You are on page 1of 16

Songs of the Ketu Cult of Bahia, Brazil Author(s): Alan P. Merriam Source: African Music, Vol. 1, No.

3 (1956), pp. 53-67 Published by: International Library of African Music Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30249448 Accessed: 28/05/2010 14:32
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ilam. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

International Library of African Music is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to African Music.

http://www.jstor.org

SONGS OF THE

KETU CULT OF BAHIA

53

SONGS OF THE KETU CULT OF BAHIA, BRAZIL


by ALAN P. MERRIAM whichthe following In Afro-American studies,within falls,the anthroanalysis overthevariables an unusualdegreeof control to be considered. pologistcan establish at an understanding of observed Here he has a basis forarriving changein thathe can in whichthe constant is the common establishhistorical depth,a controlsituation of the African and variables cultural slaves, heritage dependent represented by the whichthe Negro encountered environments as a slave in the socio-cultural different fora laboratory situation are metinsofar New Worldsetting.Thus therequirements constant. humanelement as thealwaysunpredictable maybe counted upon to remain cultures or cultural elements in the In thissituation, then,the studyof African thecultural of Africa thusgiving New Worldmaybe placedagainst itself, background for controlled an opportunity the anthropologist studyof culturechange. Further, of whichthe African environments the varioussocio-cultural Negro became a part in terms and evaluated of their influence on thebasic in theNew Worldmaybe tested ofacceptance, oftheprocesses andthusa better African culture, understanding rejection, and syncretism maybe reached. musicis of considerable of theseacculturative In thestudy processes, importance, than to directattackin the acculturative situation both because it is less susceptible ofculture, andat thesametime is particularly ofobjective someother aspects susceptible musicseemsto be patterned and carried In thefirst on sublimininstance, description. to or intrusive to be less liable outside than forexample, thus and are, conditioning ally of houses. Thus one dealswitha phenomenon or theconstruction foodhabits, which, of one culture in whichthemembers situation dominate thoseof another in a cultural cannot be stamped out forcibly, and is as was thecase in New Worldslavery, probably in thenew situation. to be retained likely very whichcan be studiedobjectively, musicis of As an aesthetic aspect of culture in acculturation studies. Whilein otherbranches of the arts, importance heightened have as yetbeen devisedforobjectivestudy, musiccan be objectified fewtechniques of time,tempo,interval and many in manyaspects; analysis usage, modal structure, rather thanqualitatively. othercharacteristics maybe noted quantitatively musicis particularly usefulin acculturation studies; Thus, in thesetwo respects in thatit is one of the creative is further its importance enhanced, finally, aspectsof leadto an understanding cantherefore ofthebasichuman anditsstudy culture, problems of the culture in whichit of creative life,as well as the values,goals and meanings functions.Throughmusic,then,one may probe the problemsof cultural stability, thereworking in performance, of old valuesin new situations, variation and individual of culture thegeneral mostparticularly, processes change. directed toward themusicstructure is ofan AfricanThe present study establishing of considerable cultgroupofBahia,Brazil. Suchworkis at present derived importance of themusical between New Worldand African to theentire study relationships Negro fewstudies have beenmade. Before can begin cultures;to datevery ethnomusicology to thestudy contributions of theNew WorldNegroacculto makeits mostsignificant of cultural the broader thatderivefrom and turative it, dynamics questions problems heremustbe completed, so that factual a seriesof suchworksas thatbeingundertaken data.' will becomeavailablefor comparative information

54

AFRICAN

MUSIC SOCIETY

JOURNAL

1 of theNegro slaves takento Brazilposes many The questionof the provenience Ramos notes that,"fromcolonialtimesto the present day, problems. For example, andMozambique havebeenemployed to indicate of nago, thepopularterms mina, Angola fromwhencetheNegroes came. A stillmorepopular vaguelythe portionof Africa in whichsuchterms as India Guinea black and coast nomenclature piece, developed Negro of dealingwiththesevague terms similar were used."2 To the difficulty difficulties such as poorlykeptrecordsand the destruction of previousrecords mustbe added. it is instructive to turn However,in resume, againto Ramos,who sumsup as follows:
number of thoseimported At thebeginning of theslavetrade, thelargest intoBrazilwere communication from theCongoand Guinea. Whenmoreactive the Angola, beganwithBahia3 Sudan. Therebegana remarkable was Guineaand the western influx leadingsourceof supply theGoldCoast, andvarious Islamized ofYorubas, Minas from Dahomans tribes suchas theHausas, and Fulahs. Tapas, Mandingos, Thusitwasthat entered Brazil.In thefirst three were theSudanese great Negropeoples group In thesecond and Dahomans withtheAshanti. werethe Yorubas together Negroes-the group MoslemNegroes-theHausas,Tapas,Mandingos and Fulahs. The third the groupcomprised Bantufamily-the and several lesser tribes.4 Angolas, Congos, Mozambiques

ofNegropopulations In viewoftheconcentration in Bahiaandin Brazilas a whole, it is predictable thatthe cultures of thesepeople shouldhave,in greatpart,survived the geographical and continued transitions of demographic to existin the movement, factor New World as a powerful in the lives of the Africans.Religious integrating as thecultural focusofWestAfrican aboutwhichcentered a hostof other life, practices, musicand folklore have been retained in theNew complexes including amongothers, in WestIndianand SouthAmerican areasin whichtheCatholic World,and especially fertile for syncretism betweenthe two religionprovideda particularly opportunity In Bahia,andin other traditions. northern Brazilian theAfrican cities, religious religious has been retained in particularly formto thepresent time,functioning system strong in cultgroupsas a livingsystem ofbeliefs and practices. The African-derived cult groupin Brazilis called the candombli, and is religious based upon an orderof orishas, or deities-WestAfrican has been gods whoseefficacy retained in theNew World. Some of thesegods are Oshala,the mostpowerful deity, thegod oflightning, thegod ofwarand iron,Eshu,thetrickster and god Shango, Ogun, of evil,Oshun, a water thegod ofwindand storm, thepersoniYansan, Oshunmare, deity, of therainbow, fication and many others.These gods are grouped in a pantheon, and each is clearly identified of traits sex,symbol, by a complex including insignia, special sacreddays,and specialcalls. For Shango, forexample, foods,colours, beads,bracelets, to Pierson,sex is male,the symbolis lightning, is meteoric iron, according insignia lance or hatchet, or he-goat; the colouris red, specialor sacredfood is cock turtle beads are redand white, are madeof brass,thesacreddayis Wednesday, bracelets and the specialcall hay-ee-ee6. In addition, the gods of theAfrican have come to pantheon be identified with theCatholic OshossiwithSt. George, saints-OgunwithSt.Anthony, to namebut two. These syncretisms are based both on thefunction of the deities in the two systems, and upon the supposedfunctions of the Catholicsaintsas derived fromtheir in chromolithographs.? pictured representation Seven major,and two minorcandombles are represented, of whichthreeare supand the remaining in six, of African posedlyof Indian origin, origin. The ceremony theKetuandJesha is derived thereligious from groups, (Nagoin Portuguese), practices of the Yoruba people of Nigeria.8The Congo Angolagrouptakesits namefromthe from thesouthern and eastern of theCongo basin.9 The Gige peoplesbrought fringes and thetwominor groupis Dahomeanin derivation,'0 groups, Egba and Efan,Yoruba.

In Bahia,theareawithwhichthispaperis concerned, to the "Negroesbelonging first whilethe"Yoruba Negroeswerepreferred."5 and secondgroupspredominated,"

SONGS OF THE

KETU CULT OF BAHIA

55

The Caboclo, and CabocloGuaranigroupsincorporate deitiesand practices Guarani, of indigenousIndian beliefswith those of Africanorigin,particularly of Congo derivation."
in all these thedestiny is basedon theworld-view that oftheUniverse is in groups Worship thatareeverywhere thehands thesame, of deities from bearvary though they region the-names to region to people that is spoken.Thedestiny andfrom to thelanguage ofman, according people is ruled who is buta modest theinterpartof thisUniverse, bythesamegods,butmanenjoys ofancestral ofa hierarchy as inlife continue to be preoccupied cession whoin death the with dead, ofthefamily to which thegodsappear to havegiven theancient well-being they belong.Indeed, in regulating themoral codeoftheir deada certain descendants ofhuman in theinterest autonomy havenotabrogated their ownpowers to regulate theconduct oftheliving well-being, though they eachindividual members ofeachfamily. On thecontrary, hashisor hergod as a personal spirit. a passive in relation to hisdestiny, forthrough Manis not,however, divination he can agent thesecrets of thatdestiny, hiswell-being, and his status in thegroupamong discover which he

lives.12 deviations occurwithin foreach cultgroup, or theceremonial Whilemarked and forms terms of ritual here. The cult somegeneral "nation", maybe indicated ofBahia the the arecalled sacred centers found onwhich seitas, city throughout grounds Eachcult the ofworship the terreiro. center contains several sacred house stands, spots, or altar themost ofwhich is the to theorisha.Eachseita is presided pegi, important ormae-de-santo, terms which be loosely as "priest" over translated may bya pai-de-santo, it seems theoriginal or "priestess," bestto retain term in disalthough respectively, ofthe or to mae-de-santo is and lead the cussion. Thefunction for, arrange worship paiatthe the holds the secrets ofworship, is aninterpreter for the same leader orishas; time, ofthecult with oftradition, anddirects theaffairs Various assist ritual, helpers group. santo who are the initiates the the andthese include the or de of group; filhas filbos of thecultwho assistin theritual in various the members ogans-male capacities; andothers. for a public the the In arranging whoperforms sacrifices; musician, achogun, or priestess first theinitiates theofficiating of the ceremony, brings together priest the the ritual of the in honour of and whose ceremony deity particular group begins which thetrickster The despacho, feast is beingcelebrated. Eshu,so deity, appeases the other to the "sent he will assures himself come, that, away," gods permit though withtheremainder of theceremony. that he willnotinterfere Dances participants to thepossession ofsomedancers andsongs to theorishas follow, leading eventually into their arehandled that the heads.Possessed initiates which indicates godhasentered their with andareeventually released from throughout possession precise techniques thedrums to thesongs ritual.13 Thosepossessed dancebefore thegod with special andfinally, when"thegodsno reserved fortheparticular god represented, specially a the rite toa close."'4 their tension need to comes further show dance, by longer quietly as is theritual is alsoanimportant in thecult which Animal sacrifice ceremony group, intofullcultparticipation. cult theentrance of theinitiate TheseBahian surrounds havebeenextensively described students.'" byseveral groups itis bymeans since ofthe music hasparamount In the orishas, importance, worship in theceremonies. thegodsare"called" to participate that Perandrhythms ofsongs rolein Afro-Bahian cultmusic;notonly arethe cussion instruments playa dominant fulfil butthemusicians whoplay them funcinstruments themselves special important, as professionals in this ofthegroup, andmay be regarded tions thehierarchy within life. branch ofreligious particular tends intotwopatterns instruments to split The use ofmusical depending upon
cult groupsin which theyfunction.For the Ketu, Gage, and Jesha the particular used, whilein the Caboclo, Guarani groups,the iron gong and drumare mostoften as well as drumand iron and Cabocle Guaranigroups,rattle, calabash,and guitar, seemto be used in theCongo Angola gongare employed.Bothpercussion groupings songs.

56

AFRICAN MUSIC SOCIETY JOURNAL

are termed "The drums in the cultrituals hu('the largest'), employed ('the hunpri and are used in sets of three,termed medium-sized one'), and le ('the smallest'),"16 at hand,however, the most commonunitis two drumsand In the recordings terno. sincethetwo smaller irongong. At thesametime, drums usually playthesamerhytharepresent theimportant micpatterns, whenonlyone of thesmaller is drums rhythms used withthelargedrum." The drums are ordinarily termed and are of theAfrican atabaque, hollow-log type, at are most often made from barrel staves. The preferred material they although present deeror calfskin; theheadis attached to thedrum forthedrum-head is either by means a of wooden circlets.The skinis thenfirmly secured by specialropewhichis passed slitsmadein the skinand aroundpegs of hardwood driven into alternately through thebodyof thedrum. Drumsareplayedeither fashioned by hand,or withdrumsticks hardwood. Before theinstruments from receive maybe putintooperation they power a seriesof "painstakingly rituals." Drumsare almostneverplayed performed through by women.,s is a piece of iron shapedin most instances The iron gong, or agogo, somewhat is struck witha piece of iron or othermetal.'9 like a cowbell; thisinstrument cult groups,the gourd rattleis an important In the supposed Indian-derived thismaybe coveredwithnetting to whichare attached shellsor other instrument; thatcontribute to thesound. The larger materials calabashmayeither be playedwith sticksor withthehands,thetwo methods dissimilar results. very producing Finally, the Spanishguitar, is widelyused.20 methods, playedby conventional whichthesampling The collection of songsfrom is takenwas recorded by M. J. in Bahia,Brazil; twenty in 1941-42 nineof thesesongs-of the and F. S. Herskovits in thefollowing Ketu cult-are analyzed character, pages. All areofa religious including cultgroups,but also song cyclesand not onlysongs forspecific gods within specific The analytical individual method used is songs forvariousphases of cultceremony. whichhas been elaborated based upon the workof von Hornbostel,21 Kolinski,22 by the present and to some extent The approach is aimedtoward Waterman,23 author.24 of a musicalstyle as objective a description as possible; to thisend various obtaining have been adopted,although more subjective evaluations are procedures quantitative the not completely The of of the Ketu cult characteristics, then, disregarded. songs groupfollow. II Tonalrange Nineteen of the29 Ketu songshave rangesof morethanan octave,and thiswide characteristic of the group. Of the remaining ten songs, range may be considered but less thanan octave,whileone shows eighthave rangesof nineor moresemitones smallrangeof but fivesemitones, an abnormally and another of but sevensemitones. thewide tonalrangecharacterizes In general, theKetu group. however, direction Melodic Since 19 of the29 songs show thefinal tonefrom two to fifteen semitones below that thebeginning thisdownward melodic direction is repretone,it maybe concluded of the group. At the same time,eightsongs have identical sentative initialand final toneis twosemitones abovetheinitial tone. tones,whilein two other songs,thefinal Of thosesongs in whichthe overalldirection is downward, the largest number or a perfect below the initial fifth, -eight-show the endingtone seven semitones, and in three below tone,whilein three songsit is two semitones, songs,fivesemitones theinitial tone. In single toneis 3, 10, 12,and 15 semitones above songs,thebeginning thefinal.

SONGS OF THE

KETU CULT OF BAHIA

57

21 In eightof the29 songsno toneis higher thantheinitial tone; theremaining in varying degreeswithinthe songs. songs, however,show an upwardmovement or a perfect fifth above the initial In six songs the highesttone is seven semitones, and twelvesemitones above the tone; in three groupsof two songs,it is two,three, toneis fiveor ninesemitones initialtone. In three above the songs each,thehighest in and it lies 11 and 14 semitones above the tone, ten, finally, singlesongs, beginning initial tone. to lowest tonesis both variedand in general, The rangefrombeginning wide, two songs show the two tones identical.In the largestsinglegroupingalthough below theinitial tone. In two groups eightsongs-the lowesttoneis sevensemitones of foursongs,it is fiveand twelvesemitones whilein two songs lower,respectively, below the beginning tone. In nine,or ten semitones each, the lowesttone is three, of 15 semitones is extremely threesongs, the difference in single wide, and finally, by two,or foursemitones. songs,thetwo tonesare separated tones are compared. In no A similar rangeis foundwhen endingand highest in one song theyare but threesemitones case are the two tonesidentical, although tone sevensemiapart. Eight songs-the largestsinglegrouping-showthe highest tonesabove theendingtone; in six songs,it is an octavehigher.In foursongs,the above theending toneis fivesemitones tone,and in three highest groupsof two songs abovethefinal In theremaining each,it is nine,14 and 15 semitones tone,respectively. tonelies 10, 11, 16, and 17 semitones above theendingtone. songs,thehighest In sevenof the29 songs,no toneis lowerin pitchthanthe endingtone; in six below theendingtone,and in foursongs, songs thelowesttoneis but two semitones threesemitones below. Eight songs show the lowest tone fivesemitones below the below,and in singlesongs,fourand endingtone; in one song,it is sevensemitones below theendingtonerespectively. ninesemitones Intervals Of a totalof 1,475ascending themajorsecondis mostfrequently used intervals,

the major second accountsfor intervals, ascendingintervals.Of 2,225 descending for22.7%, perfect third fourth, 19.9% and majorthird, 39.4%, theminor 14.5%. The and augmented and majorsixth minor fourth, second,perfect fifth, together augmented accountforless than5% of the total. Thus in both ascending and descending the majorsecondis in highest intervals, fourth (20.6%), (39%), followedby the minorthird(22%), the perfect proportion fifth themajorthird (13.5%), theperfect (2.3%), and theminorsecond(1.3%), while minorseventh, the augmented and fifth, fourth, majorsixth, augmented majortenth, account forless than2% of thetotal. octavetogether Descending intervalsare in proportion, 58.5%; ascendingintervals, 41.5%. thoseofa minor third for32.3% ofthetotalascending Narrow orless,account intervals, intervals themajorthird, for13.5% and wide and descending used, medium intervals, thana majorthird, for24.2%. All songs use wide as well as thosegreater intervals, one song utilizes medium narrow buttenascending while intervals, intervals, although fifth as its onlywide interval.It is also to be notedthatthe another uses one perfect of skipsof morethana perfect fifth is in ascending intervals. greatest proportion a minor the as pointed intervals in Ketu play very songs,accounting, Half-step part of thetotalintervals used. The absenceofhalf-steps indicates out above,forbut 1.32%a the anhemitonic model structures; no hepta modes are present, and the bulk of the songs is pentatonic.

followed third andperfect fourth andmajor third bytheminor (38.6%), (21.3%each), minor minor fifth, second, seventh, (12.6%). The perfect majorsixth, augmented andoctave combined for account total tenth, fifth, only major approximately 5% ofthe

58

AFRICAN

MUSIC SOCIETY

JOURNAL

tonessung on the samepitchare foundin 13 of the29 Four or moresuccessive in twosongs,butit cannot and six tonesarefound be said thatthese songs. Four,five, monotone dominate an anyone song. The repetitive maynot be considered patterns of Ketu music. characteristic outstanding Combinations of intervals interval in theKetu songs. Of these, areutilized different patterns Twenty patterns 21 in and of fourths in 19; no fifth of thirds are present songs, patterns appear patterns while hybrid appear in foursongs. patterns the triadicsplit fifth, of thirds, Of the combinations Mf, is most oftenused, are thetriadic in 11 songs.25Also present mf,triadicsplitfifth, splitfifth, appearing dim triadic and pendular fifth, r, fifth, Mr, thirds, mr,triadic mrfr, split pendular split are pendularthirds, mfrf.In more extended thirds, mrfrf, pattern pendularthirds mrfrfr. and pendular thirds, mfrfr, that most frequently of fourths, encountered is two fourths, Of patterns fr. are two fourths, f. Linearfourths, Also of importance rf,and interlocked fourths, ff, fourth and perfect and interlocked fourth, f,arefoundsporadifourths, frf, augmented thesampling. callythrough used hybrid theinterlocked fourth The mostfrequently and major pattern, perfect minor third and perfect third, fourth, f, f,is foundin butthree songs. The interlocked and perfect and theinterlocked f,each appearsin one song. fourth, majorthird offourths seemto be ofequalimportance ofthirds andpatterns Patterns throughout of thegroup. characteristic theKetu songs. Both maybe considered Meterand melodic rhythm as "duple", or "triple",depending Metermaybe established upon the number themeasure.Thus 2/4 and 4/4 time beatswhichoccurwithin of pulses,or accented as a duple meter becausrtwo majorpulses are both duple; 6/8 timeis also regarded intogroupsof three.3/4 time theseare subdivided is a triple are discernable, although as either or meter.6/4 timeis equivocal; it maybe conceived triple dupledepending be considered as duplemeter;fourmajor upon theaccent. 12/8 timemustprobably in each measure, are subdivided intogroupsof three although they pulsesare present noteseach. of the Ketu songs are in 6/4 time,whileten songs are notated Fourteen in 4/4 three time, songsin 3/4 time,one in 6/8, and one in 12/8. is forthemostpartin accordwiththeestablished meter of each Melodicrhythm occur. In song 64A3, for example,26 the song, althoughsome notableexceptions is in duplemeter of two measures thepredominant meter melodic rhythm against triple The pattern instruments. is as follows: in thiscase by thepercussion established 64A3

the collection, are foundthroughout of similar such Otherpatterns import although a diverse melodic an established of meter rhythm upon percussion superimposition a song. dominates nevercompletely of syncopation; offbeat occursin theform thisdevice The mostcommon pattern is foundin all the songs. However,further of the tension extension forheightening is also present;three thesimplest offbeat maybe distinguished. Perhaps types pattern of a beat. In of theestablished anticipation pulse by a fraction typeis the consistent the singerreachesthe finalnote of the phrasea trifle thistypeof offbeat patterning linea "rushed"feeling.Such a pattern ahead of his expected arrival, givingtheentire

SONGS OF THE

KETU CULT OF BAHIA

59

occursin song82A1,in which beatot themeasure, is begunon thethird theanticipation and notresolveduntilthelast halfof thesixth and lastbeat.
82A1

of thistypeis also foundin othersongs. Offbeating formof offbeating is thatin whichthemelodicaccentconsisA moreimportant thenormal fallsbetween beatsover longerphrasesthanthosenoted tently percussion above. This formof offbeating is quite commonin the Ketu group,and is clearly in the following illustrated example:
62B1

In thiscase the melodictension is heightened the relatively long offbeating through whichis finally resolvedat theend of thesecondmeasure. A devicerelated to offbeat occurswhenentire aremovedforward phrasing phrases or backin relation to thepercussion themelodic lineremains beat,although unchanged as an entity.Most common hereis themelodicdisplacement of a beat or halfa beat; thismayor maynot be finally resolved. Song 46A1, however, illustrates the length to whichthisdevicemaybe carried.In thissong, the displacement is over halfof a below show the melodicline both beforeand after 6/8 measure; the two examples thisdisplacement. 46A1

is an extreme to indicate theextent to which Whilethisparticular case,it serves example be carried. This of method interest in the melodic may offbeating general increasing in the Ketu selections. line is utilised fully modes Melodic of Ketu songs utilizethe pentatonic; The majority 20 of 29 songs or 68% of the fallwithin thisscale. Six of thesongsuse thepenta solmode,"2 fourthepenta sampling do,and threeeach thepentami andpentala modes. Three songs employthepentare of whichone is structured dore,is present. 4:5:2, and one doublemode,penta type, of the songs utilizethe hexatonic scale; of these,fourare Approximately 25% in thehexare mode,two in thehexala, and one in thehexasol mode. The tworemaining oneis tetra tetra re,and theother, songsarein thetetratonic; la, 3:4:6. is structured No songs utilizethe heptatonic; thishas been impliedabove wherethe absence of halfstep intervals in themelodicline was noted.

60

AFRICAN

MUSIC SOCIETY

JOURNAL

topercussion instrument ofmelodic pitch Relationship pitch It hasbeensuggested on thebasisofinvestigation oftheAfricanbyWaterman music ofTrinidad,29 that themelodic there instrument derived andpercussion Shango showat leasta tenuous andperhaps more conA similar, interrelationship. pitches seems in theKetusongs. sistent relationship apparent to isolate instrument in 26 of the29 songs, It was possible percussion pitches outthat it should in thetones ofdrum andgong, are be pointed overtones although ofthefundamental a difficult andstrong, theisolation taskat bothnumerous making casesan impossible one. andin many best, a In thosesongsin which thesubjective and duration tones tonic areidentical, couldbe determined. fallupon Of these themajority totalof 34 percussion pitches or fifth ofscalein thefollowing 9 times; thetonic, third, fourth, tonic, proportions: 8 times;fifth, 7 times.In one case thepercussion instrument once; fourth, third, third ofscale, andinanother ofscale, falls degree uponthesixth upontheminor pitch arenotso easily reconcilable. One seven tones butin a minor key. The remaining flat fifth ofscale, andoneupon the arefound the Twopitches falls seventh. minor upon ofscale, andthree on themajor seventh In thecasesofboth uponthesecond degree. a leading butit wouldnotseemhighly and minor toneis indicated seventh, major thistoneshould that be purposely stressed. In connection with these latter plausible a relationship doesnotseemto be present. It may as seven be regarded tones, then, that of 34 to 27 are in close the tonic however, tones, triad, significant, relationship thetonic, subdominant anddominant. stressing particularly thesubjective in which arenotidentical, In those tonic andduration tones songs couldbe determined. Of these, 21 percussion three ofthe falluponthetonic pitches the tonic two on and six the One is found fifth. tone scale, third, major subjective upon ofscale;in other casestherelationship is notso clear.However, on thesecond degree of55percussion at least ofa total 40 show definite with the melodic pitches, relationship seems too highto allowfora chance field Without relationship. pitch;thisfigure oftheproblem, itis impossible to reach a definite however, conclusion, investigation ofpercussion to be therelationship instrument to melodic seems although pitch pitch a distinct possibility.
and tonality Modulations A well-defined is present in almostall theKetu songs. This is indicated tonality the between the tonicand duration tonesdiscussedabove. by relationship subjective arefoundin theKetu songs. No modulations andsolo-chorus alternation Harmony, polyphony occursin two songs; in other no harmony thantheseinstances harmony Sporadic is employed.In song 22B1, the harmony of appearsas the resultof the overlapping two interpretations of the chorusmelodicline; in thiscase, it seemsto be accidental thanpurposeful. rather Much thesamecase occursin song 54A3 in whichpartof the

18 show the subjective tonicand duration Of the29 songs analyzed, tonesto be and in the remaining 11 songs the two tones show definite identical,28 relationship; of the subjective tone fallson the dominant tonicscale. In six of these,the duration of scale. In two othersongs,it is on thesixth, or relative in two songs on thethird of scale. In thesingle tonicof scale,and in one song on thefourth doublemode, minor the firstdurationtone coincideswith the subjectivetonic. Thus the discrepancy tonicand duration tonesis not as wide as it mayfirst between subjective appear; it is or submediant should subdominant, dominant, entirely plausiblethat the mediant, receivemorestressthanthetonictone. of songsin thepentatonic, theKetu groupexhibits In therather largeproportion a considerable degreeof homogeneity.

SONGS OF THE

KETU CULT OF BAHIA

61

chorusapparently beginsa phraseon thewrongnote,causingbrief sporadicharmony in fourths. is immediately The difference rectified andis notrepeated sinceitsoccurrence rather thandesign. was due to error All songsareof theleader-chorus and overlapping between leaderand chorus type, occursslightly in 19 songs. In song22B1 ithas already theoverlapping beennotedthat occursbetween two partsof thechorusand is thusa specialcase. It is in connection withthesesongs thattheonlypolyphony occursin theKetu music. Formalstructure Threeformal areusedin thestructuring oftheKetu songs. Approximately patterns use the in which the same AA'A" pattern 45% phraseis repeatedwith significant of songsuse theAAA pattern, The samepercentage variation. in whicha single phrase is repeated the song without variation.The remaining throughout significant songs are in the ABC pattern, in whichdifferent phrasesare utilized. In almostall cases, be broken these intosmaller units butthese areonlysignificant units, patterns may phrase as theycontribute to the largergroupings.30 The shortest phraseis 2 bars in 4/4 time,or eightbeats duration.The longest of phraseis 16 bars in 3/4 time,or 48 beats. Four songs use two phrasepatterns lengths.In song 63A1, phrasesof both 8 and 2 bars are present;in songs differing 63A2 and 63A3, phrasesof fourand two bars are present.In song 22B1 thenormal is 4 bars,butat one pointa diminution of thisphraseto three-bar phrase length length occurs. In manyof thesongs,theleaderintroduces, or otherwise aids thechoruswithits melodicline. In fivesongs,the chorusphraseis clearly introduced by theleader; in ten songs,the two phrasesare identical;in foursongs,the leaderassiststhe chorus ofitsmelodic in thefirst is related singing phrase; and in two songstheleader'sphrase to that of the chorus. The leader does not assist the chorus in melodically anywayin after eightsongs. In song 54A2, the two lines are reversed theyhave been initially In thiscase, the leadersingsthe openingphrasewhichis followed introduced. by a of the first phrasesung by the chorus. The repetition phraseis thensung by both leaderand chorus,and the repetition of the secondphraseby the leader. From this the two been have and remain in thispattern reversed, point phrases throughout. Ornamentation Three ornamental devicesare employed in the Ketu songs; theseare the rising and attack, release, falling portamento. A risingattackoccurswhen the singerbeginshis intonation below the desired is employed in 18 songs. The tone,and risesto it in a short glissando.This technique releaseis, forpractical of the risingattack; in thiscase falling purposes,the reverse thesinger in a short singsa tonebutletsit falldownward glissando.All butone ofthe in whichthe singermoves fromone tone to the nextwithout songs use portamento between defined;in otherwords,all pitchgradations makingthe differences sharply the two tonesare employed in a glissandofromone to the other. These ornamental devicesconstitute in theKetu songs. important singing techniques Instrumentation Elevensongsaresungbya malesoloist, theremaining 18 songsbya female soloist. In all 29 songs,theleaderis accompanied chorus. However,sincethesex by a female of thesingers at thetimeof recording, undue usually depended upon thecircumstances shouldprobably not be attached to thesefigures. importance Further is providedby a percussion accompaniment groupin 28 songs. In two is providedby hand-clapping, and in two songs songs the rhythmic accompaniment 24 songs, the percussion unitis composedof iron by two drums. In the remaining gongand two drums.

62

AFRICAN MUSIC SOCIETY JOURNAL

Tempo the varioustimesignatures A fairly restricted is usual in rangeof tempiwithin to 188. In 6/4 theKetu songs. In 4/4 time,tempirangefrom128 beatsper minute is from 96 to 208 beatsper minute;thisis a considerable timethevariation range. In the slowest and thefastest is 252 beats. In 3/4 time, tempois 224 beatsper minute, notesmove at 96 beatsper minute, the single6/8 song,the dottedquarter whilethe tempoin the12/8songis 120 beats. oftheKetu songsaccelerate Seventeen is 56 beats increase The largest throughout. to end; the smallest frombeginning increase is 4 beatsper minute.This per minute of tempomaybe considered of the Ketu songs. acceleration characteristic Percussion rhythm of thepercussion fortheoverallimpact instruments of themusic The importance a percussion of theKetu groupis stressed by thefactthat28 of the29 songs employ to the singers. Further, the songs themselves seem in great unit as accompaniment to be dependent thebasic metre and to continue it measure upon thisunitto establish withvariation throughout. of the subjectof percussion treatment in connection In an extended polyrhythm related to that oftheBahian withtheShangocultmusicofTrinidad--a style historically has concluded that"musicin thistradition makesuse of patterns of music-Waterman of duple withtripletimewhichincludesimultaneous and coterminous combinations and triple accent measures, dupleaccent metre, appliedto triple applied dupleand triple of thisduple-triple As a result thelistener to duplemetre."31 receives superimposition, of a rhythmic formed fromthe resultant beats in what an overallimpression gestalt the"8/8 ostinato." This pattern, terms Waterman although composedof botheighth notesis reducedto a seriesof eighteighthnotesin the 4/4 resultant and sixteenth whichaccenting within is as follows: measure, mayvary. The pattern

of morethanone metre, a 12/4ostinato on thebasis of superimposition Furthermore, which be established within the four are divided into pulses may groupsof pattern as a basic fordiscussion, noteseach. Usingtheseprinciples we mayturnto the three of the Ketu group. rhythms percussion illustrates whichare encountered 20B2 some of thebasic rhythms Song throughin duple meter, out the sampling.In this case, the melodicline is first established in 4/4time. The percussion unitenters in the secondmeasure whichmaybe notated a triplemeter in the first halfof the of the song, the gong immediately establishing is as follows:(Example1), withtheestablished measure.This pattern of duple meter thusbecomes:(Example2), etc. If thistriple themelodicline thegestalt gong pattern wouldthenresult: the8/8ostinato werecontinued, (Example3). In thiscase,however, thetriple butmovesintoa duplepattern: thegongdoesnotcontinue patterning (Example of gong and melodicrhythm is as follows:(Example5). pattern 4). Thus theresultant that thegongis usinga splittriple and duplepattern, At thesametime, however, DrumI witha 12/8beat which,sincethe basic meter is duple 4/4time,mustbe has entered notatedas fourgroupsof threepulses: (Example6). The resultant of gong rhythm to thesetwo percussion and Drum I thenappearsas (Example7). In addition instruDrum II appearsinitially in a duple meter: ments, however, (Example8). The final of the threepercussion resultant instruments, then,become a 12/8or 12/7ostinato is altered this as follows: throughout bya change (Example9), although pattern pattern effected of rhythmic by Drum II. groupings

SONGS OF THE

KETU CULT OF BAHIA

63

I Example

2 Example

3 Example

4 Example

5 Example

MM -M-m
6 Example

n
7 Example

8 Example

EaTp 8

9 Example

a le

.9T]

is not the onlypercussion The duple-triple technique employed superimposition is notemployed, thebasicmetric in theKetu songs. In thosesongsin which polymetre is elaborated without themetre. scheme extensively changing maybe, and mostoften thefollowing In song 63A1, forexample, pattern appears: Gong Drum I Drum II
64-

F I

F I

%Mom

fI mom~

I"

r"

are used, in whichthebasic triple In song 64A3, thefollowing metre is patterns embellished particularly by DrumI. Gong Drum I Drum II
d, w

F.aarI
. j ,
nw

~~a

_r
Fe I I I '-'

a..

64

AFRICAN MUSIC SOCIETY JOURNAL

of thepercussion and theapparent functions Some othercharacteristics rhythms, notesthatin the Trinidad of thevariousinstruments maybe pointedout. Waterman beatin 4/4 time."32 units"one drum-rhythm is a steady quarternote Shangopercussion about whichthe otherinstruments This drum, by and large,providesthe orientation as wellas themelodic of thepercussive unit, line,are grouped.In theKetu songs,this is the first iron gong whichusually factor is instead the providedby perstabilizing to enter, and whichseldomchangesits established metrein the cussioninstrument either withthe gong or a measureor two courseof a song. Drum I usuallyenters within the 8/8 ostinatopattern, it may sometimes also later. Most oftenremaining as does thegong,and occasionally utilizesome polypatterns playthesamerhythmic mostofthepolythythmic metre.DrumII, on theother hand,seemsto provide patterns, a singlemetre within thebasic beat. and at thesametimemayalso remain elaborating than in its choiceof patterns In almostall thesongs,Drum II seemsto be muchfreer its beat extensively. the gong or Drum I, varying either It is clearthatthe songs of the Ketu groupsampledhererelyheavily upon the instruments to providea steadybeat about whichthe melodiclines may percussion and theembellishment ofrhythmic theuse ofpolymetre At thesametime, be oriented. carried to are an The one metre reliance within exceedingly complexdegree. patterns and the embellishment the use of polymetre, of and its importance, upon percussion all be considered characteristics of Ketu the basic rhythmic may outstanding patterns songs. Summary as follows. of thesongsof theKetu groupmaybe summarized The characteristics is generally downward.The majorsecondis Tonal rangeis wide; melodicdirection and majorthird. followed mostfrequently, utilized third, fourth, by theminor perfect monotone is likewise Half stepintervals partin themusic; therepetitive playa minor of of and combinations fourths thirds are the Combinations not highly important. interval 6/4,4/4,3/4,12/8,and 6/8 timeareused,in thatorder patterns. outstanding arevery noticeable. ofwiderextension and offbeat ofimportance. patterns Syncopation are the Almost70% of thesongs are based on thepentatonic scale; also represented tonicand duration tones are and tetratonic. In most cases, the subjective hexatonic fall on the tonic,dominant, instruments subidentical.The tonesof the percussion theprobability of a definite and mediant of scalein mostsongs; thisindicates dominant instrument betweenmelodicand percussion pitch. All the Ketu songs relationship seem to have a well-defined tonality;thereare no modulations.Sporadicharmony in 19. All songsare of theleader-chorus occursin two of thesongs,overlapping type. structures are utilized; the leaderintroduces or The AAA, AA'A", and ABC formal itsmelodic linein 21 ofthe29 songs. Risingattack, in singing otherwise aidsthechorus devices. Songs are sung by a are used as ornamental and portamento release, falling a female chorus and a percussion male or female soloist,accompanied by groupcomrestricted andin somesongs,handclapping. Tempiarefairly posedofirongong,drums, is noticeable. exceptin those songs in 6/4 timein whicha wide rangeof variation are of extreme of tempois common. Percussion in Acceleration rhythms importance of rhythmic and the extensive elaboration the songs, and both polymetre patterns withinone meterare employed. III the intention of the present Whileit is by no meanswithin paperto analysethe which itis derived, it should ofKetu songto themusicoftheYorubafrom relationship of the musicof West Africa and be pointedout that,within our present knowledge seemsincontrovertible. The difficulty the Guinea Coast, the relationship specifically is manifest in thefactthatso faras is knownto of making suchcomparison, however, thepresent authorthere does not existanypublished studyof thestructure analytical

SONGS OF THE

KETU CULT OF BAHIA

65

of Yoruba music; without no basicmeansof comparing suchstudy there is, of course, theoriginal from musical it-Ketu. The importance style-Yoruba-and thederivation of suchcomparison needsno further forthestudy of cultural comment here; dynamics the anthropological of this situation"noted in the openingparagraphs "laboratory forthestudy of culture an almostunparalleled paperprovides changeand opportunity its various manifestations. At the same tiinesome general can be made on the basis of the five comparison Africapopulatedby Waterman.33 characteristics of the music of West outstanding of percussion, These fivecharacteristics the includethe metronome sense,dominance and the overlapping use of polymetre, callthe off-beat of melodicaccents, phrasing into detail,it may be noted thatthe Ketu and-response pattern.Withoutentering as to leaveno doubt musical and,in mostcases,so strongly songsshowall these patterns of therelationship Ketu and WestAfrican whatsoever between styles.It is unfortunate at the thatthe sharper Ketu and Yoruba cannotbe undertaken between comparison of our knowledge. timebecause of the limitations present

FOOTNOTES

FOR KETU CULT OF BAHIA

'For the resultsof such comparison, of Sara Whinery see Alan P. Merriam, withthe assistance and in Anthropos. in Trinidad," forthcoming B. G. Fred, "Songs of a Rada Community 2Arthur Ramos, TheNegroin BraZil,(Trans: RichardPattee),(Washington: Associated Publishers, 1939),p. 10. 3GilbertoFreyre,The Mastersand theSlaves, (Trans: Samuel Putnam), (New York: AlfredA. of Bahia and Pernambucoto the Africancoast tended to Knopf, 1946), p. 311, says: "The proximity an especiallyintimate character." Later give to the relationsbetweenBrazil and the Dark Continent a curiousthingto note thatdown to the end of the nineteenth (p. 318) he continues: "It is, moreover, fromBahia to Africatook place, and it was such the repatriation of Hausa and Nago freedmen century did the who foundedin Ardra a cityby the name of Porto Seguro. So intimate freedmen-repatriates housesin Salvadorreceived relations betweenBahia and thesecitiescome to be thatheads of commercial of Dahomey." See also: Melvilleand FrancesHerskovits, distinctions fromthe government honorary "The Negroes of Brazil," Yale Review XXXII (Winter,1943), pp. 266-67. in these three 4Ramos,op. cit., pp. 12-13. In anothersource, Ramos discussesthe membership inicialmente nos mercados groups somewhatmore fully. He says: "O primeiro grupo foi introduzido de escravosda Bahia ... Desses negrossudanezes,os mais importantes foramos 'yorubas'ou 'nagos' e os 'geges' ('Ewes' ou 'dahomeyanos')e em segundo logar, os 'minas' ('Tshis' e 'Gas'), os 'hausas' os does povos 'tapas', os 'bornus' e os 'gruncis' ou 'gallinhas'. Com esses negros sudanezes entrarem de origemberbere-ethiopicae influencia mohametana: os 'fulahs'e os 'mandes'. Os 'bantus' foram de onde se introduzidos em Pernambuco... , Rio de Janeiro... e Maranhao ... , focos primitivos intradiaram brasileiro. 'Bantus' foramos 'angolas', os para varios pontos do territorio posteriomente Ramos, O Negro Brasileiro, 'congos' ou 'cabindas',os 'benguellas',os negrosde Mocambique.. ." Arthur (Sdo Paulo: CompanhiaEditora Nacional,2nd Edition,1940), I, p. 23. It maybe notedin passingonly that Johnstonsays: ". . . the Portugueseseem even to have introducedHottentotsand Bushmen, The Negro obtained probablyfromthe region south of the Kunene River." Sir Harry H. Johnston, in theNew World, (New York: Macmillan,1910), p. 83. 5Ramos,TheNegro... op. cit.,p. 12. of Chicago Press, 1942), p. 282. in BraZil,(Chicago: University 6Donald Pierson,Negroes of this,and othernature,see Melville J. Herskovits,The Myth 7For syncretisms of theNegroPast, (New York: Harper & Bros., 19413,pp. 213-35,passim. Role sYoruba religiouspracticesand beliefsare discussedby William R. Bascom, The Sociological Association,Memoir 63, 1944), 75 pp. (Menasha: AmericanAnthropological of theYoruba Cult-Group, See also: Edison Carneiro,Religioes Negras,(Rio de Janeiro:Civilizacao Brasileira,1936), pp. 29-49; a Antropologia and ArthurRamos, Introducdo Brasileira, (Rio de Janeiro: Colecdo Estudos Brasileiros, 1943), pp. 352-77. 9See Ramos, ibid.,pp. 433-78. 'oSee Carneiro,op. cit., pp. 29-49; Ramos, Introducdo . . . op. cit., pp. 378-96. For Dahomean (New York: religiouslife, see Melville J. Herskovits,Dahomey: An AncientWestAfricanKingdom, "The Negroes ... ," op. cit.,pp. 267-68. J. J. Augustin,1938), II, pp. 101-308. See also, Herskovits,

66

AFRICAN MUSIC SOCIETY JOURNAL

and FrancesS. Herskovits, Afro-Bahian Religious (Album Notes, 11SeeMelvilleJ. Herskovits, Songs, "Folk Music of Brazil," Libraryof Congress,Album XIII), p. 2. A discussionof "The Coastal and Amazonian Tupi," includingthe Guarani and Tupinamba,may be foundin JulianH. Steward(Ed), American Handbook Indians, ofSouth (Washington:Bulletin143, Bureau of AmericanEthnology,1948), ... , op. cit.,pp. 67-137. III, pp. 57-348. See also: Carneiro, op. cit.,pp. 85-100; and Ramos, Introdudo 12Herskovits, Afro-Bahian Religious Songs,op. cit., p. 9. of possessionis discussedby Ramos, O. Negro.. . , op. cit.,pp. 249-84. "SThe treatment "The Negro...," 14Herskovits, Religious Afro-Bahian Songs, op. cit.,p. 15. See also, Herskovits, op. cit.,pp. 271-79. 15Seethose workscitedabove. See also, forgeneralaccounts: Manuel Querino,Costumes Africauos no Brazil, (Rio de Janeiro: Civilizac~oBrasileira, 1938), pp. 19-127; Ramos, 0 Negro... ,op. cit.,pp. 35-247. A comparison withthe cult groups of Recifemaybe obtainedfromRene Ribeiro,CultosAfrodo Recife: Um Estudode Ajustamento brasileiros Social,(Recife: Boletim do InstitutoJoaquimNabuco, Numero Especial, 1952), 150 pp.; withthose of Maranhio,fromOctavio da Costa Eduardo, TheNegro in Northern BraZil, (New York: J. J. Augustin,1948), 131 pp. 16Melville Cult Life," Musical Quarterly, J. Herskovits,"Drums and Drummersin Afro-Brazilian XXX (1944), pp. 480-81. Personalcommunication. 17Melville J. Herskovits, detail on the construction and playingof drums,as well as the social position held by 18Much is foundin Herskovits, "Drums and Drummers .. ," op. cit.,pp. 477-92,fromwhichthe drummers, has been taken. precedingmaterial 19Averyearlyreference to the gong in Angola may be foundin P. Cavazzi, Relation de Historique (Trans: J. B. Labat), (Paris: Charles-Jean-Baptiste-Delespine, l'Ethiopie Occidentale, 1732), II, p. 49. "La Longa,est un instrument aux A peu compos6 de deux petitescloches de fer,qui ressemblent sonnaillesque l'on met au col des muletsou des bestiauxdont on des troupeaux. On les touche pr.s avec un petitbaton." On pp. 46 and 50 of thiswork,woodcuts illustrate 6l.ve the gong and othermusical instruments. of the musicalinstruments 20Further used in Afro-Bahian cult musicmay be foundin: description no Brasil,Revisdo e Prefaciode Homero Pires),(Slo Paulo: Companhia Nina Rodrigues,Os Africanos Editora Nacional, 1932), pp. 239-41; Querino, op. cit.,pp. 105-90; Ramos, O Negro... , op. cit.,pp. Latino Americano de 223-47; Oneyda Alvarenga,"A InfluenciaNegra na Musica Brasileira,"Boletin Musica,VI (1946), 357-407,and manyothers. 21Erich M. von Hornbostel,"Die Problemeder Vergleichende der Musikwissenschaft," Zeitschrift Internationale VII (1905), 85-97. Musikgesellschaft, 22M. Kolinski, "Suriname Music," in Melville J.and Frances S. Herskovits, Suriname Folk-Lore, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1936), pp. 491-740. A. Waterman, in Trinidad 23Richard AfricanPatterns NegroMusic, (Unpub. diss., Northwestern 1943). University, Cults: An Ethnomusicological 24AlanP. Merriam, Songsof theAfro-Bahian Analysis,(Unpub. diss., Northwestern 1951); "The Bashi Mulizi and Its Music; An End-Blown Flute From the University, and LintonC. Freeman,"StatisFolklore);Merriam Belgian Congo," (forthcoming ofAmerican inJournal in Anthropology;An Applicationto Ethnomusicology,"American tical Classification Anthropologist, and Fred, op. cit. LVIII (June,1956), 464-72; Merriam,Whinery, 25Abbreviations used: M-major; m--minor; dim-diminished; r-rising; f-falling. Explanation of the varioustypesof patterns maybe foundin Kolinski,op.cit.,pp. 498-501. 26Numbers used refer to the numbers of the originalrecordings. of thisparticular will be foundin Kolinski,op.cit.,pp. 491-93. 27Explanation typeof modal analysis used laterin the textin relation The figures to modal structure in the orderlisted,the number indicate, the numberof tones encompassed of tones actually in the cycleof fifths, and the degreeof scale utilized, on which the durationtone falls. to thattone whichis mostheavilyweightedthroughout 28Duration tone refers the song as defined the subjectivecriterion of a key feeling, or by actual durationcount. The subjectivetonic designates as observedby Western to Western musicians in respect musicaltraditions. tonality, 29Waterman, op. cit.,pp. 104-06. the extent 30Thedesignations AA'A", AAA, and ABC, indicatethe formused, but not necessarily of thatusage. Each is to be considered as capable of infinite extension. op. cit.,p. 103. 31Waterman, p. 90. 32lbid., A. Waterman. "AfricanInfluenceon the Music of the Americas,"in Sol Tax (Ed), *3Richard in theAmericas, Acculturation of Chicago Press,II, Proceedingsof the 29th Inter(Chicago: University national Congress of Americanists, 1952), pp. 207-18.

SONGS OF THE

KETU CULT OF BAHIA

67

onthe modal Note and analysis: transcriptions Each songis headed with in abbreviated information Thusthe form. pertinent first that the for the 2d:140-168," indicates is "22B1: legend song, Yemanja: song number 22B1ofthecollection, itis sungfor that that theoriginal thegod Yemanja, was pitch 2 semitones 2 be lower(2u wouldindicate theoriginal to semitones pitch higher), andthat thetempo from 140beats at thebeginning ofthesongto ranged perminute 168atitsend.Thebasisfor thetempo is thequarter thesongs arenotated note; figure inthat ofnotes falls the oftheregular staff inwhich the within limits lines. key majority a Thefermata in that is the final over tone the modal scale indicates this of tone (7) thesong.A reversed fermata thebeginning tone. The asterisk () indicates designates the Thesign while the tone tone. whole indicates the duration tonic, subjective I in themodalscaleindicates in the the intervals used show the -> important song; of these direction melodic intervals.

You might also like