Final Reportjav

2013
SHAROON GILL
NED University of Engineering
& Technology-
Chemical Engineering
Lotte Chemical Pakistan-Summer
Internship Report
Lotte Chemical Pakistan-Summer Internship Report 2013

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ACKNOWLDGEMENT
This interactive and learning experience would not have been complete without
the help and guidance of the assigned supervisors, Mr. Sarang Abdullah (Process
Support Manager) and Mr. Arsalan Nisar (Trainee Engineer, Technical Dept). A
humble word of thanks and appreciation for them. Also special gratitude for all
the staff at Lotte Chemical Pakistan for their courtesy who made my brief stay
here a wonderful experience.


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CONTENTS
No table of contents entries found.


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ABOUT THE ORGANISATION:
HISTORY:
Lotte Chemical Pakistan is a world-class supplier of Pure Terephthalic Acid. Its major shares are
held by Lotte, a South Korean conglomerate and it is also listed on the South Korean Stock
Exchange. Lotte Chemical Pakistan Ltd is the single largest foreign direct investment to date
(US$ 490 million) in Pakistans petrochemical industry. The plant at Port Qasim, Karachi was
built using ICIs state-of-the-art technology when it was commissioned in 1998. In 2000, PTA
business was demerged from ICI Pakistan Limited and was listed separately on all local markets.
In 2008, Akzo Nobel acquired ICI Plc and became the subsequent holders of Pakistan PTA. In
2009, Lotte acquired major shares and the name of the organisation was changed to Lotte
Pakistan PTA and it also became a part of the Lotte Global Community. In December 2012, after
the merger of Honam Petrochemical and KP Chemical Corporation, the entity was named
LOTTE CHEMICAL PAKISTAN.
The plant was commissioned with an annual capacity of 400,000 tons per annum but
developments in the process and minor de-bottlenecking, the capacity was increased to
500,000 tons per annum. In addition to its own manufacturing facilities, the Company has
helped create a large infrastructure network at the Port Qasim vicinity, which includes a
chemical jetty, raw water pipeline and manufacture of industrial gases through third party
contracts. It has therefore been a trendsetter in industrial investment in Pakistan. The plant has
installed a CO-GENERATION power plant to supply the sore plant with reliable and constant
supply.


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Plant Description:
Raw Materials Paraxylene, Acetic Acid Solvent

Catalysts
Cobalt / Manganese / Bromine /
Hydrogen Bromide

Product Purified Terephthalic Acid

Plant Areas
Oxidation Plant / Purification Plant /
Utilities

Process Nature Continuous Process

Maximum Capacity
500,000 tons per annum

Overhauling 18 Months

OHSAS 18001:2007
International Certifications ISO 14001:2004
ISO 9001:2008

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PLANT HSE:
Presently, all the multinational and gigantic organization shows a huge interest in health safety
and environment section, its development and its culture. The industrial mechanism
incorporates a risk for human life, environment and loss of business. For this purpose the
relative departments are established to ensure the safety to human life, health and also the
natural environment protection from their waste effluent. As an intern, we were briefed by the
respectable officers who shared their experience, knowledge and routine practices performed
to achieve their objectives.
Safety

Personal Protective Equipment
All workers must wear protective equipment. The type of protective equipment required often
depends upon the type of job that the individual completes. Standard personal protective
equipment includes work boots, protective eye wear and ear defenders to protect from loud
noises.

Permit Systems
Because of the potentially dangerous nature of a job, many permits are required for daily
operations. Workers must be aware of the aspects of their work that do require a permit and
those that don't so that they can effectively and legally carry out the duties of their jobs.

Cold Work Permit
Cold work refers to general maintenance work on the plant or equipment.

Hot Work Permit
Hot work permit refers to all types of work where open flames and electrical tolls or equipment
that may cause a spark or may be considered as a source of ignition will be used.


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Emergency Fire Response Team
Highly experienced and qualified fire tender team operating in Lotte-PPTA. This section fully
equipped with active safety component as well as passive safety component.

Fire Assembly Points
Many fire assembly points exist ensuring the maximum hazards safety from any accident.


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PROCESS DESCRIPTION:
Terephthalic Acid is produced by liquid phase air oxidation of Paraxylene in Acetic Acid Solvent
and is catalyzed by soluble Cobalt, Manganese and Bromine Compounds. The reaction is highly
exothermic. The water produced will inhibit the rate of reaction. Conversion of Paraxylene to
Terephthalic Acid is almost complete but there are some fractions of impurities, 4CBA (4-
Carboxy-benz-aldehyde). The slowest step in the relational series is the conversion of Para-
toulic acid but it doesnt account as major impurity as it is soluble in Acetic Acid Solvent. On the
other hand, 4-CBA is a major impurity as it is less soluble in Acetic Acid and it co-precipitates
with Terephthalic Acid. Some impurities have an impact on the color of Terephthalic Acid, such
compounds results from poor mixing and oxygen starvation in the Reactor. Acetic acid has
major role in the Oxidation of Paraxylene : It serves as a solvent for both Paraxylene and CMB
(Cobalt/Manganese/Bromine) Catalyst Feed for the Reactor and both are immiscible. It forms
slurry with the precipitated Terephthalic Acid crystals making it easy to transport for further
processing. It helps in the purification of Terephthalic Acid crystals by keeping impurities and
by-products in solution. It allows major portion of CMB Catalyst to be recycled.

OXIDATION PLANT:
The oxidation process aims at converting the reactant, Paraxylene to Teraphthalic Acid by
oxidation in a reactor and recovering the Acetic Acid solvent. The process also incorporates the
recovery of the catalysts and the treatment of the effluent gas. The prepared TA has impurities,
chiefly 4-CBA which is resolved in the process of purification.
The process comprises of the following operations:
Air Compression:
Process Air is filtered and compressed to 19 barA to 23 barA in Air Compressor, a six stage
centrifugal compressor. The compressor stages are equipped with inter-stage coolers but
there are no after coolers as the heat can be utilized. The main compressor drive is an
electric motor while the auxiliary drive provided by gas turbine expander. Off-Gas Expander
is two-stage, driven by reactor off-gas from Off-Gas Scrubber. The Low Pressure stream is
utilized by the process for inter-stage heating.


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Feed Preparation:
Two Catalytic Solution Tanks, each containing agitator with single impeller, 4 internal baffles
with Catalytic solution inlet and level measurements. Cobalt/Manganese Acetates dissolved In
Demineralized Water along with Hydrogen-Bromide for correct catalyst mixture is stored. Any
dust or fumes generated during the preparation of catalyst solution are removed using bag
filters and extractor fans. It mixes various streams prior to the Oxidation Reactor. The streams
comprises of Fresh Paraxylene Feed, Fresh Catalysts Solution, Recycled Mother Liquor, Recycled
Solvent and a Slurry Stream. Water content in the feed drum should not exceed 5% as high
water levels reduce the rate of reaction. At 10% water content the mixture will phase separate
with Paraxylene on top layer with Acid/Water Mixture at the bottom. Phase separation is most
likely at Start-Up so Feed Mix Drums composition is thoroughly checked as oxygen will break
through without any Paraxylene present for reaction. Paraxylene Filters are provided to remove
any debris from feed. Feed Ratio Controllers are installed also.

Oxidation Reactor:
The reactor feed from Feed Mix Drum is diverted to a Pre-heater before entering the oxidation
reactor. Oxidation of Paraxylene takes place in Oxidation Reactor. Operating conditions are 16
barA pressure and temperature of 200C. Process Air enters the reactor from the compressor
along with the combined feed from the Feed Mix Drum. The flow is controlled in order to
maintain the reactor vent gas O
2
concentration (3%), causes a volume expansion of reactor
slurry contents and normally the operation with reaction occurring in a uniform aerated bed.)
90% of Terephthalic Acid formed is precipitated as crystals. The agitators disperse the air evenly
within the slurry and maintain the crystals in suspension. Heat of reaction is removed and
isothermal operation proceeds. Cooling is achieved by generation of steam in shell side and
uncondensed vapors pass to the Vent Condenser. In the High Pressure Absorber the off gas is
scrubbed with cold Acetic Acid to recover Paraxylene and Methyl Acetate. Afterwards it is
scrubbed with cold Demineralized Water to recover residual solvents. Reactor temperature is
not controlled directly, instead Pressure controls used. The left-over air stream is dried and is
used as low grade inert gas working as pneumatic conveying systems.

Crystallisation:
There are three crystallizers operated in series. Most of the dissolved Terephthalic Acid product
is precipitated here. They provide surge capacity between reaction section and product
recovery. Each crystallizer continuously agitated to maintain precipitated solids in suspension.

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Product stream from Oxidation Reactor is the inlet of the First Crystallizer.

First Crystallizer operates at 13 barA and 195C. The slurry pressure is reduced to vaporize
Acetic Acid and Water. The upstream is connected to a Condenser and the downstream to a
Separating Drum. Process air is also added to it in order to improve the quality of the product
by further conversion of intermediates to Terephthalic Acid. (O
2
concentration below 5%).
Slurry from First Crystallizer enters the Second Crystallizer which operates at 4.3 barA and
163C. Here the slurry strength is controlled by the addition of recycled solvent from
Dehydrated Solvent Drum. First and Second Crystallizers is controlled by throttling the exit
stream (vapor). Slurry from Second Crystallizer enters the Third Crystallizer which operates
under vacuum in order to cool the contents sufficiently. Vacuum is achieved by a Single Stage
Ejector. Theres an Ejector Condenser installed, the upstream goes to Vent Header while the
downstream goes to Atmospheric Absorber.

Filteration:
Slurry from Third Crystallizer is transferred to the Filter Feed Drum, which is an agitated vessel
at 92C, and then to the Rotary Vacuum Filter. In order to keep the solids in suspension (in
Rotary Vacuum Filter), almost half of the feed slurry is pumped back to the Filter Feed Drum. A
cake of wet Terephthalic Acid is retained. The mother liquor and the gas are pumped to the
Mother Liquor Separator where phase separation occurs. Inert gas/vapors from the Vacuum
Vapor Condenser pass to the Vacuum Pump Knockout Drum. Liquid from Knockout Drum is
recycled to the Vacuum Pump via the Seal Fluid Cooler. Excess filtrate is dumped to the
Mother Liquor Separator. Mother Liquor from the Mother Liquor Separator is pumped to
Mother Liquor Drum and then to Stripper Still-pot. Crude Terephthalic Acid cake is washed
with fresh solvent and fed to Terephthalic Acid Drier. (15% w/w Acetic Acid/Water Solvent).

Dying:
Purpose is to dry the Wet Terephthalic Acid Cake and convey the powder to Purification Plant.
Wet Cake from Rotary Vacuum Filter is fed to the Terephthalic Acid Drier at 90C. It is a rotary
team tube drier in which Acetic Acid is removed in a stream of inert gas. Dried solid product at
150C is discharged with almost no moisture content (<0.1% w/w). The dried Terephthalic Acid
is pneumatically conveyed using dried reactor off-gas stream. Gas/vapors from the Drier are
scrubbed (countercurrent) with cold Acetic Acid in the Drier Scrubber to removed Acetic Acid
and solids removed using Scrubber Bottoms. Acetic Acid is cooled in Scrubber Cooler before

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using it. The inert gas is adjusted to maintain safe O
2
level in the system. Drier operating
pressure is maintained between 0.03 barG.

Solvent recovery:
All low pressure vent stream together with vent gas from drier re-circulating gas passes to a
vent header into the Atmospheric Absorber. Residual Acetic Acid vapor is scrubbed from the
gas with re-circulated bottoms and Fresh Demineralized Water. Excess liquid is transferred to
Stripper Stillpot. The clean vent gas is then vented to atmosphere from the Atmospheric Vent
Stack. The Terephthalic Acid Mother Liquor Filter recovers Terephthalic Acid from the purge
stream and solid are discharged to Mother Liquor Drum and the left-over Mother Liquor (10% -
15%) from Mother Liquor Separator is pumped to Stripper Stillpot. (Normal purge rate is 85%
while the plant can run at 90%).

Solvent Dehydration:
Water from the Oxidation Reaction along with that added in the High Pressure Absorber and
Atmospheric Absorber is removed from Acetic Acid solvent using fractionation in Solvent
Dehydration Column (Overhead Distillate 0.1% w/w Acetic Acid and Bottom 5% w/w Water).
There are five feed streams :

1. Vapor from Solvent Stripper Column.

2. Water Draw Off from Reactor Vent Condenser.

3. Liquid from 1
st
Crystallizer Condenser.
4. Flash Vapor from 2
nd
Crystallizer.

5. Liquid from HP Absorber.

Overhead Vapor is condensed and sub-cooled (100C to 85C) in Solvent Dehydration
Column Condenser (air-cooled exchanger) which is further cooled in Condenser Cooler
(40C). The non-condensibles go to the Dehydration Column Vent Scrubber where Methyl

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Acetate and Paraxylene are scrubbed from gas with cool condensate (condensate collected
in Reflux Drum). The scrubbed gas is compressed and fed to Knockout Drum for treatment
in Catalytic Combustion Unit and reflux is pumped back to the top tray of Dehydrating
Column. A vertical thermo-siphon reboiler is used to provide steam at 6 barG.

PURIFICATION PLANT:

The primary objective of the purification plant is to remove the primary impurity 4-CBA by
reducing it to Para Toulic Acid which is soluble in water and is removed from the final pure
product. The purification process consists of the following stages:
Feed Preparation:
Terephthalic Acid is pneumatically conveyed directly from Terephthalic Acid Drier into the Feed
Hopper using inert off-gas. Recovered Water is fed into the Feed Slurry Drum and ratio is being
adjusted to maintain the downstream density. The vent gas from Feed Hopper is continuously
scrubbed with recycle solvent to recover any entrained powder.

Dissolver and reactor section:
Sufficient residence time is provided to the aqueous Terephthalic Acid solution to ensure its
complete dissolution. A clear solution of Terephthalic Acid with Water then flows into the
reactor section with hydrogenation catalyst (27% w/w TA). The solution flows down through
the Fixed Bed of Palladium on Carbon, H
2
gas at 83 barA is heated and passed in the reactor
where it dissolves in Terephthalic Acid solution.

Centrifuging:
They are continuous solid-bowl type machines operating at 4.4 barA and 147C. The feed slurry
strength is almost 37% w/w solids. Mother Liquor under gravity flows to the Mother Liquor
Drum. Wet Cake from the Centrifuges is treated with Heated Water and 41% w/w slurry flows

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into the Re-slurry Drum.
Purified Terephthalic Acid Slurry from Re-Slurry Drum is fed to the Atmospheric Centrifuge Feed
Drum from where it enter the Atmospheric Centrifuge. Mother Liquor from these Centrifuges
flows by gravity into Recycle Solvent Drum. The wet cake is then discharged through vertical
chutes to Atmospheric Centrifuge Discharge Screws which conveys the cake to Purified
Terephthalic Acid Drier.

Drying:
It is a rotary steam tube drier which operates at atmospheric pressure. Inert gas used in order
to remove Water vapors. Moisture content of dried air is 0.1% w/w. In the Drier Condenser,
the solid entrains from outlet gas and evaporated solvent are removed. Product from the drier
is conveyed to one of the two Purified Terephthalic Acid Fluidizers. Purified Terephthalic Acid
is conveyed to Product Batch Tanks using open loop conveying system. The Batch Tanks are
filled in turn to allow hold-up of product on the plant pending satisfactory analysis of Purified
Terephthalic Acid before exporting to bulk storage.

Product Handling:
The Product Tanks are filled over a period of 4 hours, while one tank is filling the other one is
analyzed. The powder is conveyed to bulk storage in Silos via jacketed pipe (70C). Product can
be sent to IBFC Filling Units or Back Fill Units from Silos. The Import Station is provided to
enable bagged product to be returned to either Feed Hopper or Silos.


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FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
PID Controllers:
PID controllers are a widely used type of feedback controllers. Proportional Integral Derivative
term gets its name from the three elements which constitute to its working phenomenon. The
contribution of each term is described below:

Proportional Control:
Proportional control generates a control action proportional to the error, which is a deviation of
the controlled variable from the set point. The controller sends a signal to the final control
element proportional to the error as shown by the equations:

This is error t. at time Here:

The proportional control in turn generates a signal which is given by:

( ) ( ) ( )
(8-1)
sp m
e t y t y t =
( )
( )
( )
error signal
set point
measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from the sensor/transmitter)
sp
m
e t
y t
y t
=
=
=
( ) ( )
(8-2)
c
p t p K e t = +

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Here:

Here bias value is set or tuned when the error is zero and is the signal to the final element
when there is no error. The controller gain is an adjustable parameter to make the controllers
sensitivity variable. The sign of the gain can also be varied. A negative sign means a direct
acting control action. This means that if the controlled variable increases beyond the set point
value, the signal from the controller also increases. This principle is applied in cases such as
controlling the temperature of a reactor. When the reactor temperature increases, we want to
reduce the temperature by increasing the flow rate of the coolant through the reactor.
Similarly if we want to keep the flow through a line constant but a disturbance upstream causes
the flow to increase then the controller is set to reverse acting as it generates a lower value
of the output signal as the input increases. The value of the controller gain in this case is
positive.
An inherent disadvantage of the use of proportional control is the residual offset. The set
point does reach a new steady state value after an input change. Thus the proportional control
is seldom used alone, only in cases such as maintaining the tank level so it does not run dry or
overflow.
Integral Control:
Integral or reset control uses the concept of output signal which depends upon the integral
of the error signal over time.

( )
controller output
bias (steady-state) value
controller gain (usually dimensionless)
c
p t
p
K
=
=
=
( ) ( )
0
1
* * (8-7)
t
I
p t p e t dt = +
}

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Here is an adjustable parameter known as the reset time. The equation shows that the
controller takes action and generates a signal to the final control element repetitively until the
error signal is reduced to zero. has units of time.
Integral control action is widely used because it provides an important practical advantage, the
elimination of offset. Consequently, integral control action is normally used in conjunction with
proportional control as the proportional-integral (PI) controller.

An inherent disadvantage of integral control action is a phenomenon known as reset windup or
integral windup. When a sustained error occurs, the integral term becomes quite large and the
controller output eventually saturates. Further buildup of the integral term while the controller
is saturated is referred to as reset windup or integral windup.

Derivative Control:
The derivative or rate control takes an anticipatory action by noting the momentary rate of
change.

This is the equation for an ideal derivative controller. This form of the derivative controller isnt
physically realisable because the controllers response to a noisy input may cause the process
to become unstable. For this purpose a derivative filter is used.

I
( ) ( ) ( )
0
1
* * (8-8)
t
c
I
p t p K e t e t dt
| |
= + +
|
\ .
}
( )
( )
(8-10)
D
de t
p t p
dt
= +
( )
( )

1 (8-12)
1
D
c
D
P s
s
K
E s s
'
| |
= +
|
+
\ .

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This is the transfer function of a derivative controller incorporated with a filter, the value of
constant varying between .05 to .2, with .1 being the most common choice.
The derivative controller is used in conjunction with a Proportional or a Proportional Integral
controller known as Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller.

COMPARISON OF DIFERRENT CONTROLLERS:

The plot above shows a comparison of different modes of control actions.
When a Proportional control is used, we get a smaller offset than we would have using no
controller at all. When a PI controller is used we get a sluggish or slow response with
overshoots but the offset is eliminated. When this is to be avoided the PID controller is used
which reduces offsets.

y

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EFFECT OF PROPORTIONAL GAIN:

An increase in the controller(proportional) gain can cause the response to be faster but a very
high value may cause the system to exhibit undesirable degree of oscillation and to even
become unstable.
EFFECT OF RESET TIME:

y

y y

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An increase in the reset time will cause the response to become slower because the action is
repeated after a longer time for large reset time value fed to the controller.
EFFECT OF DERIVATIVE TIME:

A larger value of derivative time will cause the response to be fast but the oscillatoins will
increase as is the case with when the input is noisy.

DIFFERENT MODES OF OPERATION OF A PID CONTROLLER:
There exist various configuration for the working of a PID controller, the most common of them
are:
Parallel Form of PID Control
The parallel form of the PID control algorithm (without a derivative filter) is given by:

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
1
* * (8-13)
t
c D
I
de t
p t p K e t e t dt
dt
(
= + + +
(

}

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Expanded Form of PID Control
In addition to the well-known series and parallel forms, the expanded form of PID control is
sometimes used:

In this case the value of the variables with each element of the controller is separately
feed to the controller and is independent of the proportional gain. This is called controller
TUNING.
TUNING A PID CONTROLLER:
MANUAL TUNING:
If the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set and values to zero.
Increase the until the output of the loop oscillates, then the should be set to
approximately half of that value for a "quarter amplitude decay" type response. Then
increase until any offset is corrected in sufficient time for the process. However, too
much will cause instability. Finally, increase , if required, until the loop is acceptably
quick to reach its reference after a load disturbance. However, too much will cause
excessive response oscillations

ZIEGLER METHOD:
The and gains are first set to zero. The proportional gain is increased until it reaches
the ultimate gain, , at which the output of the loop starts to oscillate. and the
oscillation period are used to set the gains as shown:

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
* * (8-16)
t
c I D
de t
p t p K e t K e t dt K
dt
= + + +
}

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Control Type

P

- -
PI

-
PID

Apart from this various software applications are also used to tune the controllers.

OTHER FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS:
ON-OFF CONTROLLERS:
On-off controllers are used widely because of their simplicity. They work on the principal of
being fully open when the controlled variable falls below the set point and fully closed
otherwise. The basic equation for an ideal on-off controller is given by:


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On-off controllers are widely employed in domestic thermostats. Industrially its use is avoided
as it may cause excessive wear and tear of the valves and other control elements due to the
constant opening and closing. But these controllers can easily be used in solenoid valves.

FEEDFORWARD CONTROL:

RATIO CONTROL:
Ratio control is a special type of feedforward control that has widespread application in the
process industries. The objective is to maintain the ratio of two process variables as a specified
value. The two variables are usually flow rates, a manipulated variable u, and a disturbance
variable d. Thus, the ratio:

is controlled rather than the individual variables.

Typical applications of ratio control include:

1. -Setting the relative amounts of components in blending operations.
2. -Maintaining a stoichiometric ratio of reactants to a reactor.
3. -Keeping a specified reflux ratio for a distillation column.
4. -Holding the fuel-air ratio to a furnace at the optimum value.


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Set Point

The above figure shows the ratio control action in a simple way. A control valve is used in the
path of the manipulated stream. The disturbance stream also has a transmitter attached to it as
is with the manipulated variable. Both these signals are fed to the divider which compares the
ratio to the set point ratio. The valve opening is adjusted accordingly.

CASCADE CONTROL:

A cascade control loop differs from a single input single output (SISO) in a manner that in a
cascade control the input of the primary controller, also known as the master controller is the
input to the secondary controller also known as the slave controller. Cascade loops are
generally used when disturbances might affect the manipulated too. The use of a cascade loop
is illustrated using the following example.

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Suppose we want to maintain the exit temperature of a process fluid to a certain temperature
and we are using steam to carry out the heating operation a heat exchanger. A transmitter
sends the signal of the exit fluid temperature to the actuator valve which varies the valve
opening accordingly. This control does not take into account the variations in the steam flow
conditions like loss of pressure due to leakage. Any disturbances in the steam line a discounted
and even when the process fluids temperature rises and signals the actuator, the actuator
allows the corresponding valve opening but we do not get the required flow rate of steam to
do the job. This is overcome in the way shown below:

The fluids temperature is analysed, transmitted by an external loop, the master loop and the
signal is feed to the inner slave loop. Since the primary manipulated variable is flow rate of the
steam rather than the valve opening, this signal becomes the set point of the slave loop. The
slave controller measures the present flow rate of steam and compares it to the flow rate set
point fed by the master loop. Hence in this way the outlet fluid temperature is controlled.

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Cascade control is generally useful when
-A system error affects the primary control variable only after a long period of time as it
propagates through dead time and lag time.
-A system has long dead times.
-Multiple measurements with only one control variable are required for better response to a
disturbance of a system.
-Variance occurs in multiple streams.

REMOTE SET POINT:
The set point of the either may be local as fed by the operator or may be remote as in the
case of a cascade loop where an external element controls the set point of a controller itself.

USE OF 3 ELEMENT CONTROL IN BOILER LEVEL CONTROL:
Liquid level in boilers must be maintained to a desired value. A lower value will mean that the
flow through the downcomer tubes is low and this may cause excessive heating of the tubes as
water is the medium to carry off heat from the tubes. This may cause the drum to sag. A higher
level would mean entrainment of moisture in the exit steam to the process. To do this a 3

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element level control is employed to the boiler. The loop can be shown as below: control is

The three elements used in the control are:
-Boiler Feedwater Flow.
-Liquid Level.
-Steam Flow.

The level in the feed drum is analysed in by the level controller and is transmitted to the relay.
The steam to the process is also measured and is sent to the controller and the value of the
flowrate of boiler feedwater is adjusted to maintain the level.

3 ELEMENT CONTROL OVER SINGLE AND DOUBLE ELEMENT CONTROL:

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The use of 3 element control has inherent advantages over simpler controllers. The single
control does not take into account the variations in the supply pressure of the boiler feed water
and the change in the demand of the supply of the steam.
Feedwater maybe brought to the boiler through different locations with pumps operating in
parallel (adding heads) and any disturbances in the line of any pumps may affect the supply to
the boiler which is not taken into consideration by the double control which acts only on the
steam flow. Moreover, an increased requirement of the steam to the process is also ignored
using simpler controls not looped with the steam flow.
The main purpose for the use of 3 element boiler control is the phenomenon of swelling. The
increased demand of steam causes the liquid level to rise momentarily due to the rapid exit of
the steam. The level control will observe the level to be rising whereas the actual amount of
water in the drum will be decreasing. Control on steam flow compensates for this discrepancy.
Actual boiler level control schemes do not feed the steam flow signal forward directly. Instead,
the difference between the outlet steam flow and the inlet water flow is calculated. The
difference value is directly added to the set point signal to the feedwater flow controller.
Therefore, if the steam flow out of the boiler is suddenly increased, the set point to the
feedwater flow controller is increased by exactly the amount of the measured steam flow
increase.


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SURGING IN COMPRESSORS:
'Surging' is defined as 'A momentary back-flow' through the compressor from the discharge to
the suction shown below:. This can occur when the flow rate of gas to the compressor falls
below a certain level with a high pressure difference across the inlet and outlet. A typical
compressor performance curve looks like the one

This curve plots the corrected flow rate of air through the outlet of the compressor to the
pressure ratio between the inlet and outlet of the compressor. For a particular operating speed
Air Flow v/s Pressure Ratio

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of the impeller blades, shown in rpm here, there is a surge limit. Thus the point after that
maximum pressure ratio and minimum flow rate, the compressor begins to surge.

CAUSES:
The shift of the operating point to the left of the surge line causes the compressor to surge.
Physically, the throttling or constriction of the outlet valve causes the outlet pressure to
increase hence an increase in the pressure ratio. Actually, the working principle of a centrifugal
compressor is increasing the kinetic energy of the fluid with a rotating impeller. The fluid is then
slowed down in a volume called the plenum, where the kinetic energy is converted into
potential energy in form of a pressure rise. When the plenum pressure behind the compressor
is higher than the compressor outlet pressure, the fluid tends to reverse or even flow back in
the compressor.
When the flow through the outlet is small and there is not enough gas being discharged to
compensate for the incoming gas, the gas flows out through the suction.
Aerodymically, the phenomenon could be explained on the basis that at such high flow rate and
elevated pressures, the fluid separates from the blades of the impeller causing the retrieval of
the gas to the suction end.
Surging can also occur due to the fluctuations in the power drive to the compressor, for
example the frequency fluctuations in the current to the motor or the supply of steam to the
turbine driving the compressor.
HAZARDS AND PREVENTION:
Surging can cause excessive heating of the gas and considerable damage to the impellers of the
compressor.
Moreover surging of the compressor can be harmful downstream as fluctuations in supply of
compressed air to a reactor or damage due to the excessive heat carried by the gas to a engine
receiving air from a turbo-compressor.
Surging can be prevented by recirculating a part of the outlet gas to the inlet through the
interstage coolers. A pressure transmitter causes the recycle valves to open according to the
increase in pressure and thus shifting the operating point within the surge line. This is shown in

32 | P a g e

the diagram below where high pressure gas is used to drive the HP turbine while the recycle gas
is used to operate LP turbine.


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Uses of Purified Terephthalic Acid:
More than 90% of all Purified Terephthalic Acid produced is consumed in the production of
Polyethylene Terephthalate(PET), which is prepared in the form of fibers or resin to produce
PET bottles. The following figure shows its utilization in different forms as per data of the years
2011-12.

PET is produced by the esterification of PTA and ethylene glycol and is used to produce bottles
for carbonated beverages as PET forms a barrier to carbon dioxide and moisture and is durable.
PET bottles also find their application in various other bottling necessities such as for bottling
pesticedes.


34 | P a g e

PET is also prepared in the form of fiber, more commonly known as polyester which is
distinguished from a whole family of polyesters of which it is a part. Polyester fibers are used in
making yarns, fabric and similar stuff. One of the interesting application is in the sailcloth
where PET is remarkably preferred as PET has excellent resiliency, high abrasion resistance,
high UV resistance, high flex strength and low cost. Low absorbency allows the fiber to dry
quickly.

The yarn produced is used in knitware.
The PET can also be prepared in the in chips, usually of different grade. These are used in the
production of bottle caps by injection molding.

PTA is also used in the production of engineering polymers like Polybutylene terephthalate . It is
used in insulation of electric wires.


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2013

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