Learning

Learning: a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.

Behaviour not dependent on learning

Reflex: an automatic involuntary behaviour that does not require prior experience and occurs in the same way each time. Fixed-action-pattern: an inborn predisposition to behave in a certain way when appropriately stimulated; typically involves a set sequence of responses. All members of a species produce an identical response to the same specific environmental stimuli. Maturation: a developmental process leading towards maturity, based on the orderly sequence of changes that occurs in the nervous system and other bodily structures controlled by genetic inheritance.

Neural basis of learning

Axon: (messages) away from the soma to other neurons. Dendrite: Receives signals (neurotransmitters) from other neurons. Synapse: the tiny gap between neurons. Soma: Cell body.

Conveys impulses

When learning occurs, changes are made in the brain to the neural pathways and connections within and between pathways. The brains ability to change is known as plasticity.

When neurons communicate with each other, they do this by sending neurotransmitters across the synapse. Three components to the synapse. - The synaptic gap: the tiny space between the axon (presynaptic neuron) and the dendrite (postsynaptic neuron) - Axon ending: Presynaptic neuron sending the message or neural impulse - Dendrite: Postsynaptic neuron receiving the message or neural impulse Synaptic formation occurs when neurotransmitters are released across the synapse and dendrites grow new branches and lengthen in response. When pathways are not used the dendrites are pruned. Hebb: neurons that fire together, wire together Neurons that activate at the same time, strengthen neural pathways and connections. Neurons not activated (perhaps through disuse) weaken connections. Synaptogenesis: synapse formation. Synaptogenesis occurs throughout a healthy persons lifespan, but it occurs most rapidly during early brain development, beginning at about two months before birth until approximately two years after birth. Long-term potentiation (LTP): The long-lasting strengthening of the synaptic connections of neurons, resulting in enhanced functioning of neurons when activated. LTP improves the ability of the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons to communicate with one another at the synapse. LTP is crucial to learning, as is the hippocampus Richard Morris Water maze experiment (1982). Hippocampus is crucial to learning and memory and therefore LTP. NMDA is a neurotransmitter receptor on the dendrite (found mostly around the hippocampus). It receives the neurotransmitter glutamate and has an important role in LTP.

Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine Location of Neurons Motor neurons of PNS; brainstem; base of forebrain (hippocampus) CNS Effects Excitatory effect at synapse with voluntary muscle, causing contraction; role in hippocampus of brain in memory consolidation Mainly inhibitory involved in voluntary movements, learning, memory, emotional arousal and feelings of pleasure. Deficiencies are linked to Parkinsons disease. Inhibits glutamate release. Excess linked to schizophrenia. Mainly inhibitory involved in sleep, arousal levels and emotional experience. Deficiencies linked to anxiety, mood disorders and insomnia. Mainly inhibitory involved in the experience of a range of emotions; acts as a hormone to stimulate the sympathetic NS. Excitatory communication between adjacent brain cells. Too little results in lack of signalling. Excess results in

Dopamine

Seratonin

CNS

Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) Glutamate

Interneurons in many CNS sites Interneurons in many CNS sites; cerebral cortex; spinal cord

self-destruction of neurons, death of adjacent cells. Inhibitory blocks the transmission of information from one neuron to another. Excitatory assists transmission of information from one neuron to another.

Brain Areas involved in Learning

Cerebellum: a structure attached to the rear of the brainstem that helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance. The cerebellum primarily regulates posture, muscle tone and muscular coordination. The cerebellum also stores memories related to skills and habits. The cerebellum is also implicated in neural circuits involved in simple stimulus-response learning (classical conditioning). Limibic system: composed of a number of structures that form a doughnut-shaped neural system between the hindbrain and the cerebral hemispheres. Hippocampus and amygdale are the key structures. Hippocampus: critical to spatial learning and awareness because it plays a role in monitoring locations in space and the relationship between them. Amygdala: aids survival behaviour and it is involved in the memory and learning of emotional responses, particularly related to aggression and fear. The amygdale provides a primitive quick pathway to the cortex, which enables us to react to dangerous stimuli before we have fully comprehended the situation. When the amygdale is stimulated, animals will respond with aggression or rage. Frontal lobes: crucial to cognitive behaviours such as learning, memory, planning, problemsolving, speech production and the execution of daily activities. Also crucial to motor functions.

Neuroplasticity
The brain has the ability to change its structure and relocate functions to different areas and /or neuronal networks Developmental plasticity: changes in neural connections during development as a result of environmental interactions as well as neural changes due to learning. Developmental plasticity is specific to the change in neurons and synapse connections as a consequence of developmental processes. Changes in the brains neural structure in response to experience during its growth and development. Adaptive plasticity: changes in neural connections in response to changing environmental conditions (such as brain injury), as well as neural changes induced by learning. Changes occurring in the brains neural structure to enable adjustment to experience, to compensate for lost function and/or to maximise remaining function in the event of brain damage. Critical periods Are periods in the life of an organism where they are more sensitive to environmental influences so that conditions are optimal for certain capacities to emerge. For the human nervous system, it appears that different areas of the brain used in learning develop fully at different periods of time.

The brain must go through a period of forming synapses and then pruning back unused connections to complete its development. Most of this occurs in the first 12 years. The frontal lobe has one of the longer periods of development taking up to ten years.

Imaging technologies
Modern brain imaging technologies such as CT scans, PET scans, SPECT scans, MRI scans and fMRI scans provide clear evidence that, during learning, changes occur in neurons that can result in permanent structural and functional brain changes.