Chapter 2

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials
d0 d 1a. Stress/Strain P L0 L P
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d d0 d0
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P A0
L L0 L0
Axially Loaded Members

Examples: truss members, connecting rods in engines, spokes in bicycle wheels, columns in buildings, struts in aircraft engine mounts, cables (tension only), coil springs. Types of problem to be discussed: Changes in lengths Statically indeterminate structures Effects of temperature Effects of misfits and prestrains Strain energy Other topics include o Impact loading o Fatigue o Stress concentrations o Nonlinear behavior
Chapter 2 Axially loaded members 2 / 34
( )
1b. Constitutive relations (Linearly elastic)
E (G )
E=
( )
P
G= =
=
G=
E 2(1 + )
2. Axially loaded members
P = = E A L
PL AE
3. Torsion
4. Shear force and bending moment diagrams
5 and 6. Bending and shear stresses in beams 7. Analysis of stresses; Mohrs circles
Chapter 2 Axially Loaded Members

dV = q dx dM =V dx
T = T IP
= = G
TL = GI P
M V
My = I
VQ = Ib
1 =
8. Applications of plane stress 9. Deflections of beams 10. Statically indeterminate beams 11. Columns Chapter 2 Axially loaded members
pr pr 2 = t 2t
1 / 34
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Change in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members

Springs For linearly elastic springs:
Load P k
Change in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members

Prismatic Bars For linearly elastic materials:
Stress
= E
Strain
Elongation
P = k
k: Spring Constant, or Stiffness
= fP
L : Original Length
: Elongation Due to Force P

Chapter 2 Axially loaded members
f: Flexibility or Compliance
k =1 f f =1 k
3 / 34
P = A L
PL EA P or P = = E = EA L A L EA Stiffness : k = L L Flexibility : f = EA Axial Rigidity = EA

4 / 34
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Change in Lengths Under Non-Uniform Conditions

Bars with Intermediate Axial Loads
1. Denote the internal forces in segments AB, BC, and CD as N1, N2, and N3, respectively. Draw F.B.D. as shown to expose those internal forces. 2. Determine the internal force in each segment from the FBDs. The internal force remains constant in each segment

Bars Consisting of Prismatic Segments Each Having Different Axial Forces, Dimensions, and Materials
N3 , L3 , A3 , E3 N2 , L2 , A2 , E2 N1 , L1 , A1 , E1
Pd Pd Pd Pd
Pc Pc Pc N3
Pb Pb N2 N1
Pa F = Pa + Pb + Pc Pd = 0
N1 = PB + PC + PD , N 2 = PC + PD , N 3 = PD
3. Determine the change in the length of each segment (of length L1, L2, and L3, respectively)
F = 0 N1 = Pb Pc + Pd ( Pb Pc + Pd )L1 NL = 1 1=
1
A1E1
A1E1
1 =
(a) Bar with external loads acting at intermediate points; (b) (c), and (d) free-body diagrams (F.B.D.) showing the internal axial forces N1, N2, and N3.
N1 L1 N L N L , 2 = 2 2 , 3 = 3 3 EA EA EA
F = 0 N2 = Pc + Pd
2 =
( Pc + Pd )L2
A2 E2
4. The change in length for the entire bar is the sum of the changes in length of all segments
F = 0 N3 = Pd
3 =
Pd L3 A3 E3
= 1 + 2 + 3 =
Ni Li i =1 EA
5 / 34
Ni Li Ei Ai ( Pb Pc + Pd )L1 ( Pc + Pd )L2 Pd L3 = + + A1 E1 A2 E2 A3 E3
= i =
i =1 i =1
6 / 34
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Bars with Continuously Varying Loads and/or Dimensions
Example 2.4 Change in length of a tapered bar.
RA
Reaction at A:
RA = PB + p(x )dx
L 0
Change in length of segment dx:

Internal force N(x) varies
Cross-sectional Area A(x):

L
N (x ) = R A p(x )dx = PB + p(x )dx

x 0 x
RA
d =
N (x )dx EA(x )
LA d A , = LB d B
A (x ) = 4
d (x ) x d x = d (x ) = A dA LA LA
2
=
= =
L N (x )dx Pdx = 2 2 EA(x ) L E(d A x 4 L2 A)

B A
[d (x )]
d x
2 A
Change in length of the entire member:
4 L2 A
4 PL2 A 2 Ed A 4 PL2 A 2 Ed A
LB
A
dx x2
= d = 0 d = 0
L
N (x )dx EA(x )
7 / 34
Internal Force N(x)
1 1 L L B A 4 PL
Cross-sectional area A(x) varies

N (x )
N (x ) = P
2 = Ed A LB Ed A d B
8 / 34
4 PL LA
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length L, weight density , and Youngs modulus E of the material, for the shortening c of the cone and p of the prismatic bar, respectively, due to their own weights.
Example: Obtain formulae, in terms of
Statically Indeterminate Structures
Ay N y L Ny
N y = Vy =
L
A y y
3
L
d =
N y dy EAy
ydy
3E
R = P1 + P2
R A + RB = P
dy
= 0 d = 0
ydy
3E
L2
6E
d = N y dy EAy =
Statically Determinate Structures

In addition to the equilibrium consideration, equations pertaining to the displacement of the structure, called equations of compatibility, and the relations between forces and displacements are usually needed.
10 / 34
Ny L Ny
N y = Vy = Ay y
ydy
E
dy
= 0 d = 0
ydy
E
L2
2E
9 / 34
Reactions and internal forces can be determined solely from free-body diagrams and equations of equilibrium without knowing the properties of the materials.
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Analysis of a Statically Indeterminate Bar.
(Fig. 2-16, page 85) RA RA

Analysis of a Statically Indeterminate Bar.
RA RA RA Equilibrium: Compatibility: NAC NCB
Fverti = RA P RB = 0
i = AC + CB = AB = 0
PL = EA
Equation of Equilibrium:
verti
= RA P + RB = 0
Force-displacement relations
AC =
Equation of Compatibility:
= AC + CB = AB = 0 Force-displacement relations PL EA or P = = EA L
i
N AC a RA a N b R b = CB = CB = B EA EA EA EA
From Compatibility: RB RB RB
AB = AC + CB =
R A a RB b + =0 EA EA
Solve simultaneously with equilibrium equation

RA = Pb Pa (tension ) RB = (compression) L L
Pab Pab (lengthen) CB = (shorten) EAL EAL
RB
RB Free-body diagram
NOTE: The directions of RA and RB are assumed in the way so as to balance the applied force P. For a more complicated problem where the directions of the reactions are not so obvious, always assume they are in tension.
11 / 34
Free-body diagrams
N AC = RA
NCB = RB
From the force-displacement relations

AC =
This is called the flexibility (force) method

MEM Example 2.5
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Analysis of a statically indeterminate bar Alternative method
Equilibrium: RA RA RA Compatibility:
Fverti = RA P RB = 0 i = AC + CB = AB = 0
EA P = L
A steel cylinder encased in a copper tube, both are compressed by a force P.

Equilibrium:
Fverti = PS + PC P = 0
Two unknowns: PS and PC One equilibrium equation: Fverti = 0 E A EA PS = S S S PC = C C C L L
Force-displacement relations NAC

RA = N AC = EA AC a
Compatibility: S = C Force-displacement relations
RB = NCB =
NCB
EA CB b
S =
Substitute these into the equation of equilibrium:

R A P RB = EA EA AC P CB = 0 a b
PS L ES AS
C =
PC L EC AC
or
RB
RB
RB
Solve simultaneously with compatibility equation

AC =
Pab Pab (lengthen) CB = (shorten) EAL EAL
Pb Pa (tension ) RB = (compression) L L
13 / 34
N AC = RA
NCB = RB
From the force-displacement relations

RA =
Flexibility (force) method Stiffness (displacement) method PS L PC L EA E A = Compatibility : S = C Equilibrium : S S S + C C C = P ES AS EC AC L L Solve simultaneously with equilibrium. Solve simultaneously with compatibility. PL ES AS EC AC S = C = PS = P E A +E A PC = P E A +E A E A + EC AC S S C C C C S S S S
This is called the stiffness (displacement) method

S =
PS PES = AS ES AS + EC AC
C =
PC PEC = AC ES AS + EC AC
14 / 34
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Example 2.6
A rigid bar AB pinned at end A and supported by two wires CD and EF.
Equilibrium:
Thermal Effects
A block of material subjected to an increase (positive) or decrease (negative) in temperature. Thermalstrain : T = (T )
T: Temperature change : Coefficient of thermal expansion (Units: 1/F or 1/C)
Fhoriz = RH = 0 Fverti = RV + T1 + T2 P = 0 M A = T1b + T2 (2b) P(3b) = 0 T1 + 2T2 = 3P

Compatibility: 2 = 2 1 Force-displacement relations TL TL EA EA 1 = 1 1 2 = 2 2 orT1 = 1 1 1 T2 = 2 2 2 E1 A1 E2 A2 L1 L2 Simplify 1 = f1T1 2 = f 2T2 orT1 = k1 1 T2 = k 2 2 Flexibility (force) method
Compatibility : f 2T2 = 2 f1T1
Example: Steel
E = 30 10 6 psi = 9.6 10 6 o F
Thermal strain for a 100 F increase in temperature: Stresses needed to produce the same amount of strain: Temperaturedisplacement relation
T = (T ) = 9.6 10 4 = E = 28 ,800psi
Stiffness (displacement) method

Equilibrium : k1 1 + 2 k 2 2 = 3P
T = T L = (T )L
Solve simultaneously with equilibrium. 3 f2P 6 f1 P T1 = T2 = 4 f1 + f 2 4 f1 + f 2

Solve simultaneously with compatibility. 3P 6P 1 = 2 = k1 + 4 k 2 k1 + 4 k 2

15 / 34 Chapter 2 Axially loaded members 16 / 34
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Thermal Effects
Thermal stresses will develop in a structure if 1. The temperature change is non-uniform 2. The structure is constrained to expand (or contract) freely.
Example 2.7 Statically indeterminate bar with a uniform

temperature increase T.
Compatibility: Equilibrium:
AB = T R = 0
verti
= 0 RA = RB
R =
RA L EA
Temperature-displacement relation
T = (T )L
Statically determinate No thermal stress Statically indeterminate Thermal stress will develop
The constraint on top is removed to allow the bar to expand freely as the temperature rises
17 / 34
The bar is then pushed back to its original length by applying the reaction force.
T R = (T )L
RA = EA (T )
RA L =0 EA
T =
RA RB = = E (T ) A A
18 / 34
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Example 2.8
A sleeve and bolt assembly subjected to a uniform temperature increase T.

2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.
Misfits
Removed the bolt head to allow the sleeve and bolt to expand freely due to temperature increase T:
1 = S (T )L Sleeve : 2 = B (T )L
Bolt :
In order to reinsert the bolt head back, the sleeve needs to be shortened and the bolt needs to be stretched:
Sleeve : 3 =
PS L PL , Bolt : 4 = B ES AS EB AB
The final elongation of the assembly is Compatibility:
= 1 3 = 2 + 4
PS = PB
19 / 34
Equilibrium: The force in sleeve must balance the force in bolt

Statically determinate structure with a small misfit produces no strains or stresses

Statically indeterminate structure with a small misfit will produce strains and/or stresses
20 / 34
MEM Example 2.9
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Pre-strain (Intentionally designed misfits)

= 2np
Double-acting turnbuckle. (Each full turn of the turnbuckle shortens or lengthens the cable by 2p, where p is the pitch of the screw threads.).
A statically indeterminate assembly with a copper tube in compression and two steel cables in tension.
Remove the rigid plate on the right to let the cables shorten as the turnbuckles are being turned Pull the steel cables and push the copper tube until their lengths become the same. Compatibility:
1 2 = 3
Equilibrium:
2 PS = PC
= np
2 =
PS L ES AS
3 =
PC L EC AC
The pitch of the threads is the distance from one thread to the next.
Chapter 2 Axially loaded members 21 / 34 Chapter 2 Axially loaded members
Cable shorten due to turning of the turnbuckles
1 = 2np
22 / 34
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Rigid Plate
MEM230 Mechanics of Materials Rigid Plate
MEM
Example: Two copper bars and one

aluminum bar are fixed at the bottom as shown in the figure. The top ends of all three bars are supposed to be welded to a rigid steel plate. The aluminum bar, however, is a little shorter ( = 0.1 in.) than the copper bars and it had to be heated to make it extend to the same length as the copper bars to complete the welding process. E AL = 10.6 106 psi ECu = 18.0 106 psi
Cu
Al
After the welding is done and the temperature returns to normal, what will the stresses be in the aluminum bar and the copper bars, respectively?
Cu Al Cu L
Cu
The free-body diagram shown below indicates that force in the aluminum bar must balance the forces in the two copper bars. The copper bars will be shortened and the aluminum bar be stretched.
Equilibrium PAl = 2 PCu
Al = 13 106 / o F
AAl = ACu = 1.0 in 2
L = 30 in
PCu
What is the temperature increase, T (F), that is needed to bring the aluminum bar to the same length as that of copper bars?
Cu
PAl
PCu
Compatibility Force/Displacement
Al + Cu = Al =
PAl L E Al AAl
Cu =
= Al TL
T =
Al L
0.1 o (13 106 )(30) = 256.4 F

23 / 34
Al
PCu L ECu ACu
PAl = 27,300 lb PCu = 13,650 lb
Al = 27,300 psi Cu = 13,650 psi

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T P
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L
Thermal Stresses and Strains

A Bar Subjected to T and P
L
Thermal Stresses and Strains

Determine stress and strain in the rod if temperature increases by T = 100C
E = 70GPa = 2.5 10 6 / o C L = 10m
T = (T )L
P
Thermal expansion
T = (T )L
L
A = 500mm 2
s = 1.0mm
Elongation due to load P PL P = EA Total Elongation
Thermal expansion: T = (T )L Compatibility: Shortening by P: Stress:

s = T P
T
P
= (2.5 10 6 / o C )(100o C )(10m ) = 0.0025m
L T
P =
PL EA
P
P = T s = 0.0025m 0.001m = 0.0015m(Compressio n ) = E P =

E P (70 10 9 N m 2 )( 0.0015m ) = 10.0m L 6 2 = 10.5 10 N m = 10.5MPa + P s 0.001m = T = = = 0.0001 L L 10.0m
= T + P = (T )L +
PL EA
= T + P
Stress
= E( T ) = E P = E
P
L
P A
25 / 34
Total Strain:
26 / 34
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Stresses on Inclined Sections

Examples of shear failure under uni-axial tension/compression
x = P/A if
(1) Bar is prismatic (2) Material is homogeneous (3) P acts at the centroid of the cross-sectional area (4) No stress concentrations
Shear failure along a 45 plane of a wood block loaded in compression.

Slip bands (or Lders bands) in a polished steel specimen loaded in tension.
27 / 34
A stress element
3-D view
2-D view
28 / 34
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NormalForce : N = P cos ShearForce :V = P sin

NormalStress : = N A1 ShearStress : = V A1 Area :A1 = A cos
N P V P = cos2 = x cos2 ; = = sin cos = x sin cos A1 A A1 A

1 2 cos = (1 + cos 2 ) 2 1 sin cos = (sin 2 ) 2
N P = = cos 2 = x cos 2 A1 A V P = = sin cos = x sin cos A1 A

= x cos2 =
x
2
(1 + cos 2 )
x
2
= x sin cos =
(sin 2 )
30 / 34
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Maximum Normal and Shear Stresses (for a bar in tension)
= x cos 2 = x
2
Example 2.10 (Page 113)
(1 + cos 2 )
x
2
= x sin cos =
(sin 2 )
Maximum normal stress occurs at = 0. Thus, max = x.
P = 90 kN
A = 1200 mm2
Maximum shear stress occurs at = 45. Thus, max = x/2.

max = = 0 = x max = = 45 = x 2
o o max
= = 0o = 0
max
= = 45o = x 2
31 / 34
P 90 kN x = = = 75 MPa A 1200 mm2
=25 = x sin (25o )cos(25o ) = 28.7 MPa =90 + 25 = x cos2 (115o ) = 13.4 MPa
o o o
=25 = x cos2 (25o ) = 61.6 MPa

o
32 / 34
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Example 2.11 (Page 114)

Plastic Glue Glue:
Allowable Stresses:
Plastic : P = 1100 psi; P = 600 psi Glue : G = 750 psi; G = 500 psi If P = 8000 lb, what must " b" be?
Normal Stress : = x cos2 ( 50o ) If = G 750 psi, then x = 1815 psi
Shear Stress : = x sin ( 50o )cos( 50o ) If = G = 500 psi, then x = 1015 psi
Problem 2.6-18 A tension member is to be constructed of two pieces of plastic glued along plane pq (see figure). For purposes of cutting and gluing, the angle must be between 25 and 45. The allowable stresses on the glued joint in tension and shear are 5.0 MPa and 3.0 MPa, respectively. (a) Determine the angle so that the bar will carry the largest load P. (Assume that the strength of the glued joint controls the design.) (b) Determine the maximum allowable load Pmax if the cross-sectional area of the bar is 225 mm2. Given: allow = 5.0MPa allow = 3.0MPa Normal Stress on the Glued Joint: = x cos 2 x = (1) cos 2 Shear Stress on the Glued Joint:
Plastic: Normal Stress : x = P = 1100 psi

Shear Stress : = x 2
If = P 600 psi, then x = 1200 psi

-1015 psi is the smallest x
= x sin cos x =
sin cos
(2)
A=
8000 lb = 7.88 in 2 b = 1015 psi
A = 2.81 in
33 / 34
3.0MPa 5.0MPa = = 30.96 o sin cos cos 2 5.0MPa (225mm 2 ) = 1.53kN Pmax = x A = cos 2 (30.96 o )

Chapter 2

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Chapter 2

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MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Axially Loaded Members

2. Axially loaded members

4. Shear force and bending moment diagrams

Chapter 2 Axially Loaded Members

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Change in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members

Change in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members

k: Spring Constant, or Stiffness

: Elongation Due to Force P

PL EA P or P = = E = EA L A L EA Stiffness : k = L L Flexibility : f = EA Axial Rigidity = EA

Chapter 2 Axially loaded members

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Change in Lengths Under Non-Uniform Conditions

Change in Lengths Under Non-Uniform Conditions

Chapter 2 Axially loaded members

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Change in Lengths Under Non-Uniform Conditions

Example 2.4 Change in length of a tapered bar.

Change in length of segment dx:

Cross-sectional Area A(x):

N (x ) = R A p(x )dx = PB + p(x )dx

L N (x )dx Pdx = 2 2 EA(x ) L E(d A x 4 L2 A)

Change in length of the entire member:

Internal Force N(x)

Cross-sectional area A(x) varies

Chapter 2 Axially loaded members

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Example: Obtain formulae, in terms of

Statically Indeterminate Structures

Statically Determinate Structures

Statically Indeterminate Structures

Chapter 2 Axially loaded members

Chapter 2 Axially loaded members

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Statically Indeterminate Structures

Statically Indeterminate Structures

Solve simultaneously with equilibrium equation

From the force-displacement relations

This is called the flexibility (force) method

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM Example 2.5

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Statically Indeterminate Structures

A steel cylinder encased in a copper tube, both are compressed by a force P.

Force-displacement relations NAC

Compatibility: S = C Force-displacement relations

Substitute these into the equation of equilibrium:

Solve simultaneously with compatibility equation

From the force-displacement relations

This is called the stiffness (displacement) method

Chapter 2 Axially loaded members

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

MEM230 Mechanics of Materials

Fhoriz = RH = 0 Fverti = RV + T1 + T2 P = 0 M A = T1b + T2 (2b) P(3b) = 0 T1 + 2T2 = 3P

Stiffness (displacement) method

Solve simultaneously with equilibrium. 3 f2P 6 f1 P T1 = T2 = 4 f1 + f 2 4 f1 + f 2