Southern tropical most decidous forests. These forests can be found Kilayirumala, Balamore and Vellachithode at lower Kodayar. This forest gives dense appearance. Many variety timbers can be seen in the forest. In this region there are jack tree, mango tree tamarind, anjili (jungle jack), cashew and other similar trees. Plantain topes and tapioca fields of different varieties found here73. Wild animals The District is rich in wild life. The hilly forests of the district exhibit varieties of wild life in the District. Spotted deer and barking deer are comparitively rare. Jackals, mangoose, hare are found in the District74. Deer Deer are represented by four species the sambur (cervus unicolor) found all elevations where there is a forest. Spotted deer also are found in the District. Domestic animals There are many domestic animals like cow, bull buffaloes etc. are common in the District. Horses are kept in important towns75. Birds There are many birds in the District. Kaliyal pakuthi in Vilavancode Taluk. Sparrow, lark, kingfisher, bulbul, Madras bush lark wood pecker are the important birds in the District. It added beauty to the District and it attracted the tourist 76. Through domestication of these birds people get income. Mammals
72 73 74 75 76

Some people domesticated doves,

sparrows etc. They give much profit to the owners. Various species of parrots are found in

K.K. Dt Gazatter Op.cit p.25 Ibid M. Gopalakrishnan op.cit p.27 Nagam Aiya Vol. IV op.cit.p.591 T. K. Velupillia Vol. IV op. cit. p. 527

17

There is limited mammals peculiar in the District. Toque monkey, mangoose (Herbts) are seen in the District. There are species of monkey and toque monkey are found in the low elevation. The other two species, the lion tailed monkey and the Nilgirilangur which are found in the elevation 200 feet. Tigers are not uncommon in the forests. The jungle cat is common in low country and in villages77. Insectivores The next group of mammals Muskarat one among the insectivores are found throughout the District. Bats, Squirrels, are another mammals. Bat are grey in colour. It can found throughout the district. Squirrel is another mammal in this district. This added more beauty to the fauna of the District78. Milagiri wild goat It is rarely found in the district on hilly elevations. It can be found grassy slopes and perciptous rocks79. Natural divisions, elevations, configuration The shape of the District may approximate a rhombus through all its side full of turn curves. The promonotary of Kanyakumari is in the south point of the District. The sea shore which is the southern border of the District. The sea shore which is the southern border of the District and it runs from this point. It some what general course in the direction becomes more marked bay in Kadiappattanam. The District is divided into three natural divisions as 1) A mountains terrain which is the north eastern portion of the District. It includes the northern ports of Vilavancode and Kalkulam taluks. This terrain has a number of admirable hilltops it is the continuation of laftier mountain range in the north80. 2) The natural division which is fertile sea coast on the South eastern southern and south western parts of the district this low land is though here there are few slightly elevated patches of the cliff.

77 78 79 80

Ibid p.121 Ibid p.123 Ibid M. Gopalakrishnan op.cit. p.3

18

3) The third division is consisting of the undulating villages and the plains between the mountain terrain and the sea-coast. Also there are few streams in this region 81. In general the district gently towards west. In the northern mountains range of the District is situated very beautiful. Sanatarium of Muthukuzivayal (1374 ms) south peermala only here the range of any signification breath82. Maruthuvamalai (37m) about 7kms is in the North West of Kanyakumari. The Velimala in the Kulasekharam and the Maruthuvamala in the Agasteesaram taluk are known for important isolated hills. Tadakamala reserved forests Maruthathoor G.T.S. (956m) is the border of Thovala and Kalkulam taluks, South Velimala reserved forests. The differences in attitudes and climate of hilly tract of the district have made the vegetation area greatly varied with characteristic representation types of land. The highest hill in the district is Mahendragiri (105m) in Thovala taluk. Botanical divisions A various type of Nerophytic flora is seen on the side of hills range of the District. It is dominated by large grasses towards top and shrubby forms at the base of prominent grasses are species of Andropegn (Ramachan) Panicium (inchipul) lemon grass and fodder grass. Large clumbs of bamboo and dense growth of Ochlandran (Eral) belonging to the bamboo family which are found here in abundance. In low lands and the lands and the valley sheltered by the hill ridges, paddy the main food crop is grown,tapioca is the second important food crop cultivated mostly in Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks. These are extensive palmyrah topes in the plains in the Kalkulam and Vilavancode Taluk and a lesser scale in Agastteswaram and Thovala taluks. In Thengappattinam have beautiful cocnut grooves, the sandy sea borders along with the bank rivers, bank and estuaries Jungle jack, Portia tree, tamerined, laurel, cashewnut are important trees in the region83. Among the trees producing edible fruits the common are mango, jack fruit, casterdapple, different varieties of plantains, pine apple, Cashewnut, guava papaya and bread jack fruit. The mangoes and jack fruits are grown even in the villages. Agasteeswaram taluk is noted for excellent bananas, aracanut is gorwn in Kalkulam and Thovala taluks. A large varieties medicinal plants are grown here.

81 82 83

Ibid Ibid p.4 M. Gopalakrishnan op.cit p.15

19

Cardamum, black pepper, turmeric, chillies, tamerinad, garlic, corianders cumin seed, clove, mustered are important species grows in the hilly areas 84. Among the turberous plants which yield edible roots, varieties worth mentioning are sweet potatoe, arrow root and other edible items. The hedges are composed of variety of thorony succlet shrubs such as screwpine, prickly pear jetropha (Kattavanakku) casurina (Kattadi) Sessbania (agattu) eithrine (mullamkeerai) are also hedge plant. The important plants showy or scented flower like hena, jasmine, are cultivatated in gardens. In most of the tanks lotus and water lilly are growing. The vegetation in the cape area is typically xerophytic associations of acacia plantations and other trees found here. All sea weeds grow in the sea rocks and many other algaes found here. Grassy swords At the higher elevation of Mutnukuzivayal and upper Kodayar this type of grass land are grown. The grasses like chrysopogen are available in this region. The District is one of the botanically rich areas of peninsular India. The richness and diversity of these region are due to the variation in this elevation from the level about 1800 meter tropical climate, heavy rainfall and mountainous configuration. Vast forest areas have been cleared in Keeriparai, Pechippara, Perunchani and regions for raising rubber plantations85 which are further extended. It is every essential to protect the rich flora of the District. Due to the scandy rainfall even the ordinary hardy mesophytic shrubs do not thrive well. The hillocks are mostly clothed with low growing species especially grasses and some thorny shrubs. The variety of procumbent plant is greater and they represent many families86. Towards the east area services of hill range varying in the height from 800 to 1500 ft the side of which show a different type of xerophytic flora dominated by the large grasses are towards top and shrubby forms at base. The shrubby forms are constituted by species of phoenix which of ten from pure association at the foot of the same hills. In the valleys sheltered by hill ridges are composed of small trees.
84 85 86

Ibid p.17 Ibid p.26 T.K. Velupillai Vol. III Op.cit.p.587

20

Climate The District has a normal and pleasant climate. The factors that influences this climatic condition are the South West and North East monsoons and seas in three sides and the Western ghats on the other side87.Extreme temperature is seldom experienced in lowland portion. On the mountain ranges there is a cool climate88. The summer begins in the month of March and ends in May .It is followed by West monsoon which starts in June and ends in September. The summer From March to May is followed by South West monsoon. From March to May temperature is almost by 33oC. The nights are cool except summer season 89. The lowest temperature is recorded in the months of November to January. Next to Nilgiris, this District received highest rainfall in TamilNadu. From June to September the District experiences Monsoon. In the Remaining months there is clear bright weather generally. Humidity Humidity is highly through out the District. January to March is the driest part of the year the relative humidites in afternoons90.

Ground Water potential: As the District received good rain fall, it has good canal irrgation facillites. The farmers Rainfall The District receives a good rainfall spreading (October to December). throughout the year. The District is benefited by South West monsoon (June to September) and North East monsoon . The forest areas in the northern part of Melpuram and Thiruvattar blocks received highest rainfall of 200mm. Agasteeswaram and Thovalai blocks less than 100 mm. Major parts of this District get rain fall 100 mm to 200 mm 92.
87 88 89 90 91 92

have been

struggling much for ground water, since it is expensive when

compared to low price canal water 91.

Nagam Aiya.Y. Op.cit Vol.p.68. T.K. Velupillai Op.cit vol.IV p.590 District Gazatteer op.cit, p.38 M. Gopalakrishnan Op.cit p.37 Credit plan op.cit, p.4 Credit plan op.cit.p.9

21

Another

rain

Shadow

regions

are

Vilavancode,

Agasteeswaram,

Erenial

Rajakkamangalam and Padmanabhapuram. The rain fall of this District when comparing with Tirunelveli District is higher, but lower than the Districts of Kerala. Through out the year except two months the District gets rainfall.The District is endowed with clean drinking water . The South West monsoon and North East monsoon provide pleasant climate93. However the distribution of rainfall throughout the year is very useful for agricultural operation of the Kanyakumari District94. Soil In Kanyakumari District the soil is mostly red in colour. The District has fertile soil throughout the area. Fertile red soil is available in most of the places in this District especially at Thovalai, Maravankudi Irrippu and Ethamozhi. Ilminite sands are found between Lipuram, Vattakkottai and Manavalakurichi along the West Coast. Small deposits of shellime stone occur near Capecomorine and Lipuram 95. The soil in the district is suitable for the cultivation of different crops. Laterite types of soils also occure in the blocks of Thiruvattar, Kurunthancode, Rajakkamangalam and Melpuram. Agasteeswaram and Thovala blocks96. Soils are mostly red loam and lateritic in nature with coastal alluvium in the Western side, The lateritic and red loam soils are poor to medium in fertility and the coastal alluvium is high in fertility. The soils are sandy loam texture. Lime status is nill due to the occurrence of more area under acitic condition. The high acidity prevalent in the District is mainly due to the heavy rain fall97. The soil is black in colour, rich in organic matter, nitrogen and pottash. In the midland, the soil is loam of lateritte origin with admixture gravel and sand. The valleys in the mid land have loamy soil with a larger admixture of sand. The coastal strip is sandy with a pronounced red forroginous consumption98. In Thuckala soil is with the content of nitrogen, potash and lime 99. Paddy is the chief product, tapioca comes next, the District has variety of trees such as mango, jack
93 94 95 96 97 98 99

Mixed type of red and black soil is found in

Milkam Perumal, The truth about Travancore, Madras, 1939 p.3 Husian Op.cit, p.6 Geological Survey of India, Know your District Kanyakumari 1976, pp.78 Credit Plan Op.cit , p.15 I bid P. 17 Second Five year, plan, KK.Dt, Government of Tamil Nadu, Madras 1978, p.15. K.K Dt Gazatteer Op.cit, p.25

22

etc. There are three soil groups in the District Black Soil, mixed type red and alluvial soil, lateretic soil block soil can be found in Thiruvattar, Kurunthancode, Rajakkamangalam, Thuckala and Melpuram Soils are mostly red loam and lateritic in nature with coastal alluvium in Southern side. The lateretic and loam soils are poor to medium high fertility.100 The soils are sandyloam in texture in major area of Kalkulam and Vilavancode. Due to the rain soil in this District is fertile one. Sea coast The sea has been a permanent and decision factoring in the history of Kanyakumari District. The District has 68 km. sea coast. The coast line is regular one. The Kanyakumari coast has attracted foreign traders Europe and Asia from very early days. Kanyakumari has sea in three sides. Cape Comorine is only place in the world one can witness sun rise and sunset101. The sea coast of Kanyakumari, Muttom and Eramianthurai has a projection towards sea. An amount natural port named Collechel is situated here. Manakudi and Kadippattanam are other important sea shores of the District. Changudura and Chothavila are the important beaches of this District.

Winds Winds are generally to moderate with mansoon season. During the period December to February March to November the winds mainly from the north eastly or westly directions. The south west breeze keeps the temperature normal through out day and night102. Agriculture The region from Kanagapuram in the east to Villukari in west from Agasteeswaram, in the South Thadakamala and Velihills in the north is expanded with paddy fields which present a pleasant and attractive greenish appearance during April to June. The coast Kovalam to Colachal the river valley side (the river Valliyaru and Kuzhithurai) covered with coconut groves. In Manakudi estuary region has a wide expanse of coconut belt east ward upto Agasteeswaram and west ward upto

100 101 102

Ibid p. 197 T.K. Somarvel knite and life of India , London p.147.

M. Gopalakrishnan Op.cit. p.5

23

Rajakkamangalam across Ethamozhi103.

Almost river valleys are enriched with coconut

groves. The important food grains rice, millet and ragi are also grown. The land between rivers has massive growth of fruit bearing trees like mangoes, jack and cashew trees except Thovalai. From the month March Cashew season begins jack and Mango fruits flood in the market and selling outlets. Banana and plantain cultivation is expanding and distributed all over the District, plantain cultivation centres area of 12,000 hectares. The plantain varieties like palayamkottai, white varieties of banana, ethan are locally popular. Robesta and Karpuravalli are varieties imported. All varieties of plantains flood the weekly market whole and retail marketing104. Occupational structure According to1971 census nearly half of the workers derive employment from the agriculture. Among the workers women constitute only 10% among them one fourth are working as agricultural labourers.

Category I. Cultivation Agricultural Labourers Live stock, Forestry Fishing , Hunting plantations, orchards and allied activities II. Mining, Quaring Manufacturing, Processing, Servicing and repairs A house hold industry Other house hold industry III Construction Trade and Commerce III. Transport Storage and communication Other services Total
103 104 105

Number of persons 58120 126447 27349 18857 632 18857 9829 2662 9375 42767 350494

Percentage of workers a total workers District State 16.6 31.3 36 30.5 7.8 2.7 5.4 0.2 5.4 8.7 2.8 7.6 2.7 12.2 10.00 4.5 0.3 4.5 8.8 1.6 7.8 3.2 9.3 100.00105

M. Gopalakrishnan OP.cit. p.197 Ibid Ibid p.10

24

The District has relatively more agricultural labourers but less cultivators state as a whole. More workers derive employment from forestry and other allied activities and services106. Pattern of Land use A little more than half of total area was cultivated with crops 35% of the cultivated area was sum more than once as compared to only 15% for the state compared to the state average 50.9% . The District had only 737 hectres cultivable waste land, 400 hectares of current follows and 253 hectares of follow lands. Together, these account for less than one percent of total area showed very high level land use in the district. Further details of land utization.

(1975 following table) Area Particular Forest Land for not cultivation a) Permanently barren uncultivated land b) Land putton non agricultural Cultivable waste Ferment pastures and other gazing land Land under miscellaneous tree crops grand grove not include in the net area sown Current follows Other follows Net area sown Total Geographical area Area sown more than once Gross cropled area Land holding size
106 107

Acres 124884 18,499 48,292 1818 554 4,195

Hectres 50,540 7486 19,544 736 224 1690

Total area District State 30.3 15.7 4.5 11.7 0.5 01 1.0 5.4 12.3 0.3 1.6 1.8

989 626 212,641 4,12,498 74,416 2,87057

400 1253 86,055 16,936 30,115 1,16,170

0.2 0.2 51.5 100.00

13.3 4.6 42.6 100.00 0107

Ibid Ibid p.11

25

The distribution of cultivating house holds by size of house holding (1974-75) reveals that over 90% of the cultivators are small and marginal farmers who cultivable nearly 57 percent of the cultivated area. Further details given below .

Size Hectares 0.01-0.49 0.50-0.99 1.00-1.99 2.0-2.99 4.00-4.99 5.00-5.99 10.00-19.99 20.00-29.99 30.00 and above

Number of Holdings Number 1,91,437 31,087 17,605 3306 158 2.14 118 13 245,415

Area Hold Average Percent 78 12.6 7.2 1.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 -

Average Holding Hectare 33126 21698 23447 7261 668 1442 1574 34 100 Percent 34.9 228 247 8.80 1.5 1.5 17 6.4 95017

0.173 0.697 1.331 23.05 6.78 1330 13.8 262 100.00

98% of the cultivators own less than 2 hectres each and they hold 82% and marginal farmers with less than 0.50 hectres constitute 78% and they cultivate 35% of the land, the average size of hold by him is only one six that a hectre or 43 cents. 20% of the cultivators are small farmers who cultivate 48% of the average holding is les than a hectre or 2.3 acres108. Beside the tenancy cultivation and the absentee land lordism are much prevalent in the district as in the neighbouring state kerala from 3 hectres constitute less than a percent of the total number of holdings. Castes The district is inhabited by different castes. The important castes are Brahmins, Nanchilnattu vellalas, Nadars and Krishnavakakkars. Among the Nadars there are Hindus and Christians. Their culture, belief talent etc. are different from others. Tamil and Malayalam are their main languages. Before the re orgnaisation of state Tamil and
108

Credit plan op.cit p.140

26

Malayalam were main languages. Before the re-orgnanization of states. Malayalam was their main language since Tamil is the predominant medium of communication, particularly Thovala and Agasteeswaram. Malayalam speaking people are there. Nadars form one of the major communities in District. They are well built and hardworking people. They engage in palmyra industry. Some of them agriculturist and traders. The community changes brought under the fold of Christianity through the European Missionaries109. Vellalas form another influential community in the district. They are largely in the Thovala and Agasteeswaram taluks. The rulers of Travancore gave much respect to this community people. They were appointed as accountants generals and treasurers in the government. Paravas are another important community in the district. Catholicism. They follow They are close to the sea shore paravai means paravas being the But in Kalkulam and Vilavancode taluks

traditional sea faring caste, they have acquired name. The community is converted to Catholicism by Portuguese missionaries110. Mukkuvas are also like them. They are also fishermen. They were also converted by Portuguese missionaries towards Christianity. The parayas form one of the oboriginal tribe of south India. They occupy lowest in social hierarchy and claim superiority over any other caste. Most of them are agricultural labourers and also engaged in the manufacture of wicker baskes, bamboo etc. The Kammalars are also known as Visvakarmas. They are divided into five occupational classes. Viz. Asari, Thattan, Kollan, Kallasari and Mussari111. Yadhavas another community followed Vaishavares and engaged in agriculture112. Apart from the above castes Vannam, Kanikkara are found in the District. They are primitive tribe, simple and straight forward and live among picturesquare surrounding in the western ghats. Nayars belong to a high class of the district. They are engaged in agriculture, Government service and professions. The Marumakkatayam system and the family system were peculiar in the district. The Marumakkathayam determined through female
109 110 111 112

Hector op.cit.p.45 Thirsturn, castes and creeds of south India., 1935p.35 Ibid Ibid

27

Line. Kshatriyas, Ambalavasis, Nayars, Ezhavas, Vellalas followed the system 113. They followed joint family system, where the members lived under the same roof without partition and eldest male member of the family called Karanavar exercised full power over the affairs of the family. It was also peculiar to this land. Among the Marumakkathayas it was the custom that wife and children are the members. During the last three decades there has been intensive legislative activity against both system. As various result various communities had been given legislative sanction partition from joint families and adopt Marumakkathayam. In Kanyakumari District Brahmins, Nairs, Nanchinad, Vellalas were considered as high class. Their economic status was also very high. They owned all lands. They had much relations with Travancore king. But the low class communities like Ezhava, Nadars, Paryas, Pulayas were considered as slaves. They would work for the satisfaction of high class. Their life was miserable. But after the advent of Christian missionaries, and the emergence of local leaders there is a social awakening among the poor people who are more concerned about their social justice. Industry This District has many industries. Fishing Fishing is also one of important occupations in the District. The sea shore people engaged in the fishing. Kanyakumari, Colachel, Kadiappattanam, Muttam are the important fishing centres. Several fishes are found in the District. Two kind of sawfish, prists, cuspidatus and peroti are found. The sea shells are often found in Cape Comorin. The fisher men have good catches from the sea 114. Almost 370 kinds of fish are found here. The topfishes, sharks, sawfishes, oyaster, and wales are in abundance in the Cape Comorin. Tourism Kanyakumari District is one of the important tourist centres in India. In Cape Comorin morning sun rise and evening sun set are enjoyed by the tourist . Many dams like Pechippara, Perunchani are here. They attract tourist, Tripparappu water falls, Rubber manufacturing, coir industry Manavalakkurichi Indian rare Earth factory are famous industries in this District.

113 114

M. Gopala Krishnan op.cit p.100 Nagam Aiya Vol.I op.cit.p.129.

28

Olakkaruvi are also important water falls. Mathoor high bridge is Asias largest one. So Tourism flourishing in the District. Trade and Commerce Trade and commerce flourished from the reign of Cholas. Nagercoil, Marthandam are the important trading centres in the District. The District had trade with Dutch, the Chinese, and Arabs. Social and Economic condition The District is predominantly agricultural. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people . In hilly areas plantations crops like rubber, tea and coffee are grown some of them owning rubber estates and other plantation. Some of the estates are given for lease. The small land holders and the average tenants are hardly able to obtain the best result on account of the limited availability of the factors of production. Many of the classes eke out hand to mouth existence. The district is however predominantly one of the resident agriculturists with small parcels, consisting of the lower middle class115. Increase in agricultural production can be achieved only by the introduction of cultivation and extended facilities for irrigation. Excessive subdivision and fragmentation of land are also seen. The size of average family holding is very small116. The agricultural indebtedness is also a problem of cultivators. The standard of literacy is high as the percentage of the educated and unemployed. The District needs developments in agriculture and in industries.

115 116

Second five year plan op.cit.p.3 Ibid p.5

29