General

1. Composite Members
Composite action: interaction of different structural elements and may be developed using either different or similar structural materials Advantages of steel and concrete-composite structures : These essentially different materials are completely compatible and complementary to each other; They have almost same thermal expansion; They have an ideal combination of strengths with the concrete efficient in compression and the steel in tension. Concrete gives corrosion protection and thermal insulation to the steel at elevated temperatures and additionally can restrain slender steel sections from local or lateral-torsional buckling. The use of composite action has certain advantages, in particular, a composite beam has greater stiffness and usually a higher load resistance than its non-composite counterpart. Consequently, a smaller steel section is usually required. The result is a saving of material and depth of construction

Examples : steel-concrete beam, columns(fully encased, partially encased, or held together by means of suitable connectors), wood-concrete beams, layered wood systems, sandwich-beam

Composite Plate Girder Bridge for Medium Spans

Box Girder Composite Bridge

Typical Beam Cross Sections

Composite Columns Three different types of composite columns are principally in use:

Concrete encased steel columns Concrete filled steel tubes and Rolled section columns partly encased in concrete

Typical Cross-Sections of Composite Column s

In calculating the strength of such columns, full composite interaction without any slip at the steeconcrete-interface is assumed. Strictly speaking all geometrical and physical non-linearities of the different materials shoud be observed. It is only possible, however, to meet these requirement by using comprehensive numerical methods of analysis and computer software. The assumed complete interaction enables definition of section properties, and stiffness and slenderness ratios, for the whole inhomogeneous cross-section. This information is necessary to determine the load carrying resistance, including slenderness or P- -effects. The complete interaction must be ensured by means of mechanical connections. The connections have to be provided at least at the column ends and where loads or forces are acting. They should be distributed over the whole cross-section. Such connectors can be headed studs, to and bottom plates, suitable brackets, vertical gusset plates, shear heads or other structural means. Concrete encased columns have the advantages that they meet fire resistance requirements without any other protection. In addition, they can be easily strengthened by reinforcing bars in the concrete cover. They do not, however, present an accessible structural steel surface for later fastenings and attractive

surface treatment.

Beam-to Column Connection Performance criteria of the joints to be met: Behave much like a hinge before concreting Should be stiff and behave elastically up to a predetermined moment value Must be able to resist the governing plastic moment with adequate plastic rotation

The next figures show us simple , rigid and semi-rigid composite joints. The construction detail without shims, shown in Figure ( c ) , is consistent with the growing interest in flexibly connected ( semi-rigid ) steel frames with simple construction details which speed up construction.

Composite Joints

Highly developed connection techniques can be used for connecting together structural steel members. Economy requires, however, that the joints are economic to fabricate and straightforward to install on site. Studies have indicated that the cost effectiveness of composite structures may be improved, if the actual degree of continuity provided by nominally simple joints is recognised in design. In composite steel-concrete structures, however, significant additional stiffness and resistance can be provided simply by placing continuous reinforcing bars in the slab around the columns, since the single major factor governing the behavior is the slab action. This effect can be augmented by a special sequence of construction and concreting, as follows: During concreting the steel section acts as a single span beam ; the beam should be connected to the steel column by means of double web angles or flange cleats with or without web angles; after the concrete is hardened(assuming it is without joints as shown in Figure c) it is considered as a continuous beam supporting the additional loads. By following this construction sequence, the required bending moment redistribution is not extensive and plastic rotation can be significantly reduced. In addition the designer can take the decision whether or not to use shims between the steel compression flange and the column mainly depending upon the plastic end moment of the joint.

Composite Slabs

In floor construction, the use of the solid reinforced concrete slab is being replaced more and more by metal decking. Modern profiled steel sheeting with additional indentations or embossments acts as both permanent formwork during concreting and tension reinforcement after the concrete has hardened. At this final stage the composite slab consists of a profiled steel sheet and an upper concrete topping which are interconnected in such a manner that horizontal shear forces can be resisted at the steel-concrete interface. Slip(relative displacements) at the interface must be prevented completely or partly, as should vertical separation of the steel decking from the concrete topping. The required composite action can be achieved by: a. b. c. d. Mechanical interlock provided by deformations in the profile( indentations or embossments ) Friction interlock for profiles shaped in a re-entrant form End anchorage provided by welded studs or shot fired shear connectors End anchorages by deformation of the ribs at the end of the sheeting in combination with (b)

Typical Forms of Interlock in Composite Slabs

Composite Floor Construction Composite floor construction is essentially an overlay of one-way structural elements. The slabs span between the secondary or floor beams, which span transversely between the primary beams. The latter in turn span onto the columns. This set of loads paths leads to rectangular grids, with large spans in at least one derection(up to 12,15 or even 20m). Up to 15m, rolled sections are mainly used, while from 12m upwards welded plate girders, stub girders or truss girders tend to be more economical.

Composite Floor Construction

Metal Decking

In the case of longer span floors, the designer may need to consider the susceptibility of the floor structure to vibration. The parameter commonly associated with this effect is the natural frequency of the floor: The lower the natural frequency, the more the structure may respond dynamically to occupant-induced vibration. For this purpose floors (or beams) are normally designed to have a natural frequency not less than 3Hz, and in the case of floors that may be subject to rhythmic group activities, not less than 4 Hz. An alternative more precise approach is to access the likely vibrational behaviour and, taking into account the human reaction to vibration, thereby establish acceptable criteria.

Comp osite floor construction offers the following main advantages to the designer and client: Speed and simplicity of construction (metal decking, simple steel connections). Lighter construction than a traditional concrete building (structural steel and lightweight concrete, slender structural elements of small dimensions). Less on site construction (steelwork, prefabricated structural elements). Small (strict) tolerances achieved by using steel members manufactured under controlled factory conditions to established quality procedures.

Composite beams are designed using plastic design methods and partial interaction theory, combining steel and concrete to great effect. To obtain maximum advantage from this form of construction, planning and design should be integrated from the start. With carefully planned approach , different operations such as steel erection, metal decking and stud welding, concreting, fire protection, cladding, facade work, services and finishing can be carried out at different floor levels simultaneously.

2. Composite Action ( Partial & Complete Interaction )

Complete (or Full) Interaction: Infinitely stiff shear connection, No slip and slip strain, Plane sections remain plane With regard to resistance, the connection is considered to be complete if the resistance of the composite beam is decided by the bending resistance, not the horizontal shear resistance. Partial Interaction: starting point for the development of simpler methods for predicting the behavior of beams at working load, and finds application in the calculation of interface shear forces due to shrinkage and differential thermal expansion Incomplete interaction arises when flexible connectors such as headed studs are used and slip(relative displacement) occurs at the steel-concrete interface.

Comparison of deflected beams with and without composite action

Composite steel beam-concrete slab interaction

Comparison between steel and composite beams

3. Shear Connection
Mechanical connectors are used to develop the composite action between steel beam and concrete. This connection is provided mainly to resist longitudinal shear, and is referred to as the shear connection.

Requirements of Shear Connection : Transfer direct shear at their base Create a tensile link into the concrete Be economic to manufacture and fix

Various Types of Shear Connector

Design Parameter for Shear Connection : Ultimate Strength Ductility (Stiffness & Deformation Capacity) Fatigue Endurance

Load-Slip Curve: The behavior and resistance of headed studs and other connectors are examined by means of shear or push out tests. The behavior is characterised by great stiffness at low loading(under service conditions) and large deformations at high loadings up to failure. Such ductile behavior makes shear force redistribution at the steel-concrete interface possible and allows for partial shear connection. In addition, headed studs may be spaced uniformly along the beam length between critical cross-section

Push Test with Headed Studs

Co mposite beams are often designed under the assumption that the unpropped steel beam supports the weight of the structural steel and wet concrete plus construction loads. It may, therefore, be decided for reasons of economy to provide only sufficient connectors to develop enough composite action to support

the loads applied afterwards. This approach results in many less connectors than are required to enalble the maximum bending resistance of the composite beam to be reached. The use of such partial shear connection results in reduced resistance and stiffness. Partial shear connection may be unavoidable when slab is constructed with metal decking. The number of shear connectors attached to place them only in the troughs of the profiled steel sheeting.
Stud

Con'c Con'c F F F e e

Behavior of Shear Connection

Definition Full Shear Connection & Partial Shear Connection : Strength Complete(or Full) Interaction & Incomplete(Partial) Interaction : Stiffness

4.

Composite Bridges

Since the 1950s, several large span continuous composite highway bridges have been erected. During the years immediately after World War II , structural steel was very expensive, and advantage was taken of the light composite cross-section to save material costs. The sections of today are more compact and simpler, and do not have so may secondary beams, bracings and stiffners. This form of structure saves labour costs in the workshop as well as on the construction site. Due to the unsymmetrical nature of the cross-section, concrete shrinkage always causes compression and positive bending in the steel section leading to greater deflections. In propped construction the compression in the concrete flange due to the self weight of the beam causes creep deformations. The concrete sheds compression. Stresses and forces are the redistributed from the concrete flange to the steel beam, and the steel beam, therefore, has to resist a greater part of the loading. This redistribution also results in increased deflections.

5. SUMMARY 1. Composite construction, particularly that using profiled steel sheeting, allows rapid construction. 2. The weight of steelwork required in composite construction is significantly less than if the materials were used independently. 3. There is no need for expensive falsework and formwork because the steel beam is able to sustain the self weight of steel and concrete, by itself or with the assistance of a few temporary props. Timber formwork can be replaced by precast concrete elements or profiled steel sheeting. 4. The aforementioned advantages present a very strong argument for the use of composite beams in buildings. They are more significant, however, for medium to long spans than for short spans. 5. The main disadvantage of composite construction is the need to provide connectors at the steel-concrete interface. 6. Another minor drawback is that it is somewhat more complicated than other methods to design and construction. This drawback is particularly relevant to continuous structures and bridges. However, it is far outweighted by the significant advantages that can be gained

The Behavior of Beams

Composite Beam: Steel section, Concrete slab, Shear Connector Classification
1. Full Composite Beam & Partial Composite Beam 2. Full Interaction & Partial Interaction 3. Propped construction & Unpropped Construction( Shoring )

Material properties of each of the components Steel : Linearly elastic behavior until first yield of the material occurs Perfectly plastic manner until strain hardening occurs Local buckling of slender section is not a problem for simple sagging bending

Concrete :

Nonlinear Stress/Strain Curve Rectangular stress block is normally assumed in composite beam design Concrete in tension cracks at very low loads => Concrete has no tensile strength in design

Shear Connector :

Non-linear behavior She ar Stiffness : Partial interaction theory Static Strength : Degree of shear connection Deformation capacity : at 90% of static strength

Buckling Behavior
-

Overall Buckling Lateral torsional buckling : Under the action of wet concrete during constructio n, the

top flange of the steel is subjected to compressive stresses in the positive bending region, and instability may take plate by the usual lateral-torsional buckling. Lateral distortional buckling : Negative moment region
-

Local Buckling

Lateral Tors ional Buckling

Lateral Distortional Buckling

Local Buckling

Non-Composite Beam :

The steel sections alone are designed to carry the load acting on the floor plus the self weight of the slab

Non-Composite Beam Stresses may be evaluated using simple bending theory

t and c = M service

load

/ W steel

sec tion

The bottom surface of the concrete slab is free to slide over the top flange of the steel section and considerable slip occurs between the two. The bending resistance of the slab is often so small that it is ignored. Composite Beam : Slip between the slab and steel section is prevented and the connection resists a longitudinal shear force similar in distribution to the vertical shear force. Stresses may be evaluated using simple bending theory

t c

= M service = M service

load

* y1 / W composite * y 2 / Wcomposite

sec tion

load

sec tion

where, y1 is the distance of the extreme steel fibre from the neutral axis

y 2 is the distance of the extreme concrete fibre from the neutral axis

Structural Behaviour

1. Under the action of low load(service load situation in the sagging moment region) For very low loads the steel and concrete behaves in an approximately linear way. The connection between the two carries very low shear stresses ant it is unlikely that appreciable longitudinal slip will occur. The beam deforms so that the strain distribution at mid span is linear.

2. Under the action of medium load (partially connected) As the load increases the shear stress between the slab and steel section gives rise to deformation in the connection. This deformation is known as slip and contributes to the overall deformation of the beam. For many composite beams slip is very small and may be neglected.

3. Under the action of final failure load The load becomes sufficient to cause yield strains in one or more of the materials. 1) Yield occurs in the steel : It is normally assumed that, for the ultimate limit state, the plastic stress block develops such that the whole steel section may eventually reach yield. 2) Brittle failure of the slab : This behavior would be similar to the brittle failure expected in an over-reinforced concrete beam. The volume of concrete in most practical slabs means that it is unlikely that this situation could ever arise in practice. With increase in stress within the concrete, the stress block changes from the triangular shape to the parabolic shape. For design this shape is difficult to represent in mathematical form and approximations are used(rectangular block shape : 0.85 f sk ).

3) Failure at shear connection : For a uniformly loaded, single span, composite beam which is assumed to deform in an elastic manner the longitudinal shear force per unit length of the beam ( T = V S / I ). Since the longitudinal shear force is directly proportional to the applied vertical shear force, the force on the end connectors is the greatest. If the load is increased the longitudinal shear force increases, and the load on the end stud may well cause plastic deformation. The ductility of the connectors means that the connectors are able to deform plastically whilst maintaining resistance to longitudinal shear force.

Failure occurs once all of the connectors have reached their ultimate resistance.

Longitudinal Shear Connectors

Creep and Shrinkage

Creep : Under stress, concrete tends to relax, i.e., to deform plastically under load even when that load is not close to the ultimate. This phenomena is known as creep and is of importance in composite beams. The creep deformation in the concrete gives rise to additional, time dependent, deflection which must be allowed for in the analysis of the beam at the service load stage.

Stress History

Creep Strain Shrinkage : During casting the wet concrete gradually hardens through the process of hydration. This chemical reaction releases heat causing moisture evaporation which in turn causes the material to shrink. As the slab is connected to the steel section through the shear connectors, the concrete shrinkage forces are transmitted into the steel section. These forces cause the composite beam to deflect.

Propped and Unpropped Composite Beams Unpropped construction is often preferred for the following reasons: the extra cost involved in providing props the restricted working space available in propped areas the adverse effect on speed of construction

Load deflection response

Propped Composite Beams During construction the steel section is supported on temporary props. It does not have to resist signific ant bending moment and is therefore unstressed and does not deflect. Once the concrete hardens the props are removed. Each of the component parts of the beam then takes load from the dead weight of the materials. However, at this statge, the beam is acting as a composite element and its stiffness and resistance are very much higher than that of the steel section alone.

Unpropped Composite Beams During construction the steel section is loaded with the dead weight of wet concrete. The steel section is stressed and deforms. The concrete and the connectors remain largely unstressed, apart from the shrinkage stresses developed within the hardened concrete.

Continuous Composite Beams Advantages : - greater load resistance - greater stiffness Disadvantages : - increased complexity in design - susceptibility to buckling in the negative moment region over internal supports

Partial Connection In unpropped construction the size of the steel section is often determined by the weight of wet concrete, and the size of the slab is determined independently by its transverse span. If sufficient connectors are provided to transfer maximum longitudinal force in the steel section or concrete slab, the resistance of the unpropped composite beam becomes very high. Indeed composite beams so formed are often capable of carrying several times the required live load. To avoid providing such excess resistance the partially connected composite member is used. This reduction results in a beam where the failure mode would be by connector failure prior to the steel having fully yielded or the concrete having reached its crushing strength. For the purpose of design(assuming ductile connectors are used), it will be sufficient to introduce the concept of a reduced ultimate moment curve, without having to calculate the slip along the steel-concrete interface.

Degree of Shear Connection : =

Pshear ( Pshear ) fsc

Variation of flexural capacity

Single Span Beams

Scope of this class 1. Simply supported composite steel-concrete beam 2. Full shear connection ( Total longitudinal shear resistance of the shear connectors( Rq ), distributed between the point of maximum positive bending moment and a simple end support, must be greater than ( or equal to ) the lesser of the resistance of the steel beam ( Rs = A

fy a

) when the plastic

neutral axis is in the slab, or the resistance of the concrete flange ( Rc = 0.85beff hc when the plastic neutral axis is in the steel section. ) 3. Symmetrical steel sections

f ck ) c

Typical cross-sections of composite beams

Symbols

Design Method 1. Allowable Stress Design Method 2. Limit State Design Method

Allowable Stress Design Method

1) Allowable Stress Steel ( kgf/cm2 ) Steel Thickness Less than 40mm 40mm~75mm 75mm~100mm Concrete SS400 SM400 SMA41 1,400 1,300 SM490 1,900 1,750 SM490Y SM520 SMA50 2,100 2,000 1,950 SM570 SMA58 2,600 2,500 2,450

Allowable Compressive Stress : 0.4 f ck Allowable Tensile Stress : 0.07 f ck and less than 25 kgf/cm2 Reinforcement( kgf/cm2 ) Reinf. Stress Tensile Compressive

SD30 1,500 1,500

SD35 1,600 1,750

SD40 1,600 1,800

2) Transformed Section Modulus

n=

Es Ec

where, Es : elastic modulus of steel, Ec : elastic modulus of concrete l Dead Load & Live Load

=
l

M D+ L y I tran
o

Temperature Differential Temperature differential between the steel beam and the concrete slab : t = 10 Uniform distribution of temperature isa ssumed.

c =

1 P1 y P y + M v v E c t , s = 1 + M v v n Av Iv Av Iv P1 = E s t Ac , M v = P1 d c n

t = t ,

Shrinkage

n 2 = n(1 + 2 / 2) , 2 = 4.0
creep effects on the stress due to shrinkage & time-dependent change of elastic modulus of concrete

c = Ec 2 =

1 n2

P2 yv2 P2 yv2 A + M v 2 I E c 2 s , s = A + M 2 v I v2 v2 v2 v2

Es , P2 = Ec 2 s Ac , M v 2 = P2 d c 2 n2

Creep

n1 = n(1 + 1 / 2 ) , 1 = 2.0
10

C
P1 dc P1 P1 P1

dc

P1

P1 Ms = P1dc

V =

P1

P1

Limit State Design Method

1) Ultimate Limit State Strength Criteria for simply supported single span beam I : positive bending moment II : vertical shear III : longitudinal shear

l Assumption : idealized load-slip behavior of the connector => resistance to longitudinal shear of a shear connection is not disscussed here.

Load-slip behavior of the connector l Statically determinate beams : calculation of the resistance is based on the maximum moment at failure condition

Steel sections l l Class 1 : plastic cross-sections which can form a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity for plastic analysis Class 2 : compact cross-sections which can develop the plastic moment of resistance but have limited rotation capacity

Moment-curvature relationships for Class 1 and Class 2 steel sections l l l l The steel compression flange, if properly attached to the concrete flange, may be assumed to be of Class 1. In a composite beam the compression part of the web, in positive bending, is always less than half the total depth for a symmetrical section. A width-to-thickness ratio less than 83 will always be sufficient for a symmetric steel section in positive bending. Because the part in compression is always laterally restrained when the beam is in positive bending, it is not necessary to check lateral-torsional buckling.

Design Aspects of the Concrete Flange in Compression

1) Effective Width Shear lag : cause the flange width to be not fully effective in resisting compression

beff bv

depends not only on the relative dimensions of the system, but also on the type of

loading, the support conditions and the cross section considered. l Eurocode 4 : the effective width on each side of the steel web should be taken as

l0 , but 8

not greater than half the distance to the next adjacent web, nor greater than the projection of the cantilever slab for edge beams. l l The length l 0 is the approximate distance between points of zero bending moment. It is equal to the span for simply supported beams. A constant effective width may be assumed over the whole of each span. This value may be taken as the midspan value for a beam. 2) Maximum Longitudinal Shear in the Concrete Slab Design Criteria longitudinal shear in the concrete slab, along the shear planes splitting of the concrete

Planes of shear failure l It is possible to avoid these failure modes by providing sufficient transverse reinforcement and choosing the correct distance between connectors.

Design Calculation
Ultimate Limit State Serviceability Limit State

1) Ultimate Limit State : The forces and moments due to factored loads are required to be less than the design resistance.

S d Rd S d : the design value of an internal force or moment Rd : the corresponding design value of the resistance
l Eurocode 1 : Basis of Design and Actions in Structures

Sd =
l

l2 ( G Gk , j + Q (Qk ,l + 8

k ,i

))

Eurocode 4 : Composite Structures

Sd =

l2 (1.35 Gk , j + 1.50 ( Qk ,l + Qk ,i )) 8

Gk , j : the characteristic value of the permanent load Qk ,l : the characteristic value of one of the variable loads Qk , i : the characteristic value of the other variable loads
l The partial factors for material properties and strengths Combination Fundamental Structural steel Concrete Steel reinforcement Profiled steel sheeting

a = 1.1

c = 1.5

s = 1.15

ap = 1.1

2) Serviceability Limit State Under service conditions, the deflections and vibrations do not exceed allowable values and that cracking of the concrete is limited.

Ed Cd or E d Rd Ed : the effect of loads , Cd : nominal value , Rd : related function

Plastic Design Method

1) Positive Bending Moment Basic Assumptions The shear connectors are able to transfer the forces occurring between the steel and the concrete at failure (Full shear connection ) No slip occurs between the steel and the concrete ( Complete interaction ) Tension in concrete is neglected The strains caused by bending are directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis; in other words, plane cross-sections remain plane after bending, even at failure The relationship between the stress a , and the strain a of steel is schematically represented by the diagram The relation between the stress c and the strain c of concrete is schematically represented by the diagram

Idealized diagrams used in the plastic method

The use of fck for the maximum stress in the concrete will clearly result in an unconservative design although in practice the overestimate does not appear to be very significant. To allow for this overestimate a conservative approximation for concrete strength (kf ck) is used in design.

k = 0.85

The calculation of the moment of resistance Mc is dependent on the position of the neutral axis.

a. The neutral axis is situated in the concrete slab 1. in the solid part of the composite slab ( Rs < Rc ) 2. in the rib of the composite slab ( Rs = Rc ) b. The neutral axis is situated in the steel beam 1. in the flange of the steel section (Rs > Rc > Rw ) 2. in the web of the steel section (Rs > Rc < Rw ) The resistance of various elements Resistance of concrete flange : Rc = beff hc 0.85 Resistance of steel flange : R f = bt f

f ck c

fy a

Resistance of shear connection : Rq = NQ Resistance of steel beam : Rs = A

fy a fy a

Resistance of clear web depth : Rv = dt w

Resistance of overall web depth : Rw = Rs 2 R f Where, A : the area of steel beam b : the breadth of steel flange beff : the effective breadth of concrete flange h : the overall depth of the steel beam hp : the depth of profiled steel sheet hc : the depth of concrete flange above upper flange of profiled steel sheet d : the clear depth of web between fillets fck : the characteristic cylinder compressive strength of the concrete N : the number of shear connectors in shear span length between two critical cross sectinos Q : the resistance of one shear connector

For composite section with full shear connection, Case a1 : Rs < Rc

Plastic stress distribution with the neutral axis situated in the concrete slab The positive bending moment of resistance ;

M pl , Rd = Rs z
where:

h x + h p + hc 2 2 fy A a R x= hc = s hc kf Rc beff ck c z= R h h M pl , Rd = Rs ( + h p + hc s c ) 2 Rc 2

Case a2 : Rs = Rc

M pl , Rd = Rs

h h + Rc ( + h p ) 2 2

Case b1 : Rs > Rc >Rw

Plastic stress distribution with the neutral axis situated in the flange of the steel section the axial compression force R in the steel flange

Rc + R = Rs 2 R + R 2R = Rs Rc R =
the moment of resistance

R s Rc 2

M pl , Rd

( Rs Rc ) 2 h h = Rs + Rc ( + h p ) tf 2 2 4R f

Case b2 : Rs > Rc <Rw

Plastic stress distribution with the neutral axis situated in the steel beam

If the depth to thic kness ratio of the web of a steel section is less than or equal to

83 R 1 c Rv

where = -

235 / f y , it is considered as a compact web and the total depth is effective. h + 2h p + hc 2

positive bending resistance

M pl , Rd = Rc z + M pl , N red . Rd = Rc
where:

+ M pl , N red .Rd

M pl , N red. Rd : plastic moment resistance of the steel beam reduced by a normal force Rc

*. Eurocode 3 : the plastic moment reduced by a normal force for standard rolled I and H sections

M pl , N red . Rd = 1.11M pl .a . Rd (1
=> the resistance :

M pl , Rd = Rc

Rc ) M pl .Rd Rs h + 2 h p + hc 2

+ 1.11M pl .a . Rd (1

Rc ) Rs

The formulae for the positive moment of resistance values

2) Vertical Shear The cross section of the concrete slab to the resistance to vertical shear is small and difficult to determine and is, therefore, neglected. Therefore, only the web of the steel section and adjacent parts of the steel flange are taken into account. According to Eurocode 3, the vertical shear resistance

V pl , Rd = Av

fy a 3

The shear area Av , for rolled I, H and channel sections loaded parallel to the web, can be taken as 1.04 htw . The shear buckling resistance of a steel web must be verified when unstiffened web. For a simply-supported beam, without intermediate transverse stiffeners, with full shear connection and subjected to uniformly distributed loading, Eurocode 4 gives the following simplified rules: For w 1.5

d > 69 for an tw

VRd = V pl , Rd VRd = V pl , Rd ( VRd = V pl , Rd 3 1 + 1.3) w 5w 0.9 w

For 1.5 < w < 3.0 For 3.0 < w < 4.0 -

In accordance with Eurocode 3 the web slenderness w

w =
-

fy 3cr

In practice, an I-section girder has usually a transverse load bearing stiffener at the support, but no intermediate transverse stiffeners. In such a case the elastic critical shear resistance cr is given by :

1000 cr = d tw

3) Vertical Shear in Combination with Bending Moment

-Where the vertical shear VSd exceeds half the plastic shear resistance V pl , Rd due allowance shall be made for its effect on the plastic moment of resistance. If the neutral axis of the composite beam is situated in the concrete slab or in the flange of the steel section

Rs , red = R s (2
-

VSd 1) V pl , Rd VRd

for 0.5 <

VSd 1 V Rd

If the neutral axis of the composite beam is situated in the web of the steel section

Plastic stress distribution of a cross-section in bending and vertical shear The part of the web that is reserved for vertical shear is located in the middle of the web depth. The section modulus of the web will, therefore, be reduced by:

V 1 t w (( 2 Sd 1) h) 2 4 V Rd
which becomes:

for 0.5 <

V Sd 1 VRd

V 1 t w h 2 (1 ( 2 Sd 1) 2 ) 4 VRd
If the factor is asssumed to be equal to ( 2 web can also be written as

VSd 1) 2 the section modulus of the VRd

1 t w h 2 (1 ) 4

*. The plastic moment of resistance reduced by vertical shear can be expressed approximately by :

M pl ,V red , Rd = (1 (1

d0 Av ) ) M pl , Rd d 2 A AV

Continuous Beam I

Continuous beams offer the following advantages over simple construction. 1. greater load resistance 2. greater stiffness smaller steel section being required to withstand specified loading.

Cross-section of composite beam at an internal support

The disadvantages associated with continuous construction are: 1. increased complexity in design 2. susceptibility to buckling in the negative moment region over internal supports. *. Indeed this negative moment region may extend over the whole of one span during construction. Two forms of buckling may also be involved: local buckling or the web and/or bottom flaange, and lateral torsional buckling.

Bending moment distribution Design Procedure 1. Conceptual structural design : initial sizing of members based on experience or rough calculations 2. Global analysis : determination of internal moments and forces in critical regions for various loading cases and limit states.

Rigid-Plastic Global Analysis

Method of analysis for determining internal moments and forces in continuous steel structures. It is based on the assumption that plastic regions are concentrated at discrete points which may be represented by plastic hinges. Critical cross-sections must be capable of developing and sustaining their plastic resistance moment until, under increasing load, sufficient regions have fully-yielded for the plastic hinges to form a mechanism. For steel structures, sections which can form a plastic hinge with the rotation capacity required for plastic global analysis, are designated Class 1 cross-sections. Class 2 cross-sections can develop the plastic resistance moment of the section although local buckling limits the rotation capacity and prevents full redistribution of moment at such sections.

Behavior of Continuous Composite Beams

The flexural performance of continuous composite beams has been investigated by tests in which the secondary elements (shear connectors, transverse slab reinforcement) were conservatively designed in order to preclude forms of failure such as loss of interaction and longitudinal splitting of the slab. Initially, the behavior is substantially linear, but as load increases reduction in flexural stiffness occurs.

Load-deflection curves for centre spans of continuous composite beams

In hogging moment regions , fine cracks appear in the concrete at relatively low levels of load. As loading continues, cracking continues over an increasing length and yielding and later strain-hardening may occur in the reinforcement and in the lower(compression) part of the steel section. Redistribution of moment will occur to the mid-span regions.

Provided that collapse of the beam is not triggered by crushing of the mid-span concrete, by failure in shear, or by fracture of the reinforcement, the support section will develop flange buckles, eventually causing a loss of moment of resistance which initiates collapse.

Hogging moment-rotation curves

In mid-span sagging moment regions , yielding occurs in the lower part of the steel section and crushing occurs in the top of the concrete slab, causing redistribution of moment to the supports.

The moment achieved can be significantly greater than the theoretical plastic resistance moment( M pl ) of the composite section, mainly on account of strain-hardening of the structural steel.

Deformation may continue without drop in moment for a considerable curvature. Rotation is small in composite beams having small slabs and/or weak concrete, large steel sections and/or high yield stress; in such beams crushing limits the rotation that will take place before reduction in moment occurs.

Sagging moment-curvature curves

Rotation Capacity for Plastic Analysis The nature of composite beams implies that a large amount of redistribution may be required before the collapse mechanism is complete. - Example : continuous beam of equal spans supporting uniform distributed loading

Elastic bending moment distribution bending moment at the supports is up to twice as large as that at midspan the plastic resistance moment of midspan regions ranges from being larger than that at the support, sometimes by a factor as high as three, to being smaller(not usually the case). In continuous composite beams, the rotation capacity required at a particular critical crosssection will depend on : 1) the relative length of each span 2) the type and position of loading on each span(uniformly distributed, central point load, loads at quarter-points, etc) 3) the patterns of load on the spans (adjacent spans fully loaded, alternate spans fully loaded, etc) 4) the relative magnitudes of the hogging and sagging moments of resistance along the beam 5) the moment-rotation characteristics of cross-sections along the beam

Required rotation capacity : 2-span arrangement(hinges on both sides of internal support) The rotation required on each side of the support to complete a plastic hinge mechanism clearly increases as the resistance moment at the support( M ' pl ) decreases relative to that at midspan( M pl ).

The eventual failure mode of a beam is strongly influenced by the strain-hardening and falling branch parts of the moment-rotation curves in the hogging and sagging regions. Requirements for the satisfactory u se of rigid-plastic analysis are therefore based on test results.

Rigid-Plastic Analysis in Eurocode 4

Requirements to achieve sufficient rotation capacity, permit the scope for rigid-plastic analysis 1) At each plastic hinge location, the cross-section of the structural steel component shall be symmetrical about the plane of its web. 2) All effective cross-sections at plastic hinge locations are in Class 1; all other effective cross-sections are in Class 1 or Class 2. 3) Adjacent spans do not differ in length by more than 50% of the shorter span. 4) End spans do not exceed 115% of the length of the adjacent span. 5) In any span in which more than half the total design load is concentrated within a length of one-fifth of the span, then at any hinge location where the concrete slab is in compression, not more than 15% of the overall depth of the member should be in compression(this condition does not apply if the hinge will be the last to form in that span). 6) The steel compression flange at a plastic hinge location is laterally restrained.

Classification of Cross-Sections
The definition of a Class 1 section in terms of limiting breadth/thickness ratios is not in itself sufficient to ensure always that enough rotation capacity will be available for plastic analysis in composite construction. Provided that the requirements given above concerning relative lengths of spans and arrangement of loading are satisfied, the limits on breadth/thickness ratios for a Class 1 composite section can be taken as those for steel sections given in Eurocode 3. For Class 2 sections, web encasement may be assumed to contribute to resistance to local buckling, provided that it is reinforced and mechanically connected to the steel section.

Plastic Resistance Moments

Assumption : the effect of co-existent vertical shear on the bending resistance can be neglected. When the shear force exceeds half the plastic shear resistance of the web of the steel section, allowance should be made for its effect on the resistance moment.

Composite beam with solid slab: negative plastic resistance moment

Composite beam with profiled steel sheeting: negative plastic resistance moment

The ratio of the effective width to the real flange width depends on many factors, including the type of loading, the support condition, the cross-section considered and the ratio of beam spacing to span. End span Internal span

l 0 = 0.8L l 0 = 0.7 L

Where, L is the distance between supports for the span concerned.

Effective width of concrete flange Research on shear lag in negative moment regions has shown that when transverse reinforcement appropriate to the shear connector spacing is provided, the cracked slab is able to transfer shear to longitudinal reinforcement at a distance of several slab thicknesses on either side of the steel member. Over an internal support, Eurocode 4 gives:

l 0 = 0.25( L1 + L2 )
where, L1 and L2 are the lengths of adjacent spans.

l -

Negative moment of resistance Generally all properly anchored reinforcing bars within the effective width are assumed to be stressed to their design yield strengths f sk / s . If the area of this reinforcement is Ar , then the tensile resistance of the reinforcement, Rr , within the effective width of the slab under negative moment is given by:

Rr = ( f sk / s ) Ar
Due to the possibility of fracture caused by lack of ductility, nominal slab reinforcement(i.e. welded mesh or bars of less than 10mm diameter) should be neglected in calculating Rr . All bars included when calculating Rr should be of high ductility. At flexural failure, the whole of the concrete slab may be assumed to be cracked, whilst all the structural steel is at its design yield strength f y / a in tension or compression. Let Rw be the axial resistance of the web over a depth d between the flanges

Case 1 : Rr < Rw (plastic neutral axis lies in web)

2 D R d M ' pl = M a + Rr + Dr r 2 Rw 4

where

Ma
D

is the plastic resistance moment of the steel section alone; is the overall depth of the steel section; is the distance from the top of the steel beam to the centroid of the reinforcement

Dr

Case 2 : Rr > Rw (plastic neutral axis lies in steel flange) Assuming the thickness of the flange is small:

M ' pl = Rs

D + Rr Dr 2 Rs = ( f y / a ) Aa

where Rs is the tensile resistance of the steel section. For a section of cross-sectional area Aa ,

The sheeting component is usually neglected when determining the negative moment of resistance. The negative plastic resistance moment is given by M ' pl = M a .

Distribution of Bending Moment

To design a suitable cross-section against flexure, it remains to determine the distribution of bending moments due to the applied load. Let the ratio of the negative to the positive moments of resistance in a proposed section be

.
-

= M ' pl / M pl

Consider the end span of a continuous composite beam, subject to a uniformly distributed load of w f per unit length. The bending moment diagram at collapse :

End Span of continuous beam It can be shown by analysis of the collapse mechanism that:

1 =
-

1 (1+ ) 2 1

the required value of M pl is:

M pl =

1 w 2 L2 2 f

For an internal span with equal support moments

M pl = w f L2 /( 8(1 + ))
For other arrangements of loading and/or resistance moments, the required resistance may be determined from first principle s.

Concluding Summary
1. Rigid-plastic analysis can be applied to continuous composite beams provided that the rotation capacity at each plastic hinge location is sufficient to enable the required hinge rotation to develop and lateral-torsional buckling does not occur. 2. For composite beams in buildings, the requirement concerning rotation capacity may be assumed to be satisfied when all cross-sections at plastic hinge locations are in Class 1, and restrictions on relative length of adjacent spans and depth of neutral axis are satisfied. 3. The plastic moment of resistance, in a hogging moment region, can be determined by application of rectangular stress block theory to the structural steel section and ductile reinforcing steel within the effective cross-section. 4. The effective widths of the concrete flange can be determined from approximations of sagging and hogging lengths of the beam. 5. Distribution of internal moments is dependent on the ratio of the negative moment of resistance to that in positive bending.

Continuous Beam II
Elastic analysis for internal moments and forces in continuous composite beams is of more general application than plastic analysis. Redistribution is permitted, to allow for cracking of concrete and yielding of steel in the negative moment regions. The extent of the redistribution depends on the classification of cross-sections at internal supports and the assumptions made concerning the flexural rigidity in hogging bending. Elastic analysis is required to check the serviceability limit state . In composite building structures no consideration of temperature effects is normally necessary in verification for ULS(ultimate limit state). Concerns beams in which the steel section is either continuous over simple supports or is jointed by rigid connections . Elastic analysis requires that the relative stiffnesses of adjacent spans be known. As the stiffnesses depend on the second moment of area of cross-sections, it is necessary to know the effective width of the concrete flange and the modulus of elasticity of concrete relative to that of steel( modular ratio ). Effective Width of Concrete Flange An effective width approach is used to make allowance for in-plane shear flexibility( shear lag ). Values of effective width may be related to distances along the beam between zero bending moment. Different values can be calculated therefore for sagging moment regions and hogging moment regions. For global analysis , it has been found that shear lag has little effect on the results. Hence a constant effective width may be assumed for the whole of each span, which greatly simplifies the analysis. As the greater part of each span of a beam will usually be subject to sagging bending moment, it is appropriate that the constant effective width be taken as the value at the mid-span. For a cantilever, the width should be that applicable at the support. In determining the elastic section properties, the concrete is usually assumed to be uncracked under positive sagging moment.

Effective width of Concrete Flange Modular Ratio The elastic section properties of a composite beam may be expressed as those of an equivalent steel section by dividing the effective width of the concrete flange by a modular ratio. Modular ratio : n ? -

Es Ec

Account is taken of the effects of creep of concrete in compression by choice of an appropriate value for the ratio.

Load Arrangements and Load Cases For continuous beams in buildings, without cantilevers, subject to mainly uniformly distributed loading, only the following arrangements of variable load need be considered: 1. Alternate spans loaded 2. Two adjacent spans loaded. In both cases, the same value of the partial safety factor, ? G , for permanent load may be taken for each span, whether or not such load on a particular span is a favorable or unfavorable action.

Distribution of Bending Moment

Loss of stiffness due to cracking of concrete in negative moment regions has more effect on distribution of bending moment in continuous composite beams than in continuous reinforced concrete members. In continuous composite beams, the bending moment at an internal support at the serviceability limit state(SLS) may be 15 to 30% lower than that given by an elastic analysis in which no account is taken of cracking. At the ultimate limit state(ULS) the distribution of moments will be influenced by yielding of steel. The redistribution of moments cannot be predicted accurately because the longitudinal tensile stress in the concrete slab, in negative moment regions, is influenced by the sequence of casting and the effects of temperature and shrinkage , as well as by the proportions of the composite member and the dead and imposed loading . ??Eurocode 4 : Two methods of elastic global analysis 1. Cracked section method 2. Uncracked section method ? Both may be used in conjunction with redistribution of support moments, the degree of redistribution being dependent on the susceptibility of the steel section to local buckling .

Effective Sections

1) Cracked Section Analysis It is assumed that for a length of 15% of the span on each side of internal supports, the section properties are those of the cracked section for negative moments. The assumption of a fixed proportion of the span as cracked is a considerable simplification, since it makes feasible the use of formulae or standard computer programs for the global analysis, without the need for iteration. The second moment of area of the cracked section is calculated using a section comprising the steel member together with the effectively anchored reinforcement located within the effective width of the concrete flange at the support. Outside the 15% length, the section properties are those of the uncracked section ignoring any longitudinal reinforcement. The effect of assuming a length other than 15% to be crakced :

Redistribution of support moment due to cracking ? Bending moments calculated assuming a cracked length of 15% would be correct to within 5% if any proportion of the span between 8% and 25% was in fact cracked; the simplifying assumption is therefore justified. 2) Uncracked Section Method The properties of the uncracked section are used throughout. Thus, the analysis is not dependent on the amount of reinforcement over the supports. Indeed for a continuous beam of uniform section, the analysis can be carried out without any prior calculation of the crosssection.

3) Redistribution of Support Moments for Elastic Analysis Design codes commonly permit negative moments at supports to be reduced, except at cantilever, by redistribution to mid-span. The extent of the redistribution is dependent, in part, on the method of analysis. *Eurocode 4 Limits to redistribution of moments, per cent of the initial value of the bending moment to be reduced Class of cross section in hogging moment region For uncracked elastic analysis For cracked elastic analysis -

1 40 25

2 30 15

3 20 10

4 10 0

Class 4 section : local buckling may prevent the design resistance from being attained. If redistribution is less than the designer assumes, the steel web or the compression flange at the support may buckle prematurely. For safety therefore, the maximum amount of redistribution to mid-span must be no greater than the minimum redistribution likely to occur in practice. Redistribution is therefore not permitted if a cracked analysis has been used.

Studies on composite beams with critical sections in Class 3 or Class 4 have shown that provided at least 10% of the span is cracked, as is likely in practice, the reduction in support moment due to cracking will exceed 8%. It is reasonable to assume therefore that in round terms the difference between an uncrakced and a cracked analysis with such beams is equivalent to 10% redistribution of the uncracked support moments .

Class 3 (semi-compact) : local buckling only preventing the development of the full plastic moment. Numerical analysis, using experimental data on the falling branch of momentrotation relationships for locally-buckling Class 3 cantilevers, confirms that up to 20% redistribution can be allowed.

Class 2 secion : the full plastic moment resistance can be developed. A redistribution of 30% be permitted from an uncracked analysis to allow for local yielding at the supports and cracking of concrete.

A beam with Class 2 (or Class 1) sections at supports will typically have a relatively low neutral axis , in order to meet the restrictions on the depth of the web in compression required in such sections. Hence only light tensile reinforcement can be provided and the ratio of uncracked to cracked flexural stiffness( I 1 / I 2 ) can exceed 3.0 . For such

beams, the bending moment at the internal support from cracked analysis may then be less than 70% of the value from uncracked analysis and is almost always less than 85% of the uncracked value. For Class 2 and Class 1 sections a 15% difference between uncracked and cracked analysis is more appropriate than the 10% difference adopted for beams with sections in Class 3 or Class 4. Class 1 section : not only attain the plastic resistance moment, but also sustain this level of moment whilst rotation occurs. In steel structures, the limits on flange and web slenderness which define a plastic section are sufficiently restrictive to permit plastic global analysis without further checks on rotation capacity. This is not true for composite beams, partly because the degree of redistribution needed to attain a plastic hinge mechanism will be higher due to the greater relative moment resistance at mid-span.

Classification of Cross-Sections of Beams

The limiting slendernesses for Class 3 cross-sections are those beyond which local buckling occurs in the structural steel section prior to the yield stress being reached. It is logical, therefore, that the limits for composite beams, without web encasement, are the same as those for steel beams . Web encasement may be assumed to contribute to resistance to local buckling provided that it is reinforced and mechanically connected to the steel section. A Class 3 web which is encased, may be treated effectively as if it was in Class 2. Provided the flanges are Class 1 or Class 2, the moment resistance of a section with a uncased web in Class 3 may still be determined by plastic analysis, provided that part of the web is discounted. Without this approach, change of classification of the web from Class 2 to Class 3, due to small changes in longitudinal reinforcement, would prevent plastic analysis from being used. As a consequence, the calculated resistance moment would be unduly sensitive to changes in reinforcement.

Use of an effective web for a section in hogging bending with web in Class 3

Elastic Resistance Moment

For a section in Class 3 or Class 4, stresses should be calculated by elastic theory. To determine the section properties, allowance should be made for shear lag using the appropriate effective width of the concrete flange for sagging or hogging bending. In the analysis it is assumed that strain varies linearly over the full depth of the composite cross-section. This implies that there is negligible slip at the steel-concrete interface. Transformed section method : assuming that both concrete in compression and steel are linearly elastic materials. The breadth of the equivalent steel slab depends on the modular ratio n, definded by:

n?

Es Ec
Es is the elastic modulus of steel. Ec is an appropriate elastic modulus for concrete.

where

Elastic resistance to sagging bending, Class 3 Section The ribs of depth D p run transverse to the beam and all concrete above the ribs is in compression. The area of concrete within the depth of the profiled steel sheet is ignored. In hogging bending, the whole of the concrete slab may be assumed to be cracked . The effective section therefore comprises the structural steel section and effectively anchored reinforcement within the effective width for hogging bending.

Elastic resistance to hogging bending, Class 3 section

The ultimate bending resistance of the member is attained when a stress reaches the limiting strength of one of the components in the cross-section.

??Eurocode 4 : the limiting strength for ULS 1. Structural steel in tension or compression 2. Reinforcing steel in tension 3. Concrete in compression -

f y /? a

f sk / ? s 0.85 f ck / ? c

For sections in Class 4, account should be taken of local buckling. When high vertical shear co-exists with high bending moment, account needs to be taken of the resulting interaction.

Lateral-Torsional Buckling
In composite beams, the upper flange of the steel section is restrained against lateral buckling by the concrete slab. However, the typical pattern of bending moments in a continuous beam results in the lower flange being in compression in the region of internal supports.

Methods for the design of unrestrained steel beams against lateral-torsional buckling are not applicable to negative moment regions of continuous composite beams because in the former case it is assumed that each cross-section of the member rotates as a whole, without distortion.

In the negative moment region of a composite member, the restraint afforded to the upper flange results in distortion of the cross-section if the lower flange is to buckle laterally.

Lateral Buckling This restraint is provided by the torsional stiffness of the slab, acting together with adjacent steel sections as an inverted U -frame. The effectiveness of the restraint is also dependent on the stiffness of the shear connection.

Inverted U-frame

For composite beams whose steel member is a conventional hot-rolled I-section, inverted U-frame action may provide full restraint to the lower flange . Despite the possibility of local plastification at the ends of the beam, the plastification is not considered to affect the elastic mode of instability of the beam because of the reducing negative moment over the buckled length.

Distortional buckling of composite beam in negative moment region

Two possible forms of discrete lateral restraint of the lower compression flange It is necessary to ensure that such restraint is sufficiently strong and stiff to be effective and that the pull-out strength of the shear connectors is not exceeded.

Discrete lateral restraint

Concluding Summary
1) When elastic analysis is used to determine internal moments and forces(global analysis), moment may be redistributed from internal supports to allow for cracking of concrete and yielding of steel. 2) The extent of the redistribution is dependent on the classification of the steel section at each internal support and on the assumptions made concerning flexural rigidity in the negative moment regions. 3) The properties of the uncracked section may be used to determine the flexural rigidity for every cross-section along the beam (uncracked section method). Alternatively, it may be assumed that over a fixed length, on each side of internal supports, the properties are those of the cracked section (cracked section method). 4) The ultimate bending resistance of sections in Class 3 and Class 4 are determined by elastic analysis of the effective cross-section, based on the attainment of limiting strengths. 5) In determining the effective section, account is taken of shear lag, cracking of concrete in negative moment regions and, for Class 4 sections, the buckling of steel elements in compression. An appropriate modular ratio is used to allow for creep of concrete in compression. 6) The concrete slab may be assumed to prevent the upper flange of the steel section from moving laterally. Torsional restraint is provided by inverted U-frame action. In negative moment regions the tendency of the lower flange to buckle laterally is partially restrained by the distortional stiffness of the cross-section. These effects result in a reduction in the effective slenderness for lateral-torsional buckling, and may provide full restraint against this form of buckling. 7) Discrete lateral restraint may be provided to the compression flange, for example by bracing or transverse web stiffeners.

Design for Serviceability-I

In order that a structure should remain fit for use and that its appearance and durability remain satisfactory, consideration has to be given, during design, to serviceability limit states . Cracking, Deformation, Vibration unde r normal service conditions Failure to meet serviceability criteria is likely to result in increased maintenance and repair costs . In some cases it will result in a loss of utility, of durability, and ultimately, of the integrity of the structure. Factors such as the design life of the structure and exposure conditions will influence the design values of serviceability parameters. The classification of the design situation as persistent, transient or accidental, will similarly, have a bearing on these values.

?? Serviceability Limit States

1. Explicit Methods
Serviceability limit state criteria: Slip at the steel-concrete interface, when it becomes large enough to invalidate design checks. Excessive compressive stress in the concrete, leading to mic rocracking and affecting durability. Excessive cracking in concrete tension zones. Unacceptable deformations or deflections , which affect the appearance or efficient use of a structure or cause damage to finishes or other non-structural elements. These deformations are affected by cracking, creep and shrinkage; and by slip, where significant. Vibrations producing discomfort or affecting non-structural elements or equipment.

Some of the serviceability requirements are satisfied implicitly by virtue of assumptions made or restrictions introduced whilst designing the section for strength. In the design of a composite beam for serviceability limit state, it must be shown that under service conditions( ? F ? 1 ) the deflection and the cracking of concrete is limited.

Design Procedure

Ed ? C d Ed are calculated crack widths w or deflection ? Cd are limits for crack width wlim or deflections ? lim 2. Deemed-to-satisfy Provisions
It is frequently the case that the length or the complexity of calculations required for the explicit satisfaction of serviceability criteria is not warranted by the accuracy obtainable. Ex.) deflection by creep and shrinkage, stiffness of a cracked reinforced concrete section In some cases, the procedure enables the used of indirect criteria. Such simplified methods are termed deemed-to-satisfy methods. They are perfectly adequate for the majority of situations encountered in design, and are widely used in practice because of their greater ease of application.

?? Elastic Analysis
At service stress levels, the concrete in compression and the steel are assumed to behave in a linearly elastic fashion. Where Eurocode 4 permits the use of the uncracked flexural stiffness , ( EI )1 , concrete in tension may be considered uncracked. Where the flexural stiffness of the cracked sectin,

( EI ) 2 , must be used, the strength of concrete in tension is ignored.

Tension stiffening : even after cracking has occurred, the section derives stiffness from the concrete due to the uncracked concrete between cracks ? it is taken into account indirectly in the calculation of deflections and crack widths. In calculating the section properties of the composite section for serviceability checks, use is made of the concept of the transformed section. Geometric properties are readily calculated for the transformed section, and strains may be obtained using the elastic modulus for steel. Use is again made of the modular ratio in calculating elastic stresses in the concrete flange of the original composite section.

Design for Serviceability : the transformed section

Elastic strains and stresses in the composite section

1. Elastic Moduli
Young s modulus for steel; For structural steel: Ea ? 210 ? 103 Elastic modulus for concrete short-term Concrete is a non-linear, non-elastic material. When subjected to a constant stress, concrete strains increase with time a phenomenon known as creep. It is also subject to changes of volume caused by shrinakge, and by temperature changes. The value used in design codes is generally a secant modulus corresponding to a specified rate of loading.

N / mm 2 (Eurocode 4)

Stress-strain curve for concrete, showing various moduli

Creep in concrete Elastic modulus for concrete long term For the calculation of long-term effects in buildings, and in bridges without prestressing or pre-cambering, sufficiently accurate results will be obtained by using an effective modulus for concrete , Ec ' , in the calculation of the modular ratio.

Modulus Ratio

2. Geometrical Properties of the Section

In considering the geometrical properties of the composite section for use in elastic analysis, a variety of options appear to exist, depending on: ?? Whether the applied bending moment is positive or negative ?? Whether or not reinforcement is taken into account ?? The position of the neutral axis of the composite section, whether it is within the depth of the steel section or the concrete flange For the uncracked section, in positive bending, the contribution of reinforcement to the section stiffness is ignored. If the uncracked section is being used in an area of negative bending, the reinforcement may be taken into account. In the initial analysis of a continuous beam, stiffness will vary along the length of the member. In order to avoid complexity in the initial analysis, it is sometimes preferred to neglect the reinforcement in such situations. ?? Second moment of area

1) The Uncracked Section i) General case including reinforcement:

At ? Aa ? ( Ac / n) ? As a a ? (( Ac / n) ?a ? As ?( a ? as )) / At

I ? I a ? ( Ac / n) ?( hc / 12) ? ( Ac / n ) ?ac ? As ?( ac ? as ) 2
2 2

ii) Uncracked section reinforcement excluded:

At ? Aa ? ( Ac / n) aa ? ( Ac / n ) ?a / At

I ? I a ? ( Ac / n) ?( hc / 12) ? ( Ac / n) ?ac
2

2) The cracked section

At ? Aa ? As a a ? As ?( a ? as ) / At
I ? I a ? As ?( ac ? as ) 2
?? Service stresses If xe ? ( ac ? hc / 2) , the concrete stresses at the top (t) fibre of the uncracked section are:

f t ? M ? xe / n ?I
while bottom (b) fibre stresses in the steel section are:

f b ? M ?( D ? hc ? xe ) / I
The service stress in the steel reinforcement is:

f s ? M ?(ac ? as ) / I 3. Simply supported and continuous composite beams

In many cases, serviceabilit y checks can be carried out without the need for a separate analysis. The required bending moments can be obtained by factoring the results of analysis for the ultimate limit state. Recommendations of Eurocode 4 regarding analytical models for cracking and deflection checks on continuous beams: Table 3

Uncracked section stiffness throughout

Cracked section stiffness adjacent to support

??Serviceability Limit States : Cracking 1. Explicit Methods

In reinforced concrete , cracking of the concrete is a normal and acceptable part of its response to structural actions. The fact that much of the cracking originates in the early stages when concrete strength is low, and shrinkage and thermal strains are high, makes it very difficult to eliminate it completely. Cracking need not affect the serviceability of a structure. It can be of benefit in redistributing action effects from heavily stressed regions. Such redistribution can be used to permit the use of more economical sections . Cracking also has the effect of neutralising the residual stresses on the element due to shrinkage. Cracking is of concern because of its potential effect on the durability and on the appe arance of reinforced concrete elements. ( ingress of moisture to reinforcement ) A general aim in designing for crack control is to have distributed cracking. A large number of narrow cracks is preferable to a small number of wide cracks.

2. Deemed-to-satisfy approach
The deemed-to-satisfy approach to crack control (a) Where there is a likelihood of significant tension due to restraint of imposed deformation (whether or not this is combined with direct loading) a minimum amount of bonded reinforcement should be provided, sufficient to ensure that the reinforcement will remain elastic when cracking first occurs. (b) Bar diameters and/or spacings should be limited. Arrangement of reinforcement 1) For cracking caused predominantly by restraint: (a) Using Table 4 provide minimum steel based on ? s ? f yk (b) Using the actual area of reinforcement provided, calculate the service stress in the reinforcement, taking account of tension stiffening, as follows:

? s ? ? s. 0 ? 0.5( f ctm ? Ac / As )
Then use Table 5( column 2 ) to limit bar size. If it is desired to use a larger bar size, it will be necessary to reduce the service stress in the reinforcement to the corresponding le vel by increasing the area of reinforcement.

2) For cracking caused by predominantly by loading: (a) Using Table 4 provide minimum steel based on ? s ? f yk (b) Calculate the service stress in the reinforcement to limit either: bar diameter bar spacing

??Serviceability Limit States : Deflection 1. Explicit Methods

Various factors affecting the prediction of the deflections of composite elements ?? The continuous variation in member stiffness arising from cracking and from variations in the areas of reinforcing steel. ?? The effects of tension stiffening in the cracked regions of reinforced concrete. ?? The variation with time of Young s Modulus for concrete. ?? Shrinkage and creep of the concrete ?? Yielding of the steel member, as may happen at supports in continuous members. ?? Slip at the steel-concrete interface. ?? Shear lag ?? Temperature The magnitude of final deflections may be reduced by pre-cambering or by propping. With pre-cambering, a slight curvature i s rolled into the steel section, opposite in sense to that caused by the permanent loading. Criteria ?? Fitness for the intended use ?? Damage to non-structural components ?? Deflection of the structure of components beyond acceptable limits, e.g. resulting in ponding of rainwater or objectionable appearance. Eurocode 4 : In calculation of stresses and deformations at serviceability limit state, the following effects should be taken into account: ?? Shear lag ?? Increased flexibility resulting from incomplete interaction at the steel concrete interface ?? Cracking and tension stiffening of concrete in hogging moment regions ?? Creep and shrinkage of concrete ?? Yielding of steel, especially when unpropped construction is used ?? Yielding of reinforcement in hogging moment regions

In bridges, calculation of deflections is normally only necessary when: ?? Specified minimum clearances may be at risk ?? Surface water drainage could be impaired ?? The method of construction requires careful control of profile

Deflection components requiring consideration

Design for Serviceability-II

Concrete displays a time-variant response to sustained loading. The increase in strain which occurs, over time, under the action of sustained constant stress is termed creep.

The relaxation of stress under sustained constant strain.

Shrinkage: reduction in concrete volume due to loss of water by evaporation or hydration of the cement, or by carbonation. The significance of such volume changes is due to the fact that they are usually wholly or partially restrained, and thus give rise to tensile stresses and cracking.

??Creep
1) Influencing factors In concrete made with normal-weight aggregates, creep occurs in the hardened cement paste, and is resisted by the aggregate. Material and enviromental factors influencing creep are: ?? The composition of the concrete. ?? The rate of hardening of the concrete. ?? The dimensions of the element. ?? Ambient humidity. ?? Ambient temperature. In addition, the magnitude of creep deformation is affected by age at loading , the duration of the loading , and the stress level. The theories of creep, normally applied to concrete structures, assume creep strain to vary linearly with stress. It is a reasonable simplifying assumption for normal levels of serviceability stress. 2) Creep function ? and creep coefficient ? Creep is conventionally described by reference to a creep function and to a creep coefficient. The creep function, ? (t , t 0 ) , refers to the total strain-instantaneous elastic and creep strain at a given time, under the action of constant unit stress.

? (t , t 0 ) ? 1 / Ec (t 0 ) ? C( t , t 0 ) ? 1/ Ec (t 0 ) ?(1 ? ? ( t , t 0 ))
where:

? (t , t 0 ) is the creep function at time t, relating to a unit stress applied at time t 0 Ec (t 0 ) is the longitudinal modulus of deformation of the concrete at time t 0 C (t , t 0 ) is the specific creep at time t, resulting from a unit stress applied at time t t 0 is the age of the concrete at loading, measured in days from time of hardening
The creep coefficient ? (t , t0 ) is the ratio of the creep component of this strain to the instantaneous elastic component.

? (t , t 0 ) ? Ec (t 0 ) ?C (t , t 0 )
On occasion, reference is made to a normalised creep coefficient, such as the creep

coefficient calculated on the basis of the elastic modulus at 28 days and denoted ? 28 (t , t 0 ) .

? (t , t 0 ) ? 1 / Ec (t 0 ) ? ? ? 28 (t , t 0 ) / Ec 28 where ? 28 (t , t0 ) ? ? (t , t 0 ) ?Ec 28 / Ec (t 0 )

Various Methods for Creep Effective Modulus (EM) Method (Faber 1927) Rate of Creep (RC) Method (Glanville 1930, Whitney 1932, Dischinger 1937) Rate of Flow (RF) Method (England and Illston 1965) Improved Dishinger (ID) Method (Nielson 1970, Rusch, Jungwirth and Hilsdorf 1973) CEB/FIP 1978 Model Code Method

??Eurocode 2 formulation linear theory, superposition of the creep deformations due to stress fractions applied at different times constant ambient conditions subjected to a compressive stress not exceeding 0.4 f ckj at age j (service condition) creep coefficient

? (t , t 0 ) ? ? RH ?? ( f cm ) ?? ( t0 ) ?? c (t ? t 0 )

? RH ? ( f cm ) ? (t 0 ) ? c (t ? t 0 )
-

: relative humidity of the ambient environment : concrete strength : age at loading : development of creep with time, after loading
0

total strain at time t due to a stress ?

applied at time t 0

? tot (t , t0 ) ? ? 0 ?? (t , t 0 )
in general case

? tot (t , t0 ) ? ? n ( t ) ? ? 0 ?? (t , t 0 ) ?
? n (t )

? ? ? (t ) ?? (t, t )
i i

: an imposed deformation independent of the stresses, e.g. shrinkage or temperature effects

? ? (ti ) : stress variations applied at times t j , subsequent to t 0

incorporating an ageing coefficient ?

? tot (t , t0 ) ? ? n ( t ) ? ? (t 0 ) ?? ( t , t 0 ) ? (? ( t ) ? ? (t 0 )) ?(1 / Ec (t 0 ) ? ? ?? (t , t 0 ) / E28)

*. In many cases, the ageing coefficient may be taken as 0.8 If the stresses in the concrete vary only slightly, the deformations may be calculated using an effective modulus of elasticity.

Ec, eff ? Ec (t 0 ) /(1 ? ? (t , t 0 ))

Final creep coefficient ? ( ? , t 0 ) of normal-weight concrete

??Shrinkage
- The strain due to shrinkage which develops in an interval of time ( t ? t0 )

? cs (t , t s ) ? ? s ( f cm ) ?? RH ?? s (t ? t s )

Final shrinkage strain ? cs ? of normal-weight concrete

??Methods of Analysis for Creep and Shrinkage

the effects of creep and shrinkage on a simple unpropped beam

Service Stresses in a Composite Beam

the effects of shrinkage on a composite beam : The concrete flange is initially allowed a shrink freely, experiencing no restraint from the steel beam. A tensile force N SH is then applied to the concrete flange to restore it to its original length.

N SH ? Ac ?Ec ?? cs ( t , t 0 )
Assuming stresses to be in the elastic range, the stress in the concrete in then:

NSH / Ac

After composite action is achieved, equilibrium is established by balancing the tensile force with an equal and opposite compressive force, - NSH applied to the composite section. This gives rise to a bending moment M SH ? N SH ?aSH about the centroid of the c omposite section.

Shrinkage Effects in a Composite Beam

??Serviceability Limit States : Cracking

The two cases corresponding to flexural and axial loading give rise to notably different stress increases in the reinforcing steel at the onset of cracking.

Basic Cracking Modes

It is important that the reinforcing steel should not reach yield at any early stage in the development of cracking. This condition is avoided by prescribing the minimum amount of reinforcement necessary to prevent a sudden transition to yield. This amount varies depending on the stress distribution in the concrete at cracking.

Stresses in steel reinforcement, ?

at a crack (reinforced concrete in direct tension) for low

and high reinforcement ratios ? There is a local loss of adhesion between concrete and steel in the vicinity of a crack; the reinforcing bar exercises a restraining effect on the crack width; the crack width at the surface is greater than that at the bar. The maximum surface crack width is of significance from the point of view of appearance, whilst the value affecting durability through ingress of moisture to the reinforcement is the crack width adjacent to the bar.

Cracking: detail

The formation of the first crack is accompanied by a complete transfer of load from the concrete to the reinforcement at the crack, with a consequent loss of bond. There is a transitional region on either side of the crack within which, by virtue of bond, the original stress regime is gradually re-established. The bond characteristics of the materials determine the position of subsequent cracks relative to the first. The second crack is unlikely to form within the transitional region, because of the lower concrete stresses applying there.

Stresses associated with initial cracking in prismatic reinforced concrete element in axial tension One of the effects of cracking is to neutralise the residual stresses due to shrinkage.

The tension stiffening effect of concrete in the tensile zone. A consequence of this is that the

flange tensile force is higher than the value obtained using cracked section properties, which is calculated on the assumption that concrete is ineffective in tension. It is common to ignore the small bending moment contributed by the concrete flange to the overall equilibrium of the section.

M ? M a ? N a ?a
I : initially governed by the uncracked section stiffness AB : the loss of stiffness in the concrete flange, resulting from cracking, gives rise to an incrased rotation and a redistribution of forces within the composite section. Ma is increased and Ns is reduced. BC : As the overall moment, M, is further increase, the value of Ns increases again, until such time as the cracking stress is once more attained in the concrete flange. ??The process repeats itself, with no significant increase in the tension flange force, and with progressive reduction of the effective stiffness of the section, until cracking stabilises.

Serviceability cracking of concrete and tension stiffening Eurocode 2 provides two approaches to crack control:

1. An indirect (or deemed-to-satisfy) approach, requiring the satisfaction of rules relating to bar size or bar spacing. 2. An explicit approach, requiring the calculation of crack widths, for comparison with limiting values.

1) Deemed-To-Satisfy Approach
Factors influencing the minimum reinforcement areas a. The nature of the imposed deformations which are being restrained. i. intrinsic deformations which are due to dimensional changes in the member for example, those arising from shrinkage. ii. Extrinsic deformations which are externally applied for example, support settlements. b. The type of stress distribution within the member at the onset of cracking. The distribution may be classed as due to: i. bending resulting in a triangular stress distribution with some part of the section remaining in compression. ii. Tension with the whole section subject to tensile stress. The required minimum reinforcement area

As ? k c ?k ? f ct ef ? Act / ?

where, As : the area of reinforcement within the tensile zone

Act : the area of concrete within the tensile zone; the tensile zone in that part of the section
which is calculated to be in tension just before the formation of the first crack

? s : the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after formation of the
crack. This may be taken as 100% of the yield stress of the reinforcement, f yk .

f ct ef : the tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when the cracks may first be
expected to occur. A minimum value suggested in Eurocode 2 is 3MPa.

kc : a coefficient which takes account of the type of stress distribution occurring within the
section immediately prior to cracking.

kc = 1.0 kc = 0.4

for pure tension. for bending without normal compressive force

2) Explicit Calculation of Crack Widths

For limit state design, cracking in reinforced concrete is generally described with reference to a limiting crack width. In a satisfactory structure, it is to be expected that a small number of cracks will exceed this reference value under maximum loading.

The limiting value will be established with reference to environmental conditions, and to the requirements of durability and appearance. With certain structures, there could be an additional performance requirement to satisfy such as watertightness which would determine the reference crack width to be used in design.

The crack width limitations for reinforced concrete are specified with reference to the exposure classes. Crack width calculations Design crack width: wk ? ? ?srm ?? sm

wk : the design crack width srm : the average final crack spacing srm ? 50 ? 0.25 k1 k2 ? / ? r ? : the bar size in mm.

k1 : a coefficient which takes account of the bond properties of the bar. k1 = 0.8 for high bond bars k1 = 1.6 for plain bars k 2 : a coefficient which takes account of the form of the strain distribution. k2 = 0.5 for high bond bars k2 = 1.0 for plain bars ? r : the effective reinforcement ratio, As / Ac. ef
As : the area of reinforcement contained within the effective
tension area, Ac .ef .

Ac .ef : the area of concrete surrounding the tension reinforcement,

of depth equal to 2.5 times the distance from the tension face of the section to the centroid of the reinforcement.

? sm : the mean strain under the relevant combination of loads, allowing for the effects
of tension stiffening, shrinkage, etc.

? sm ? ? s / Es (1 ? ? 1 ?? 2 ?(?

sr

/ ? s )2 )

? s : the stress in the tension reinforcement, calculated on the basis of a

cracked section, for the loading condition under consideration.

? sr : the stress in the tension reinforcement, calculated on the basis of a

cracked section, for the loading condition causing first cracking.

? 1 : a coefficient which takes account of the bond properties of the bars. ?1 = 1.0 for high bond bars ?1 = 0.5 for plain bars ? 2 : a coefficient which takes account of the duration or of the repetition of
loading.

?2 ?2

= 1.0 for a single, short term loading =0.5 for a sustained load, or for many cycles of repeated load.

? : a coefficient relating the average crack width to the design value. ? =1.7 for load induced cracking, or for restraint cracking in sections with a
minimum dimension in excess of 800mm.

? =1.3 for restraint cracking in sections with a minimum dimensions of

300m or less.

Effective tension area

Beams and Plate Girders

8.1 Introduction
In most structures containing suspended floors the beams or girders represent a significant proportion of the total steel content and for this reason special attention needs to be given to their cost-effective application. Reference has been made in earlier chapters to the efficient functioning of beams and girders in terms of their performance in the overall structure; in this chapter the more detailed aspects of their design, detailing and fabrication are discussed.

8.2 Beam sections

The cheapest form of beam is one made from a standard rolled I-section in the common steel grade, 300WA, and having simple end connections. The great majority of beams used in practice fall within this description. Obviously, for a given section modulus, the most economical section is the one having the lowest mass per metre. A study of the section tables in the Steel Construction Handbook (Ref. 5) will show that when comparing beams of nearly equal section modulus, it is always the deepest one that has the lowest mass. This affords a simple guide to the selection of a minimum-mass section. Where a stronger section is required to accommodate high moments caused by large spans or heavy loading, it is always more economical to use a heavier rolled section than to resort to a plate girder or castellated beam, even though the latter sections may offer savings in mass. If a beam strength greater than that given by the largest available standard rolled section is required, it is better first to try a plated rolled section even though it is considerably heavier than a plate girder. This is because of the vastly more expensive operations involved in cutting the plate girder web and flanges to length, tack welding it on an assembly bed and laying the final welds (which involves turning the girder over). Flange plates welded onto a rolled section can be much more easily handled. They should be made shorter than the beam span and should be arranged for down-hand welding as shown in Fig 8.1, which obviates the need for turning the beam over. If the bottom flange weld is completed before the top weld a camber will be produced in the beam, which may be desirable to counteract loading deflection.

8.1

Top plate thicker than bottom plate

Downhand welding

Fig 8.1: Plated rolled steel beam

8.3 Castellated beams

By forming a standard rolled I-section into a castellated beam, a section is obtained with an elastic section modulus about 1,55 times that of the rolled section and a moment of inertia about 2,33 times, at no increase in mass. The properties of these sections are given in the Steel Construction Handbook. While these ratios appear very favourable, it must be noted that when section modulus, i.e. moment resistance, governs, it is nearly always cheaper to select a larger plain section than to opt for a castellated section because of the higher cost per metre of the latter. A case for castellation can only be made when a high level of stiffness is required (i.e. a large inertia), or where web openings are needed to allow for the passage of underfloor services in a multi-storey building. An example of where stiffness rather than bending resistance governs is a lightly loaded girder of long span. It must also be noted that a castellated beam section can only be designed elastically; because of the web holes and the high depth-to-thickness ratio of the web the section cannot behave plastically. A further point to be considered is that whereas it is desirable that at both ends of the beam a full-depth solid web should be present (to facilitate the fixing of end connections), the pitch of the openings in relation to the beam span will usually not allow this and there is likely to be a web opening at least at one of the ends. Castellated beams are usually only made in shops specially equipped for their production. The forming of the castellated web shape involves the use of a profile gas-cutter that follows the outline of a specially prepared template, with a different template being required for each serial size of beam. Some steel merchants offer a profile cutting service where they cut the castellated shape in the web, but leave the two halves of the beam attached by small 'stitch' lengths of uncut web. The fabricator then separates the halves, welds them together and trims the ends. Before specifying a castellated beam the designer should ensure that it will in fact be readily available.

8.2

8.4 Plate girders

Cross section The most economical plate girder to fabricate is one having minimum mass, equal-sized flanges and no web stiffeners. As with rolled I-sections, for a given section modulus a section with a greater depth will have a lower mass than one with a smaller depth, except in some instances where a thicker web is required in the deeper section. Where the compression flange is laterally unrestrained, however, it may be necessary to use a wider flange plate to resist the buckling tendency, but this will add to the cost because of the more difficult assembly procedure. For a uniformly loaded simply-supported girder, which is fully stressed and has a deflection limited to span of 300, the minimum depth span ratio is about 1:17 for Grade 300W steel. For a girder with a central point load the limit is 1:22. But in practice girders of greater depths than these are usually more economical in material usage.

In order to arrive at a minimum-mass cross section as much as possible of the material should be located in the flanges and as little as possible in the web, consistent with shear requirements. There is usually an advantage, however, in using a somewhat thicker web in order to reduce welding distortion, or to avoid the use of or number of stiffeners. It can be shown that for a given web depth to thickness ratio the minimum-mass cross section is that in which the area of the two flanges combined equals that of the web, i.e. 2Af = Aw.

Regarding web slenderness, clause 13.4.1.1 of SABS 0162-1 gives web shear resistances in terms of hw tw ratios and stiffener spacing. According to Clause 13.4.1.3 slenderness ratios up to 277 are allowed for Grade 300W steel, but as already stated the use of very slender webs can cause welding distortion problems.

An important consideration in cost reduction is the use of preferred plate widths and thicknesses for the flange and web elements. All of the girder sections listed in the Steel Construction Handbook are made up of plates of preferred thicknesses cut from preferred widths. Each net web depth is equal to a standard plate width (or sub-multiple thereof), less an allowance of 20 mm to 30 mm for edge trimming, the trimming being necessary because of the lack of edge straightness in as-rolled plates. For preferred plate sizes see Chapter 3. Web stiffeners Where the use of intermediate web stiffeners is considered from the point of view of web stability, it will often be found cheaper to specify a thicker non-stiffened web than to use stiffeners. The cost per ton of a girder with stiffeners on both sides of the web can be higher than that of one without stiffeners by up to 20 per cent or more. Obviously a careful check should be made on the necessity or otherwise of stiffeners because of the potential for saving through their omission. If it is decided to use intermediate stiffeners, they may be placed on one side of the web only. Although a single stiffener will have to be wider, it will be smaller in section than the

8.3

combined width of a pair and obviously the cost of fitting and welding will be very much lower. In addition, the need to turn the girder over to fit the far side stiffeners is obviated. Where stiffeners are required in any case, for example for the attachment of incoming beams, for the support of top flange loads or on crane gantry girders, advantage should be taken of their presence to use a thinner web. If the spacing of these stiffeners is too great, consideration can be given to inserting intermediate stiffeners between them to allow a thinner web to be specified. Intermediate stiffeners, and loadbearing stiffeners loaded through the girder top flange, may have their lower ends cut short of the top of the bottom flange; this will simplify both the cutting of the stiffeners and in particular their attachment to the girder. The clearance should be between four and six times the web thickness. Double intermediate stiffeners must have a snug fit against the compression flange of the girder, but need not be welded to it. Single stiffeners should be welded to prevent rotation of the flange. See Fig 8.2. Reduction of flange area Corners of stiffeners sniped 45
0

Not welded tw tw

Welded

4t w

6t w

Fig 8.2: Plate girder stiffeners

Savings in mass can be made by reducing the size of the flanges towards the ends of a girder. This is more effective in a girder carrying loads concentrated near the centre of the span and less effective when the load is uniformly distributed because of the more rapid reduction in the bending moment towards the ends in the former case. For girders having a length greater than the length of flange plate available, such reduction is justified since splicing of the flange is necessary in any case. For shorter girders, however, reduction would only be warranted in the case of very heavy flanges. It has been suggested that, as a rough guide, splicing should only be adopted if the saving in flange plate material exceeds 100 times the mass of the weld metal involved in butt-welded splices. In dynamically loaded girders, where a tapered transition is necessary, the reduction of flange section should rather be in the width of the plate than in the thickness, as shown in details (a) and (b) of Fig 8.3 respectively. Welding Welded plate girders are almost invariably assembled by means of automatic welding machines using the submerged arc process. The most economical flange-to-web weld is the conventional fillet. The girders are laid flat on the assembly bed, that is with their webs horizontal, and the welding machine travels down the length of the girder, laying

8.4

Bevel 1:5

(a) Flange width reduced

(b) Flange thickness reduced

Fig 8.3: Reductions in flange size

welds at the junction of each flange to the web simultaneously. The girder is then turned over and the process repeated on the other side. Fillet welds should always be used, except in the case of dynamically loaded girders, such as crane gantry girders, where complete penetration groove welds should be specified at the top flange; this involves a double edge preparation to the web and is obviously more expensive. The reason for using complete penetration in this application is to avoid fatigue cracking of the weld, which might occur with the double fillet because of the lack of fusion between the flange and the web between the two welds. In statically loaded girders the web stiffeners should normally be welded to the web intermittently, in this case manually. Continuous welds should only be used where required by the intensity of loading in load-bearing stiffeners, and on all stiffeners in dynamically loaded girders.

8.5 Beam end connections

The cost of end connections makes up a large proportion of the total cost of a beam. For this reason, and because such connections are highly repetitive, standardised types have been developed that will meet the great majority of requirements. The most frequently used ones, as applicable to simply-supported or flexible beam ends, are shown in Fig 8.4. Those in details (a) and (b), which employ bolted angle and welded plate cleats, are the most common and are suitable for beam-to-beam and beam-to-column connections. The type shown in detail (c) is used when the beam connects to a web stiffener on the supporting girder, whilst the seating angle shown in (d) may be used as an alternative to (a) or (b) to facilitate erection. Standardised connections should be used wherever possible, since a high level of repetition of simple connections makes for economy both in material usage and in labour. Tabulated values of factored resistances are given in Tables 7.14 to 7.19 of the Steel Construction Handbook for a large number of standard connections. Some of the hints given in the Structural Steelwork Detailing Handbook (Ref. 6) are repeated in Section 8.8 below for easy reference.

8.5

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig 8.4: Beam end connections

Chapters 6 and 7 of Structural Steelwork Connections Limit States Design (Ref. 7) contain detailed information on all aspects of the design of practical and economical beam end connections. The provision of moment-transmitting end connections on beams and girders adds substantially to the cost of these members, in spite of the reduction in section that can be gained. The suggestions made in Chapter 6 on rafter-to-column connections in portal frames apply in general to beam ends transmitting moment. Where possible, the stiffeners to column webs and to extended beam end plates should be avoided (i.e. items A and B of Fig 6.1), as should the extensions to the beam end plates themselves. However, these items should never be omitted without the approval of the designer, as it is necessary for the strength of the column web and the end plates to be checked.

8.7 Splicing of beams and girders

Site splices in simply-supported beams and girders, when required because of excessive length, should be located as close to the ends of the members as possible. The flange splices need then develop less than the full flange strength because of the reduced moment at these points. Friction-grip bolts should be used to prevent slip of the bolts and consequent sagging of the beam. On rolled sections and the smaller plate girders it is often possible to use a plate on the outer face of each flange rather than double plates, even though the bolts are in single instead of double shear. Splices in continuous beams and girders should be placed at points of zero or reduced moment, but should not be so small as to impair the general stiffness of the member. In beams without continuous lateral support the splices should be placed near to points

8.6

where lateral restraint is present. If this is not possible, full-strength splices will have to be used. Erection can be simplified in certain cases by the use of part-welded, part-bolted splices, as suggested for portal rafters in Chapter 6 (see detail (b) of Fig 6.2). The projection of the welded bottom flange splice plate of the first beam acts as a seating on which to rest the second beam while it is being bolted. Further aspects of beam and girder splices are discussed in Chapter 9 of Structural Steelwork Connections Limit States Design.

8.8 Camber
Beams and girders may be provided with a camber to counteract the deflection caused by dead loading plus permanently applied live loading. Beams that are to form part of composite construction will often be cambered to counter the effects of ponding at the wet concrete stage of construction. Cambering is usually only necessary when the member is exposed to view and where a visually perceptible deflection would be aesthetically unacceptable. Allowable deflections under working loads are limited to a small fraction of the span, say, 1 200 to 1 350 for beams in buildings or 1 600 for crane gantry girders. These small deflections are often quite acceptable visually, so cambering should only be resorted to when really necessary. Beams Cambering of rolled I-section beams can be achieved either by means of controlled heating and shrinking using a gas-torch, or in a heavy, usually hydraulic, press. Both operations are time-consuming and costly and as it is difficult to control accurately the amount of camber being produced several attempts will usually have to be made on a trial-and-error basis until an approximately correct camber has been reached. When cambering of long, shallow beams is thought to be necessary, consideration should be given to using a stiffer uncambered section to reduce deflection. Use of a much heavier section can be considered, despite the increase in material cost, in view of the saving on the high labour costs in the cambering operation. Plate girders A camber is introduced into a plate girder by cutting the web plate to the cambered shape before assembling and welding the girder. This operation also requires a high labour input because of the laborious process of marking the upper and lower edges of the web and gas-cutting the plate to the curved shape. Lattice girders Large-span lattice girders can have a camber built in by fabricating the tension and compression members a little shorter and longer respectively than their theoretical lengths. This requires a calculation by the detailer of the change in length of each member to provide the required overall camber.

8.7

With bolted girders the assembly of the individual members is straightforward since a bolted structure is self-jigging and will automatically take up its required shape. With welded girders, on the other hand, the assembly jig will have to be adjusted to give the necessary sweep to the chords.

8.9 Detailing of beams and girders

The Structural Steelwork Detailing Handbook provides comprehensive information on the detailing of beams and welded plate girders and lists suggestions regarding cost savings These should be incorporated into designs wherever possible. Fabricating companies should adopt a standard method of dimensioning holes along the length of a beam. Several methods are shown in Fig 8.5 and the one most suited to the workshop's production methods should be chosen. The methods shown in details (a) and (b) employ chain dimensions, whilst details (c) to (e) running or cumulative dimensions are used. In (a) and (c) the dimensions are to the centres of the hole groups, the holes in each group being marked off with a template. The methods indicated in (d) and (e) are applicable in shops equipped with automatic NC drilling or punching lines.

8.8

8.10 Summary of beam detailing hints

Some of the cost-saving hints in the Structural Steelwork Detailing Handbook are repeated here, viz.:

Use standard detailing practice, as given in the Handbook. In a given structure make as many beams as reasonably possible identical or nearly identical. For any given beam make both ends identical (or opposite hand), so that it can be erected the opposite way round; this simplifies fabrication and facilitates erection. Use standard end connections unless there is some overriding reason to do otherwise. Standard connections for simply-supported beams are given in Tables 7.14 to 7.19 of the Steel Construction Handbook. Use standard dimensions for beam end connections. Use standard bolt pitches and end distances. These are, in mm: Bolt size M12 M16 M20 M24 Pitch 50 60 70 80 End distance 25 30 35 40

In the standard bolted double-angle beam connections in Table 7.17, 7.18 and 7.19 of the Steel Construction Handbook the pitch of M20 Grade 8.8 bolts is given as 100 mm. This is a departure from the recommended value of 70 mm given above and is suggested to ensure an adequate depth of the angle cleats. Use standard backmarks on angles and channel flanges and gauges on I- and Hsection flanges, as given in the Steel Construction Handbook. For simply-supported beam end connections use either bolted angles or welded end plates, not both. The choice will depend on the fabricator's preference. Use seated beam end connections as shown in detail (d) of Fig 8.4 instead of bolted web angle cleats or welded end plates where this will facilitate erection. Only provide camber in beams and girders when really necessary.

8.9

140 842 950

180 892

(a)

772

140

790

180

802

(b)

842 140

1792 180

(c)

772 912 (d)

1702 1882

772 912

(e)

Fig 8.5: Alternative methods of dimensioning bolt hole groups

8.10

1702

1882

000