PP Handbook Peter Blum November 1997

1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Objectives of Physical Properties Measurements
Physical properties of rocks and sediments are indicators of composition, formation, and environmental conditions of the deposits. Some physical properties can be measured rapidly and easily at high spatial resolution (core logging) and serve as proxies for processes such as paleoclimatic changes. Physical properties data are usually well defined and quantitative, which helps constrain the complex mineralogical and fluid systems in rocks and sediments. They are used increasingly by a wide scientific community for various scientific objectives. For these reasons, physical properties data form the bulk of all core data collected on board the JOIDES Resolution on each leg. In soft and semiconsolidated sediment sections, physical properties data serve mostly as proxies for sediment composition, which is controlled by provenance, depositional and erosional processes, oceanographic and climatic changes, and postdepositional processes such as consolidation, and early diagenesis. In consolidated sediments and igneous rocks, diagenetic processes, including cementation, major lithological changes, and major faults, tend to dominate many physical properties. Hydrothermal circulation can be detected in sediment and rock environments by using physical property measurements. A major application of data collected at small sampling intervals (a few centimeters), such as magnetic susceptibility, color reflectance, gamma-ray density, and natural gamma radiation, is for core-to-core and hole-to-hole correlation and for correlating core data to wireline log data. These correlation procedures are essential for stratigraphic studies, and some of the most important ocean drilling projects are unthinkable without the high-performance acquisition of physical properties data.
1.2. Shipboard Laboratory Stations and Sampling

O VE R V IE W
After cores arrive on deck they are cut into 1.5-m-long sections and stored in racks for temperature equilibration. The first measurement station is the multisensor track (MST), where the whole-core sections are loaded on a motorized core conveyor boat for the automatic measurement of gamma-ray density, compressional (P-)wave velocity, magnetic susceptibility, and natural gamma radiation. The MST is used most effectively with cores completely filled with soft
PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997
11
to semiconsolidated sediments that were retrieved with the advanced hydraulic piston corer (APC). Intact sedimentary or igneous rock cores cut with the extended core barrel (XCB) or rotary core barrel (RCB) also give good MST measurements. Coring disturbance such as severe biscuiting (typical for XCB cores) and fracturing (typical for RCB cores) associated with torquing significantly reduces the accuracy and usefulness of MST measurements, sometimes to a degree that MST measurements should not be performed. For soft sediment cores, the second station is the thermal conductivity station, where needle probes are inserted into the whole cores. Next, the cores are split either with a wire (soft sediment) or with a saw. The half-cores are designated as archive-half cores and working-half cores. Figure 11 shows the relative core orientation conventions established to place core measurements, particularly paleomagnetic data, in a geographic reference frame using absolute core orientation measurements when the core is cut. The same conventions are used for other physical properties measurements that can be performed in multiple directions and that may reveal anisotropy (e.g., acoustic measurements) or for structural measurements. The archive-half cores are preserved in a pristine condition whereas the working-half cores are available for measurements that physically disturb parts of the cores and for theremoval of specimens for shipboard as well as shore-based studies.
UP
(Double line)
Working h alf
UP
(Single line)
Archive h alf
Split-core
face
y
(90)
Split-core
face
x
(0)
-x
(180)
Figure 11
Core orientation conventions.
The archive-half core is used for the visual core description, paleomagnetic measurements using the cryogenic magnetometer, noncontact color reflectance measurements (to be implemented), and photography. A track system is in development that will measure the two physical properties of magnetic susceptibility and color reflectance along with the acquisition of color images of the core surface. After core photographs have been taken, the archive-half cores are stored in plastic tubes and refrigerated.
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The working-half core is used for the measurement of color reflectance (the present mode of manual operation requires contact with sediment), P-wave velocity by using probes that are inserted into the soft sediment, vane shear strength by inserting a miniaturized vane into the sediment, and similar strength measurements with the hand-held Torvane and penetrometer devices. Half-core pieces of rocks are used for the measurement of thermal conductivity by using the half-space needle probe. In the future, a gamma-ray densiometer will be added to the working-half station. Along with the use of a caliper (associated with the Pwave system on this track) gamma-ray densities may be more accurate and precise than those obtained currently from the MST. For the final physical properties measurement, specimens are extracted from the working-half core to determine moisture content and average mineral density (MAD station). P-wave velocity can also be determined on specimens of sedimentary or igneous rock extracted using a parallel-blade or cylindrical saw. The working-half core then proceeds to the sampling table where one to three individuals extract specimens for analysis on shore. The sampling voids are filled with Styrofoam, and the working-half core is stored in plastic tubes and refrigerated along with the archive-half core.
MULTISEN SOR TRACK (W HOLE- COR E MST) STATION Measurement Systems

The MST is an automated core conveying and positioning system for logging core physical properties at small sampling intervals. At present, the MST system includes the following measurements: gamma-ray attenuation densiometry (GRA) P-wave velocity logging (PWL) magnetic susceptibility logging (MSL) natural gamma ray (NGR) measurements The MST is one of the most routinely used devices onboard the JOIDES Resolution. No other shipboard instrument produces a comparable amount of core data, and the MST data set is among the most widely used ODP data and represents a worldwide standard of core analysis. The MST is designed to handle the sampling of whole cores automatically, and all measurements except the PWL can also be used on split cores and for measurements on individual core specimens. A new flexible, intuitive control interface was implemented in 1996.
Sampling
One of the most useful new features is the improved sampling parameter interface. The user can set sampling intervals and periods for all sensors and the program returns the calculated total measuring time for a core section based on an optimized measuring sequence. A graphical display shows the sampling points with depth. Typically, the time permissible for a whole core (typically seven core sections) is about 1 hr on legs with high core recovery (about 4 km of core or more). Therefore, if full-time attention is given to the MST, about 10 min can be allowed for measuring one core section. An overview of useful sampling parameter settings is given in this section. More data and information are presented in the individual sensor sections as appropriate.
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When selecting sampling intervals, consideration should be given to the depth interval each sensor can resolve (see Table 11). For the GRA and PWL sensors, the depth intervals are less than 1 cm, for the MSL loop it is about 4 cm, and for the NGR it is about 15 cm. Because the sensitivity of the MSL and NGR sensors decreases away from the center of the sensor, better resolution can still be achieved by taking measurements at intervals smaller than the intrinsic interval of influence. Generally, ideal sampling intervals for the GRA, MSL, and PWL are 1 cm and should not exceed 5 cm. For the NGR, the best depth resolution possible is at about 5 cm. Intervals should not exceed 30 cm, which is about the depth resolution of downhole logging tools. Sampling periods are directly related to the data quality (precision) particularly for the nuclear sensors. Because of the high flux provided by the 137Ce gamma-ray source, 2-s sampling with the GRA is sufficient. The MSL has an internal integration time of 0.9 s (1.0 range) or 9 s (0.1 range); it should be set at 1 s. The MST program is best set to 2-s sampling time to allow for minor electronic and communications delay. The NGR is most sensitive to the sampling period because of the low intensity and random nature of natural gamma ray emissions. The more counts are accumulated, the more reliable the signal (the error is is proportional to N-0.5, where N is the number of counts; see Natural Gamma Radiation chapter for more discussion). If spectral analysis is attempted to estimate abundance of K, U, and Th (which is not implemented for routine application yet), at least 1 min should be counted. (One hour would probably be more appropriate to reduce the statistical error to a level that would yield a good estimate of K, U, and Th). If only a total counts signal is desired, as little as 15 s is sufficient in terrigenous sediments, whereas 30 s should be measured in carbonates. The PWL system takes five measurements (data acquisitions or DAQs) at each point that are averaged for the sample and provide a sufficiently precise value. Table 11
Sensor
MST sampling parameters.

Sensitivity interval (cm) Best 0.5 1 0.5 1 Interval (cm) Typical Maximum 1 1 1 10 5 5 5 30 Best 4 10 10a >100 Period (s) Typical 2 4 1a 20 Minimum 1 1 1a 5b
GRA MSL PWL NGR
<1 4 <1 15
Notes: aFive DAQs are averaged per second. bFor amoving average applied to data taken at close spacing.
For optimized sampling parameter settings it is important that intervals and periods are multiples of each other. This ensures that the idle time of sensors is minimized and data quantity and quality are maximized for a given total core section scan period. For example, if GRA is set to 2 cm and MSL to 3 cm, one of the two sensors is partly idle while the other is taking a measurement. It is more efficient to set both at 2 cm so they measure simultaneously. Similarly, if the core stops every 1 cm for GRA and MSL measurements and 4 s are required for the MSL, the GRA sampling period should also be 4 s rather that 2 s because the additional time improves data quality but it does not require any additional time.
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A further optimization can be considered for NGR measurements. Rather than taking a 20-s reading every 20 cm and leaving the other sensors mostly idle during that time, a 5-s reading can be taken every 5 cm, simultaneously with the other readings. This shortens total scanning time considerably. To get data quality (statistical error range) equivalent to a 20-s counting time, the user simply runs a moving average with a four-point window on the data.
THERMAL CONDU CTIVITY (TC) STATION Measurement Systems

Thermal conductivity is the only property measured at this station. Two systems are available currently: Thermcon-85 system customized for ODP use and new TK04 system not customized for ODP. A project plan exists to replace these with a fully integrated system that would incorporate the best features of both existing systems. However, no resources have been allocated yet. Soft-sediment cores are measured before they are split because the larger volume of material surrounding the needle probe reduces geometrical problems (edge effects). If the core material is too hard to be penetrated by the needles without excessive force, thermal conductivity is measured on working-half core pieces using the half-space needle probes.
Sampling
Given the minimum time available until a soft sediment core must be split (about 1 hr), at least 5-10 measurements can be performed (1- to 2-m sampling interval). This is usually sufficient because thermal conductivity variations are strongly proportional to, but less sensitive and less precise than, bulk density measurements. Density can be used as a proxy and calibrated against a limited number of thermal conductivity measurements if higher spatial resolution is required.
A R C H I V E -H A L F C O R E L O GG ER ( A- LOGGER, TO BE IM PLEM ENTE D ) Measurement Systems (to be implemented)

The archive-half core logger is under development and scheduled for deployment later this year (1997). It will include the following measurement systems: color line-scan images, color reflectance spectrophotometry and colorimetry, and magnetic susceptibility. The main goal for this development is to acquire color images of the cores (not discussed in this note) and to automate the routine acquisition of visible light color reflectance measurements. In addition, the spacial resolution and sensitivity of magnetic susceptibility logging will be improved with a point-sensor that requires contact with the core surface. Although line scans are truly noncontact and nondestructive (i.e., ideally suited for archive-half logging), photospectrometry and magnetic susceptibility require contact with the core surface and these implications still must be evaluated. These measurements may haveto be obtained from working-half cores.
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Present Measurement System
The present proto-A-logger consists of a manually operated track for color reflectance measurements. Measurements are usually performed on working-half cores because imprints are left on the core surface from the manual operation. A simple computer program writes the data directly to disk and assists the operator further by incrementing sampling intervals automatically. Color reflectance should be measured at the smallest intervals possible because it is very sensitive to compositional changes. Variations in color reflectance serve as an excellent proxy for detailed correlation and compositional interpretation. A measurement with the Minolta spectrophotometer covers an 0.8-cm-diameter area. The manual mode sampling intervals used by shipboard scientific parties are 2 to 20 cm. With the future automated system, intervals should be set at 1 cm or less.
Sampling
WO RKING-H ALF CORE STATION (W- LOGGER) Measurement Systems

The working-half core station is semiautomated currently. It includes the following measurements (Figure 12): P-wave velocity with the PWS1, PWS2, and PWS3 systems, Shear strength using the automated vane shear (AVS), Shear strength using the manual Torvane (TOR), and Compressional strength using a pen-size penetrometer (PEN) A component analyzer is available for resistivity measurements, but these measurements are not supported by ODP at present. Users are required to provide their own probes, perform their own calibrations, and develop their own procedures.
P-wave velocity
PWS1
Measurement direction Split-core: z Specimens: n/a
Shear strength
AVS
z-y plane n/a
PWS2
y n/a
PWS3
x any direction
Figure 12 Schematic view of the semiautomated instrumentation on the working-half core track. n/a = not applicable.
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Sampling
Sampling intervals for these measurements are mainly a function of available time at a given core recovery rate and how much core destruction (particularly using the AVS system) is permissible. The minimum sampling frequency on soft sediment cores is one per core section; a more typical sampling rate is two per section (75cm sampling interval). If numerous measurements are desired on specimens that must be extracted from the working-half core or that disturb the core, the ODP staff representative must be consulted. Whenever possible, the same sampling location should be coordinated for P-wave velocity and strength measurements, as well as for subsequent extraction of specimens for moisture and density measurements, carbonate, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and/or magnetic rock properties measurements. For velocity measurements on split cores in liners, no sample preparation is necessary. An undisturbed interval is chosen for the measurement. For measurements on specimens that require two parallel faces to obtain optimum values, there are several ways to obtain such samples. In semiconsolidated sediment, use a spatula or knife to cut a cube of approximately 20 cm 3. For indurated sediment, use a hammer and chisel or the Felker saw. The Torrance double-bladed saw cuts good parallel faces. The easiest way to obtain a velocity sample in hard rock is to drill cylindrical minicores. These samples are particularly useful for sharing with the paleomagnetics laboratory (note the orientation when taking the sample).
M O I S T UR E A N D D EN S IT Y ( MAD) STATION Measurement Systems

At the MAD station, the following are measured: wet-bulk mass and dry mass of the same specimen (for moisture content and density) and volume of dry (and optionally wet-bulk) specimen using gas pycnometry. From these measurements, basic phase relationships such as porosity, bulk density, grain density, dry density, and void ratio can be calculated. At present, a convection oven is used to dry the specimens. Ideally, a freeze-dryer should be used to avoid excessive extraction of interlayer water from clay minerals, particularly smectite.
Sampling
Sampling is typically 1-2 specimens per section, 10-mL volume per specimen. If possible, the same sample interval should be used as for strength and/or P-wave velocity measurements. Where numerous lithologic changes occur, denser sampling may ensure measurements from all significant lithologies throughout the core. Where cyclic changes in gamma-ray density are observed, a denser sampling program over a characteristic interval may be desirable. In XCB and RCB cores, which commonly show the biscuiting type of disturbance, particular care should be taken to sample undisturbed parts of the core sections and to avoid the drilling slurry.
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1.3. New Shipboard Data Management Environment

BACKGROUND
In the early 1990s, the JOIDES advisory structure, through input from shipboard participants identified the need to design and implement a new database system on the ship as well as on shore. The complexity and level of productivity of the shipboard data acquisition environment made this a multiyear, multimillion dollar project. The physical properties laboratory was the first shipboard laboratory to be integrated into the new data management environment once the basic operational, curatorial, and depth calculation functions were redefined and implemented. The process of redefining the entire ODP data structure offered the opportunity to implement more rigorous data acquisition, calibration, and control measurement protocols for physical properties measurements and to give the user access to these quality control data. A uniform data structure, compatible with the rules of relational data management, was created wherever possible. Leg 173 (April to June 1997) was the official acceptance leg for the new data management system, as described in this first edition of the note. From the users perspective, the data management system includes the following components: data acquisition interfaces and controls, data upload utilities, database and data models, and data access and standard queries. The following section briefly introduces these components.
COMPON ENTS OF SHIPBOARD DATA M ANAGEM EN T Data Acquisition Interfaces and Controls
DAQ programs are written in various programs depending on the most suitable software tools and available expertise and hardware at the time and place they were written. During the past two years, two dominating standards have evolved: Neuron Data for operational and curatorial functions and descriptive data types (excellent for PCs, but performs poorly on Macintosh computers); and Labview for instrumental data (Macintosh or PC). The Neuron Data applications are integrated into a common user interface, called the Janus Application. Most physical properties DAQ programs are written in Labview now, including the MST control, MAD program, P-wave velocity and vane shear strength on half cores (PWS, AVS), and control of the Minolta photospectrometer (COL). Thermal conductivity remains in a state of development, and both available systems controls are written in QuickBasic. Once data are acquired and located on a local drive, they must be uploaded to the Oracle database. Although procedure this could be fully automated and become part of the DAQ program, it was decided that an interactive user quality control should separate the two functions. Invalid or erroneous data are frequently
Data Upload Utilities
18
acquired, particularly on highly automated systems that are operated in a conveyer-belt mode. The user has the option to delete such data from the local directory before triggering upload to the database, which avoids excessive editing within the database, a process that involves significantly more risk and effort. Data upload utility programs are written in Neuron Data and are closely integrated with DAQ programs written in Neuron Data. For DAQ programs written in Labview or another language, a separate data upload utility must be operated. This is the responsibility of the ODP technical support representative, but scientists may learn the procedure and operate it themselves.
Database and Data Models
The new ODP Oracle database is designed specifically for ODPs unique shipboard environment and user needs. The system includes more than 250 data tables in a complex relational scheme, capturing data from the initiation of a leg, through core recovery and curation, physical and chemical analyses, core description, and sampling. Physical properties alone use 65 tables at present, not counting related tables for sample identification and depth data shared with other laboratories, and will involve more than 100 tables once the remaining measurement systems are integrated. The tables pertaining to a particular measurement system are presented in the Data Specification sections to help the user understand how the data are structured and how they can be accessed. At this early stage of using the new database, there are three different technical approaches to data access, and the next few legs will show which is the most efficient and user-friendly one. The three approaches are referred to as Janus Application, Report Access Program, and World Wide Web Data Access. The first solution integrates an off-the-shelf reporting utility, Business Objects, into the Janus Application. Many reports are available through this main interfacefrom which the user selects a particular report from a submenu. The Report Access Program (RAP) was written as an alternative manager for the Business Objects reports. The advantage is that the user does not have to log on to the Janus Application, which may be somewhat time-consuming, and that access to and expansion of Business Objects reports and queries could be more efficiently managed by ODP. This environment allows the user to create special reports using existing Business Object macros relatively easily. The third approach is for ODP personnel to write standard queries in C-language and make them available through a World Wide Web (WWW) browser. This approach has the advantages that routines are directly suitable for global data access and that accessing data on the ship on the local web may be the fastest method. It will not provide the freestyle access to the database that Business Objects in the RAP environment offers to the user. However, recent information indicates that Business Objects will not continue to be supported on the Macintosh, which rules out its future use. The third approach will therefore most likely be fully implemented.
Data Access and Standard Queries
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SA MPLE IDENTIFIERS AND DEPTH CALCULA TIO N Links to Curatorial Identifiers

In the relational ODP database, redundancy of information is minimized for efficient data management. For example, site, hole, core, and section information is entered in specific tables linked in a logical way, and all measurement locations in a particular section are linked to the <Section> table. Similarly, if a core specimen is extracted for shipboard or shore-based analysis, the basic curatorial information is accessed through the <Sample> table, which is linked to the <Section> table, etc. In the physical properties database models presented in the following chapters, the field <section_id> alone or with the fields <interval_top> and <interval_bottom> are the links to the more specific information in the appropriate tables. The <Sample> and <Section> tables are listed in Table 12. Depth below seafloor of a core specimen or measurement location can be calculated in different ways. The standard way is to measure the distance in the recovered and physically expanded core and add it to the measured drill string depth datum for the top of the core. This depth scale is known as meters below seafloor (mbsf). Of course, this is only an approximation to the true depth below seafloor. Problems inherent in this scale are that the recovered core length may be greater than the interval advanced by the drill string, and some of the material from this interval was lost between successive cores. With APC material, this results in apparently overlapping sections between successive cores when in fact there is a coring gap. If a complete stratigraphic section is to be constructed, multiple holes are drilled at the same site and a composite section is developed at the meters composite depth (mcd) scale. This scale is at the physically expanded state of the recovered cores and does not match the drilled interval. However, it is a much more continuous scale that can be fit approximately to the drilled interval using the coretop data (mbsf) or fit more precisely if good-quality downhole logging data are available. There are additional corrections that can be applied to derive a more accurate approximation to depth below seafloor. These and other depth issues are explained in detail in a workshop report (Blum et al., 1995), and a technical note dedicated to these issues will be produced. The redefined concepts are integrated in the new database, which features a depth map that allows the rapid calculation of any depth type provided that pertinent data have been acquired and entered (see Table 12 ).
Depth Types
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Standard data queries prompt the user to specify the desired depth type. The default map type (mbsf) is referred to (map_type_name) as standard. Table 12 Database model for some essential s.
Depth Map section_id [PK1] [FK] map_type [PK2] [FK] sect_interval_top [PK3] sect_interval_bottom [PK4} map_interval_top map_interval_bottom Section section_id [PK1] section_number section_type curated_length liner_length core_catcher_stored_in section_comments leg site hole core core_type Sample sample_id [PK1] location [PK2] sam_section_id . section_id sam_archive_working top_interval bottom_interval piece sub_piece beaker_id . mad_beaker_id volume entered_by sample_depth sample_comment sam_repository . repository s_c_leg . leg s_c_sam_code . sam_code sam_sample_code_lab . s_c_l
Map Type map_type [PK1] description map_type_name map_type_date
1.4. Physical Properties Standards

Standard materials used to calibrate instruments are an essential part of the analyses and should be integrated into the measurement systems accordingly. The goal is to enter all standards used into database tables so that calibration data and results can be tracked to the particular standard used at a given time. Our plan is to populate a <Physical Properties Standard> table shown in Table 13. The table is generic enough to accommodate any type of standard, and the value of any property can be linked to any calibration utility and file in the physical properties environment. This table may principally include standards from other laboratories as well. Table 13 Physical properties standards database model.
Physical Properties Std Data standard_id property_name property_description property_value property_units
Physical Properties Standard standard_id [PK1] standard_name standard_set_name date_time_commissioned date_time_decommissioned lot_serial_number comments
A table of existing standards is in preparation. Unfortunately, ODP has not made significant efforts to share standards and calibration procedures with other core laboratories (with rare exceptions). Such efforts would benefit ODP as well as other laboratories, and therefore the scientific drilling community, because reliable and widely endorsed calibration standards for systems that measure complex natural systems are difficult to find.
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2. MOISTURE AND DENSITY (BY MASS AND VOLUME)

2.1. Principles
PH YSICAL BACK GROUN D
Moisture content and mineral density are basic sediment and rock properties that are determined most accurately through mass and volume determinations. Core specimens of approximately 8 cm3 are extruded from the working-half core for this purpose. Moisture content is determined by measuring the specimens mass before and after removal of interstitial pore fluid through drying. The drying method is the most critical part of the entire procedure. At present, a convection oven is used for this purpose for 24 hours at temperatures varying from 100 to 110C. This method is suspected to remove a substantial portion of the interlayer (hydrated) water from clays such as smectite in addition to interstitial water, which may result in porosity errors of up to 20%. Alternative methods such as microwave or freeze-drying have other potential problems and have not replaced the convection oven. Moisture content, porosity, and void ratio are defined by the mass or volume of extracted water (assumed to be interstitial pore fluid), corrected for the mass and volume of salt evaporated during the drying process (see also ASTM, 1990). The mass and volume of the evaporated pore-water salts are calculated for a standard seawater salinity (35), seawater density at laboratory conditions (1.024 g/cm3), and an average seawater salt density (2.20 g/cm3). Any gases that may be present are allowed to escape during core retrieval, core splitting, and specimen extrusion. The volume of a specimen can be measured in three ways: method A: wet-bulk volume measured with special volume sampler, method B: wet-bulk volume measured by gas pycnometry, and method C: dry volume measured by gas pycnometry Method A is the least standardized method. The device to be used depends on user preference and can be a simple steel ring (fixed volume, available on the ship) or some sort of syringe (volume is measured after the sample has been taken). The advantage of method A, according to some users, is that a larger number of specimens can be measured than with gas pycnometry in a given time. The disadvantages are (1) the method works only in soft, non-sticky sediment (mainly homogenous carbonate oozes to a depth of about 200 mbsf), (2) the volume measured includes potential cracks or other spaces filled with air, (3) there is no precision estimate for this method, and (4) there is no standard for this method.
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This method should therefore be used only if there is ample justification, and measurements must be calibrated with an appropriate number of pycnometry results. Methods B and C use the same gas pycnometer. The measurement principle of this device is briefly described in the following. Gas pycnometry works with pressure ratios of an ideal gas (helium), which are sensitive to contamination with partial pressures of other fluids. The material to be measured should therefore be dry. The ODP database contains thousands of examples from specimens measured with both method B and method C. A systematic error is clearly discernible in comparing calculated results, with bulk densities 1%5% too high and grain densities about 5%10% too high for method B. It is therefore recommended that only method C be used. The following relationships can be computed from two mass measurements and one or two volume measurements. First, if methods B or C are used, the beaker mass and volume, which are determined periodically and stored in the programs lookup table, are subtracted from the measured total mass and volume measurements. If method A is used, only the beaker mass is subtracted (the user must specify the use of method A in the program). This results in the following directly measured values: Mb: bulk mass, Md: dry mass (mass of solids, Ms, plus mass of evaporated salt), Vb(A or B): bulk volume, method A or method B, and Vd(C): dry volume = volume of solids, Vs(C), plus volume of evaporated salt, Vsalt. Variations in pore-water salinity, s (s = S/1000), and density, pw, that typically occur in marine sediments do not affect the calculations significantly, and standard seawater values at laboratory conditions are used: s = 0.035 (1) (2) pw = 1.024. Pore-water mass, Mpw, mass of solids, Ms, and pore-water volume, Vpw, can then be calculated: Mpw = (Mb Md) / (1 s) Ms = Mb Mpw = (Md s Mb) / (1 s) Vpw = Mpw/pw = (Mb Md) / [(1 s) pw]. (3) (4) (5)
Additional parameters required are the mass and volume of salt (Msalt and Vsalt, respectively) to account for the phase change of pore-water salt during drying. It should be kept in mind that for practical purposes the mass of salt is the same in solution or as precipitate, whereas the volume of the salt in solution is negligible. (6) Msalt = Mpw (Mb Md) = (Mb Md) s / (1 s) Vsalt = Msalt / salt = [(Mb Md) s / (1 s)] / salt, (7)
where the salt density value salt = 2.20 g/cm3 is a value calculated for an average composition of seawater salt (Lyman and Fleming, 1940; Weast et al., 1985).
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Moisture content is the pore water mass expressed either as percentage of wet bulk mass or as percentage of the mass of salt-corrected solids: Wb = Mpw / Mb = (Mb Md) / Mb (1 s) (8) Ws = Mpw / Ms = (Mb Md) / (Md s Mb). (9)
Calculation of the bulk volume for method C and volume of solids depend on the volume measurement method used: (10) Vs(A or B) = Vb(A or B) Vpw Vs(C) = Vd(C) Vsalt Vb(C) = Vs(C) + Vpw. (11) (12)
Bulk density, b, density of solids or grain density, s, dry density, d, porosity, P, and void ratio, e, are then calculated accordingly for each method: b(A,B,C) = Mb / Vb(A,B,C) s(A,B,C) = Ms / Vs(A,B,C) d(A,B,C) = Ms / Vb(A,B,C) P(A,B,C) = Vpw / Vb(A,B,C) e(A,B,C) = Vpw / Vs(A,B,C). (13) (14) (15) (16) (17)
EN VIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Core Expansion

Cores, particularly sediment cores from a few hundred meters below the seafloor, expand upon recovery for a number of reasons, which include elastic recovery, gas expansion, and mechanical stretching. Expansions of solids can be neglected. Pore water expands by about 4% for every 1000 bar (100 MPa) pressure release. This is what the pore water of a seafloor sample from about 10,000-m water depth would experience, or in ocean drilling terms, what a sample buried by about 2000 m of water and about 3000 m of sediment would experience. For the bulk of ODP cores, pore-water expansion is in the order of 1% and therefore negligible compared with the analytical error. Free gas expands by orders of magnitude, according to the simple relationship P1V1 = P2V2. A few percent of free gas in the sediment can produce an explosive sediment-gas mixture that has torn apart plastic core liners on the ship on several occasions. Most gas escapes before the cores are analyzed and can produce microfractures, which appear as porosity with methods based on core unit-volume measurements, such as the gamma-ray attenuation bulk density method. Mechanical stretching may also cause microfracturing. The MAD method measures the mass and volume of the solid and liquid phases only and is therefore not affected by this type of artificial porosity. The original contribution of the gas to in situ porosity cannot be measured with our routine core analysis program.
Composition of Seawater
Different water masses of the world oceans have different chemical compositions and physical properties. For the purpose of correcting oven-dried sediment specimens for the evaporated salt from the pore water, the standard compositions
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after Lyman and Fleming (1940) and salt densities after Weast et al. (1985) are used (Table 21).
Table 21
Salt
NaCl MgCl2 Na2SO4 CaCl2 KCl NaHCO3 KBr H3BO3
Composition of sea water.

Mass fractiona (x 103)
23.476 4.981 3.917 1.102 0.664 0.192 0.096 0.026 0.024 0.003 34.481 Weighted average 2.10-2.24 2.671 (leaf) 3.052 (cub.) 2.08
Densityb (g/cm-3)
2.165 2.316-2.33 1.46 (monocl.) 2.68 (orthorh.) 2.15 1.984 2.159 2.75
SrCl2 SrCl2.2H2O NaF Total
a b
Lyman and Fleming (1940). Weast et al. (1985).
Given the uncertainty in regard to the crystalline structure of some evaporated components, the average density of the standard seawater salt is between 2.10 and 2.24 g/cm3. A value of 2.20 g/cm3 is used routinely for the MAD calculations.
Density of Pore water
Density of pore water is a function of temperature (T), salinity (S), and pressure (P). Equations of state for seawater (Millero et al., 1980; Millero and Poisson, 1981) can be used to illustrate the variability of pore-water density as a function of these three parameters (Figure on page 5). Typical salinity values for pore waters are 30 to 40, although more extreme values exist. At laboratory pressure and temperature, this range of salinity change affects pore-water density change of less than 1%, which is negligible compared with the analytical uncertainty. We therefore use a standard value of 35 for all MAD calculations and leave it up to the user to apply corrections if warranted. The typical temperature change experienced by nonlithified sediment upon recovery is from about 100C at depth to few degrees at the seafloor to about 22C in the laboratory. At standard salinity and laboratory pressure, a 100C change results in about a 2% change in seawater density. These effect is not figured in our MAD calcualations because it is close to the uncertainty. The effect of pressure change on density is of a similar magnitude. For a highporosity mud sample (for example, from 100 mbsf) at a water depth of 3000 m, the pressure release is about 320 bar (32 MPa). According to Figure 21, if the in situ
24
temperature is about the same as laboratory temperature and salinity is 35, porewater density decreases by about 1% upon recovery.
0C
1090
20C 40C 0C 20C
S = 7
1070 Density (kg/m )
S = 3
40C
1050
0C 20C
S = 0
1030
40C
1010
990 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Pressure (bar)
Figure 21 Density of seawater as a function of pressure, salinity, and temperature, using equations from Millero and Poisson (1981). The pressure range from 0 to 1000 bar covers most ODP situations. Standard salinity of 35 and two extreme salinities (0 and 70) are plotted as a function of a temperature between 0 to 40C (experimental temperature range of Poisson and Millero, 1981). The arrow indicates standard laboratory conditions.
USE OF MAD DATA

MAD data are the only data that provide a direct estimate of porosity and void ratio and the average density of the minerals. Porosity variations are controlled by consolidation and lithification, composition, alteration, and deformation of the sediments or rocks. MAD data can be used to calibrate the high-resolution gamma-ray attenuation bulk density data sampled automatically at much smaller intervals than would be possible for MAD data. If mineral density can be defined with sufficient precision, GRA bulk density can be expressed as porosity.
25
2.2. Moisture and Density System

EQ U I P ME N T Balance
Mass is determined with two Scientech 202 electronic balances to compensate for the ships motion. A set of mass standards ranging from 1 to 20 g is used for calibration and on the reference balance during measurements. The helium displacement pycnometer with five cells (penta-pycnometer), manufactured by Quantachrome Corp., employs Archimedes principle of fluid displacement to determine the volume of solid objects. The five measurement cells contain custom-fabricated inserts that reduce the chamber to a cylindrical space that holds exactly one 10-mL Pyrex beaker. The measurement chamber must contain as little air space as possible to maximize measurement precision. (The user should also ensure that the Pyrex beakers are filled as completely as possible with core material.) Each sample cell of volume VC has an input valve (from the gas tank) and an output valve (to the pressure transducer). An additional reference cell of volume VA is located downvent of the sample cells, with an input valve (which separates VA from the pressure transducer) and a vent valve (Figure on page 7). All cell volumes must be calibrated periodically (see calibration section). The following is the operation sequence of the pycnometer during the measurement of a specimen. The specimen to be measured is placed in a cell of known volume, VC. It is pressurized, using helium, to an exactly measured pressure of about 18 psi (~120 kPa). The solenoid valve between sample cell and the reference cell of known volume VA is opened and the helium from the pressurized chamber is ported to the reference cell. The subsequent pressure in the system is measured. Using the ideal gas law, the sample volume can be calculated from the pressure ratio. The following is the sequence of operation (Figure 22). 1. Gas input valves to all five cells are closed (corresponding light-emitting displays [LEDs] on pycnometer are unlit). The five sample cell output valves, the reference cell input valve, and the vent valve are open, ensuring that all cells are at the ambient pressure, Pa. 2. For all cells in use all valves are opened and cells are purged in parallel (for a 1-min minimum). Cells not being used (not identified by the user) are isolated by closing the input and output valves. 3. At the end of the purge period, processing begins on the first cell to be used. (Cells are run in ascending numerical order regardless of the order in which they were specified). When a stable ambient pressure is reached, the vent valve of the reference cell closes and the pycnometer acquires and stores a zero pressure value. 4. The reference cell input valve is closed to isolate VA from the cell. Approximately 6 s later, the current sample cell input valve opens and the cell is pressurized to approximately 17 psi or until 3 min elapse. 5. When the cell pressurization is complete, the current cell input valve closes.
Gas Pycnometer
26
The pycnometer waits until a stable pressure is detected and then acquires and stores the pressure P1 (LED display: pressure A). 6. The VA input valve opens. This will cause a pressure drop in the sample cell that is proportional to the change in volume because of the introduction of VA. When the pressure stabilizes, the system acquires and stores the cell pressure P2 (LED display: pressure B). 7. The vent valve is opened to return the cell to ambient pressure. After a short vent period, the instrument begins processing the next specified cell (if any) by venting the cell to ambient pressure. 8. After all cells defined for use have been processed, samples may be removed. The pycnometer indicates this by displaying <RUN COMPLETED>.
1 2 3 4 5
P0
B
V A
1 2 3 4 5 V A
Ppurge
System idle
Purging cells to be used

P0
1 2 3 4 5
D
V A
1 2 3 4 5
P0
V A
Equilibrate to ambient
Vent valve closed
1 2 3 4 5
P0
F
V A
1 2 3 4 5 V A
P1
Reference volume isolated
Sample cell pressurized
1 2 3 4 5 V A
P1
1 2 3 4 5 V A
P2
Sample pressure isolated
Reference volume added
1 2 3 4 5
P0
J
V A
1 2 3 4 5
P0
V A
ilib i
ll
Figure 22 Operating sequence of the Quantachrome penta-pycnometer. Blue lines and cells are under ambient pressure Pa (Pa = P0). Red lines and cells are
27
under system pressure P1 (about 17 psi). Green lines and cells are under a reduced system pressure P2. The sample volume can be calculated using the ideal gas law. By opening the solenoid valves on one sample cell with volume VC, the system is brought to ambient pressure Pa after being purged with helium. The state of the system is then defined as Pa VC = n R Ta , where n is the moles of gas occupying volume VC at pressure Pa, R is the gas constant, and Ta is the ambient temperature in degrees Kelvin. When the solid sample of volume VS is placed in the sample cell, the equation can be written as Pa (VC VS) = n0 R Ta . (19) (18)
After pressurizing to about 17 psi above ambient pressure, the state of the system is given by (20) P1 (VC VS) = n1 R Ta . Here, P1 indicates a pressure above ambient and n1 represents the total moles of gas contained in the sample cell. When the solenoid valve is opened to connect the added volume VA to that of the cell VC, the pressure falls to the lower value P2 given by P2 (VC VS + VA) = n1 R Ta + nA R Ta , where nA is the moles of gas contained in the added volume when at ambient pressure. The term Pa VA can be used in place of nA R Ta in Equation on page 8yielding P2 (VC VS + VA) = n1 R Ta + Pa VA . Substituting P1 (VC VS) from Equation on page 8 for n1 R Ta: P2 (VC VS + VA) = P1 (VC VS) + Pa VA (P2 P1) (VC VS) = (Pa P2) VA VC VS = (Pa P2) / (P2 P1) VA . (23) (24) (25) (22) (21)
Equation on page 8 is further reduced by adding and subtracting Pa from P2 and P1 in the denominator, giving VS = VC {[(Pa P2) VA / [(P2 Pa) (P1 Pa)]} = VC + VA / {1 [(P1 Pa) / (P2 Pa)]}. Because Pa is zeroed prior to pressurizing: VS = VC + VA / [1 (P1/ P2)]. This is the working equation employed by the penta-pycnometer. (28) (26) (27)
Convection Oven
The convection oven can maintain 105 5C.
28
This drying process has two main problems: (1) clay mineral interlayer water is largely lost in addition to interstitial water and (2) specimens dried in a convection oven become brick hard and are rarely useful for any other analyses that require substantial sample volumes. Use of freeze-drying would partly eliminate these problems. In particular, stable isotope analyses on foraminifers would be possible from freeze-dried samples, but not from oven-dried samples. The convection oven is used based on advice from the relevant JOIDES advisory panel, because drying at 105 5C for 24 hr is a well-established soil science standard.
CALIBRAT IO N Beaker Mass and Volume

Beaker mass must be measured and entered into the MAD program for all beakers to be used on a leg. Beaker volume is not convenient to measure because the low material volume to void ratio in the pycnometer cell gives inaccurate values. We have therefore determined the density of the Pyrex beaker material accurately by filling a beaker with chips of other beakers, measuring its mass and volume, and calculating its density. The density of 2.2 g/cm3 is stored in the MAD program, which returns the volume corresponding to each beaker mass. Custom-made aluminum beakers were used until Leg 168. These beakers were difficult to clean, corroded with time, and were expensive to manufacture. For historical data migration purposes, those beaker materials had a density of 2.78 g/ cm3 (determined by P. Blum, 1996).
Balance Calibration
The ship is an environment of cyclically changing gravity, and the measured weight W of a mass M is significantly affected by the ship's motion. If W is measured over a period of time several times the periodicity of the ships acceleration a, the average can be related to M. By using two balances, mass determination can be significantly accelerated. The following two equations can be written for two balances: (29) Fs = Ms a(t) = As + Bs Vs(t) Fr = Mr a(t) = Ar + Br Vr(t), (30)
where Fs and Fr are average measured weights and Ms and Mr are known mass standards on the sample and the reference balance, respectively, a is the ship's average acceleration, V is the average voltage measured, and A and B are constants characteristic for the balances. The calibration principle is to measure multiple standards (typically 1, 5, 10, 20, and 30 g) to determine A and B for each balance. For the calibration, measuring time should be at least 30 s to cover several of the 78 heave cycles of JOIDES Resolution. Equations on page 9 and on page 9 can be solved for a(t), which is assumed to be equal for both balances: (31) Ms = [As + Bs Vs(t)] Mr / [Ar + Br Vr(t)], which is identical to Ms (unknown) / Ms (calculated) = Mr (known) / Mr (calculated). (32)
29
The first right-hand term in Equation on page 9 is the first approximation to the calculated sample mass. This value is uncorrected for motion and is returned instead of 0 if the user sets Mr (known) = 0. The second right-hand term in Equation on page 9 uses the ratio between a known mass Mr on the reference balance and its corresponding calculated value to correct the first term for the ships motion. The MAD program performs the linear regression for multiple standards and stores the coefficients until a new calibration is performed. A balance calibration takes up to 15 min. It is recommended that a few control measurements be taken after a calibration to verify the correct mean value and a percent standard deviation of less that 1% for 100 or more measurements taken over approximately 30 s.
Pycnometer Calibration
The pycnometer has an internal calibration procedure. The user is guided through the procedure step by step by the program. First, cell 4 must be used to calibrate the reference volume (pressure) VA. Then, the calibration sphere is cycled through all five cells to determine the empty cell volume (pressure). The calibration values are stored in the pycnometer and used until a new calibration is performed. A pycnometer calibration takes up to 30 min. The instrument calibrates VA by performing two pressurizations, once with the sample cell empty (VS = 0) and once with the calibration standard of volume Vstd in the same sample cell. Equation on page 8 derived previously for a sample measurement for these two conditions can be written as (33) VS = 0 = VC - VA / [(P'1/P'2) - 1] and VS = Vstd = VC - VA / [(P1/ P2) - 1]. Combining these two equations yields VA = Vstd / {[1/(P'1/ P'2) - 1)] - [1/(P1/ P2) - 1]}. (34)
(35)
The instrument calibrates the volume VC of each cell with one pressurization of each cell holding the appropriate sample holder and the calibration standard. Equation on page 10 is then used and can be written as: (36) VS = Vstd = VC + VA / [1 - (P1/ P2)] VC = VA {1 / [(P1/ P2) - 1]}. (37)
PERFORM ANCE Precision

Standards of 1and 20 g are measured to confirm balance calibration, and the readings should be within 1 mg, or better than 0.1%. Repeatability of specimen mass at sea should also be within 0.1%. For the pycnometer, a standard sphere is measured (e.g., 7.0699 cm3) and precision should be within 0.1% (0.005 cm3 for the sphere mentioned). Repeat measurements on sediment samples yield a precision of about 1%, probably
210
resulting from changes in ambient pressure and temperature and the material during handling.
Accuracy
Mass error: 0.1%. Volume error: 1%.
MEASUREMEN T
The user is guided through data entry by the MAD program, which controls the balance as well as the pycnometer. The sample ID needs to be entered only once for the entire process. The pycnometer key pad is not used during measurement. The following is the general measurement protocol: 1. Typical sampling frequency for MAD measurements is two per section. One per section is considered a minimum; more than two per section on medium- to high-recovery legs is rather demanding with the present staff assignments. 2. Fill a numbered 10-mL Pyrex beaker with sediment to about 3 mm below the rim so that material is not lost during handling of the beaker. The largest errors in MAD measurements probably stem from lost material during the process and from volume measurements with incompletely filled beakers. It is the operators responsibility to find the optimum. Place a special PP Styrofoam plug into the hole left from where the sample was taken from the working-half core. 3. Enter the sample and beaker number into the Sample program at the sampling table. This information will then be in the database; only the beaker number is used at the MAD station to select samples. 4. Measure the mass. Do not let the sample stand without covering it with plastic film, being careful not to lose material. 5. Optionally, measure the wet volume in the pycnometer. However, this is not necessary and years of experience have shown that wet volume measurements (method B) appear to have a large error. 6. Place the sample in the oven at 105 5C for 24 hr. Place the sample in a desiccator after it is removed it from the oven. 7. Measure the mass and volume of the dry sample and beaker. 8. Place the residue in a sample bag, attach a completed label, seal, and box. 9. Clean the beaker.
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DATA SPECIFICATIONS Database model
Table 22
MAD database model.

MAD sample data sample_id [PK1] [FK] location [PK2] [FK] mad_beaker_id beaker_date_time fixed_volume mass_wet_and_beaker mass_dry_and_beaker vol_wet_and_beaker vol_wet_and_beaker_stdev vol_wet_and_beaker_n vol_wet_and_beaker_cell vol_dry_and_beaker vol_dry_and_beaker _stdev vol_dry_and_beaker_n vol_dry_and_beaker_cell comments sample_date_time MAD control data mad_control_id [PK1] run_date_time ctrl_standard_id control_type expected_value pyc_cell_no measured_value measured_stdev MAD beaker history mad_beaker_id [PK1] beaker_date_time [PK2] beaker_number beaker_type beaker_mass beaker_volume MAD beaker mad_beaker_id [PK1]
Sample sample_id [PK1] location [PK2] sam_section_id . section_id sam_archive_working top_interval bottom_interval piece sub_piece beaker_id . mad_beaker_id volume entered_by sample_depth sample_comment sam_repository . repository s_c_leg . leg s_c_sam_code . sam_code sam_sample_code_lab . s_c_l
MAD calibration history mad_calibratin_id [PK1] calibration_date_time calibration_type
Notes: The Sample table is used for all ODP core samples. MAD samples are identified by sampling code; the ODP standard designation is linked through the beaker_id. If method A is used the fixed_volume must be set to be TRUE. The MAD calibration history table is a log of calibrations but does not hold the calibration data.
Standard Queries
Table 23 MAD query A (results).
Short description Description Database Sample ID ODP standard sample designation Link through [Sample]sample_id Depth User-selected depth type Link through [Sample]sample_id Wb Water content, relative to bulk mass see MAD Query B Ws Water content, relative to solid mass see MAD Query B Calculations depend on the volume measurement method used: A, B, or C Bulk density Bulk density, method A, B, or C see MAD Query B Dry density Dry density, method A or B see MAD Query B Grain density) Grain density, method A or B see MAD Query B Porosity Porosity, method A or B see MAD Query B Void ratio Void ratio, method A or B see MAD Query B
Table 24
MAD query B (results, measurements, and parameters) (to be implemented).

Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type Indicates if method A was used Bulk mass of sample + beaker Dry mass of sample + beaker Bulk volume of sample (+ beaker for B) Std. dev. of n vol. measurements (for B) No. of vol. measurements (for B) Cell no. used for vol. measurement (for B) Dry volume of sample + beaker Database Link through [Sample]sample_id Link through [Sample]sample_id [MAD Sample Data] fixed_volume [MAD Sample Data] mass_wet_and_beaker [MAD Sample Data] mass_dry_and_beaker [MAD Sample Data] vol_wet_and_beaker [MAD Sample Data] vol_wet_and_bkr_sd [MAD Sample Data] vol_wet_and_bkr_n [MAD Sample Data] vol_wet_and_bkr_cell [MAD Sample Data] vol_wet_and_beaker
Short description Sample ID Depth Method A Mb+beak Md+beak Vb+beak sd(Vb+beak) n(Vb+beak) c(Vb+beak) Vd+beak
212
Table 24
MAD query B (results, measurements, and parameters) (to be implemented).

[MAD Sample Data] vol_wet_and_bkr_sd [MAD Sample Data] vol_wet_and_bkr_n [MAD Sample Data] vol_wet_and_bkr_cell comments sample_date_time [MAD Beaker History] beaker_number [MAD Beaker History] beaker_mass [MAD Beaker History] beaker_volume = (Mb+beak) - Mbeak = (Md+beak) - Mbeak = (Mb - Md) / 0.965 = (Md - 0.035*Mb) / 0.965 = Mpw / 1.024 = Mpw - (Mb - Md) = Msalt / 2.20 = Mpw / Mb = Mpw / Ms = (Vb+beak) = Vb(A) - Vpw = (Vb+beak) - Vbeak = Vb(B) - Vpw = (Vd+beak) - Vbeak = Vd(C) - Vsalt = Vs(C) + Vpw = Mb / Vb(A,B) = Ms / Vb(A,B) = Ms / Vs(A,B) = Vpw / Vb(A,B) = Vpw / Vs(A,B) = Mb / Vb(C) = Ms / Vb(C) = Ms / Vs(C) = Vpw / Vb(C) = Vpw / Vs(C)
sd(Vd+beak) Std. dev. of n vol. measurements n(Vd+beak) No. of vol. measurements c(Vd+beak) Cell no. used for vol. measurement. Comments Comments Date/Time Date and time of measurement Beaker Beaker number Mbeak Mass of beaker Vbeak Volume of beaker Mb Bulk mass Md Dry mass (includes evaporated salt) Mpw Mass of porewater Ms Mass of solids (salt-corrected) Vpw Volume of porewater Msalt Mass of evaporated salt Vsalt Volume of evaporated salt Wb Water content relative to bulk mass Ws Water content relative to solid mass For volume method A Vb(A) Bulk volume (method A) Vs(A) Volume of solids (methods A) For volume method B Vb(B) Bulk volume (method B) Vs(B) Volume of solids (methods B) For volume method C Vd(C) Dry volume (method C) Vs(C) Volume of solids (method C) Vb(C) Bulk volume (method C) For volume method A or B Bulk density Bulk density, method A or B Dry density Dry density, method A or B Grain density) Grain density, method A or B Porosity Porosity, method A or B Void ratio Void ratio, method A or B For volume method C Bulk density Bulk density, method C Dry density Dry density, method C Grain density) Grain density, method C Porosity Porosity, method C Void ratio Void ratio, method C
Table 25
MAD query C (control measurements) (to be implemented).

Description Date/time of control measurement. Standard identification Type of control meas. (mass or vol.) Expected value If pycnometer, cell number used Measured value Std. dev. of multiple vol. meas. Database [MAD Control Data] run_date_time [MAD Control Data] ctrl_standard_id [MAD Control Data] control_type [MAD Control Data] expected_value [MAD Control Data] pyc_cell_no [MAD Control Data] measured_value [MAD Control Data] measured_stdev
Short description Date/Time Standard Type Expected Cell Measured Stdev.
Table 26
MAD query D (beaker data) (to be implemented).

Description Data/time of beaker meas. Database [MAD Beaker History] beaker_date_time
Short description Date/Time
213
Table 26
Beaker Type Mbeak Vbeak
MAD query D (beaker data) (to be implemented).

Beaker number Type of beaker (e.g., Pyrex 10 mL) Measured mass of beaker Calculated volume of beaker [MAD Beaker History] beaker_number [MAD Beaker History] beaker_type [MAD Beaker History] beaker_mass [MAD Beaker History] beaker_volume
Table 27
MAD query E (calibration log) (to be implemented).

Description Date/time of calibration Type of calibration (mass or vol.) Database calibration_date_time calibration_type
Short description Date/Time Type
214
215
3. GAMMA-RAY DENSIOMETRY
3.1. Principles
Bulk density of sediments and rocks is estimated from the measurement of gamma-ray attenuation (GRA) (Tittman and Wahl, 1965; Evans, 1965). The familiar acronym GRAPE (Evans, 1965) stands for GRA porosity evaluator, referring to the computer that Evans attached to the density measurement device to compute porosity using an assumed grain density. The measurement device does not estimate porosity, and is therefore referred to as GRA densiometer. The principle is based on the facts that medium-energy gamma rays (0.11 MeV) interact with the formation material mainly by Compton scattering, that the elements of most rock-forming minerals have similar Compton mass attenuation coefficients, and that the electron density measured can easily be related to the material bulk density. The 137Ce source used transmits gamma rays at 660 KeV. A scintillation detector measures the gamma-ray beam transmitted through the core material. If the predominant interaction is Compton scattering, transmission of gamma rays through matter can be related to the electron density by: Yt = Yi ensd, where Yi is the flux incident on the scatterer of thickness d, Yt is the flux transmitted through the scatterer, n is the number of scatterers per unit volume or the electron density, and s is the Compton cross section for scattering per scatterer in square centimeters per electron. Bulk density of the material is related to the electron density by (2) n = NAv (Z/A), where Z is the atomic number or the number of electrons, A is the atomic mass of the material, and NAv is the Avogadro number. Bulk density estimates are therefore accurate for a wide range of lithologies if the Z/A of the constituent elements is approximately constant. Variations of Z/A are indeed negligible for the most common rock-forming elements. The GRA coefficient is defined as = (Z/A) NAv s (cm2/g). (3) (1)
For the medium energy range of gamma rays and for materials with Z/A of about 1/ 2, such as the most common minerals, the Compton is approximately 0.10 cm2/g, increasing with decreasing energy. For water, is about 11% higher than for common minerals at a particular energy (e.g., Harms and Choquette, 1965). Sediments can therefore be regarded as two-phase systems in regard to GRA (mineral-water mixtures).
31
Equation on page 1 can now be written in the more frequently referenced form Yt = Yi ed and the expression for the bulk density becomes = ln (Yt / Yi) / d. (4)
(5)
If the coefficient could be determined with sufficient accuracy, it could be used directly to compute bulk density. However, is a function of detected gamma-ray energy and is therefore dependent on the particular device, including source, detector, spectral component used, and the material itself (degree of scattering). A more practical and accurate method is to calibrate the gamma radiation with bulk density standards as described later in this chapter.
EN VIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Attenuation Coefficient of Minerals

An important assumption of this densiometry method is that for a given measurement system the average attenuation coefficient is constant for the measured materials. For a more accurate density estimate, variations in the average composition of the material must be taken into consideration. If mineralogical analysis determines that the average 1 deviates significantly from the standard , the following correction can be applied: 1 = /1 , where the ratio of average coefficients can be calculated from reference tables. (6)
Core Thickness
The GRA routine calculations assume a constant core diameter of 66 mm. If voids or otherwise incompletely filled core liner segments occur because of gas pressure, gas escape, or other coring disturbances, the density estimate will be too low. (The highest values are therefore the most reliable ones in disturbed cores.) Using a thickness log obtained from core photographs or by other means, density can easily be corrected for varying core thickness using (7) 1 = d/d1 .
USE OF GR A DATA
GRA data provide a precise and densely sampled record of bulk density, an indicator of lithology and porosity changes. The records are frequently used for core-to-core correlation. Another important application is the calculation of acoustic impedance and construction of synthetic seismograms.
3.2. MST (Whole-Core) GRA System

EQ U I P ME N T Gamma-ray Source
The 137Ce source used transmits gamma rays at 660 KeV.
32
Scintillation Counter
A standard NaI scintillation detector is used in conjunction with a universal counter.
CALIBRAT IO N New Procedure

GRA calibration assumes a two-phase system model for sediments and rocks, where the two phases are the minerals and the interstitial water. Aluminum has an attenuation coefficient similar to common minerals and is used as the mineral phase standard. Pure water is used as the interstitial-water phase standard. The actual standard consists of a telescoping aluminum rod (five elements of varying thickness) mounted in a piece of core liner and filled with distilled water (Figure 31). The standard element i has an average bulk density i of i = di /D Al + (D di)/D water (8)
where D is the maximum aluminum rod thickness (inner diameter of core liner, 6.6 cm), di is the diameter of the aluminum rod in element i, and Al and water are the densities of aluminum and water, respectively. The first element (porosity of 0%) has a bulk density of aluminum (2.70 g/cm3) and the last element (porosity of 100%) has a bulk density of water at laboratory temperature (1.00 g/cm3). Intermediate elements are used to verify the linearity of the ln(Y) to density relationship, as well as the precise alignement of core and sensor. A linear least squares fit through three to five calibration points (ln(counts/tcal), ) yields the calibration coefficients m0 (intercept) and m1 (slope, negative). Total measured counts are automatically divided by the counting time, tcal, to normalize the coefficients to counts per second. Sample density is then determined: core = m0 + ln (counts/tsample) m1 , where the measured counts are again normalized to counts per second using the sampling period, tsample , before the calibration coefficients are applied. (9)
Old Procedure
The present calibration procedure has been implemented only since Leg 169 (August 1996). Before that time, calibration was performed with two aluminum cylinders of different thickness, but without water. The thinner aluminum rod was cut to a diameter of 25 mm to give an aluminum density of 1.00. The counts returned from measuring the thin aluminum rod were not compatible with the Compton attenuation coefficient for water, however, and when measuring water the density was about 11% too high. A fluid-correction had to be applied to the initial density estimate. This procedure is obsolete now, and no fluid correction is required because water is used in the calibration procedure.
33
MEASUREMEN T
The GRA is logged downcore automatically..
GAMMA-RAY ATTENUATION DENSIOMETRY
Two-phase model: minerals = aluminum; pore water = distilled water S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Aluminum
Center/support disk Core liner
Distilled water
Rod thickness: Average density: 0 mm 1.00 g/cm3 16 mm 32 mm 1.42 g/cm3 1.83 g/cm3 49 mm 2.28 g/cm3 66 mm 2.72 g/cm3
Scintillation detector
137Ce source
Density (g/cm3)
Thin rod provides alignment control
m0 (g/cm3)
m1 (g/cm3)
ln(counts/tcal)
dcore
counts = total measured counts tcal = calibration counting period (s)
core = m0 + m1 ln(counts/tsam)
core = 'core dcore / dstandard
tsam = sampling period (s) dcore values are determined separately, standard report assumes full core liner, so that dcore = dstandard (= 66 mm for ODP)
Figure 31 Schematic of GRA calibration. A. Physical standard used. B. Measurement geometery. C. Calibration principle. D. Application of calibration to core measurement

Precision is proportional to the square root of the counts measured because gamma-ray emission is subject to Poisson statistics (see Natural Gamma Radiation chapter for additional explanation). The statistical uncertainty is t N z (t N)1/2, (10)
where N is the count rate (counts per second, cps), t is the sampling period (s), and z is the number of standard deviations for the normal distribution (0.68 probability, or confidence, for z = 1; 0.95 for z = 1.96, etc.). Measurements with the present system have typically count rates of 10,000 (dense rock) to 20,000 cps (soft mud). If measured for 4 s, the statistical error is therefore less than 40,000 200, or
34
0.5%. This shows that the high flux of the 137Ce source does not require excessive counting times.
Accuracy
Accuracy is limited by the assumption that the measured material has the same attenuation coefficent as the calibration standards used. For general sedimentwater mixtures, this should be the case and errors should be less than 5%. The GRA system allows high spatial resolution of about 0.5 cm.
Spatial Resolution
DATA SPECIFICATIONS Database Model
Table 31
GRA database model.

GRA control 1 gra_ctrl_1_id [PK1] [FK] run_number run_date_time core_status liner_status requested_daq_interval requested_daq_period density_calibration_id standard_id GRA control 3 gra_ctrl_3_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time requested_daq_period actual_daq_period density_calibration_id standard_id meas_counts GRA calibration density_calibration_id [PK1] calibration_date_time run_number system_id liner_status requested_daq_period density_m0 density_m1 density_mse comments GRA calibration data density_calibration_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] standard_id [PK3][FK] mst_bottom_interval standard_density actual_daq_period meas_counts
GRA section gra_id [PK1] section_id run_number run_date_time core_status liner_status requested_daq_interval requested_daq_period density_calibration_id mst_gra_ctrl_2_id mst_gra_ctrl_3_id GRA section data gra_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] mst_bottom_interval actual_daq_period meas_counts core_diameter
GRA control 1 Data gra_ctrl_1_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] mst_bottom_interval actual_daq_period meas_counts core_diameter
GRA control 2 gra_ctrl_2_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time requested_daq_period actual_daq_period density_calibration_id meas_counts
Notes: GRA control 1 are control measurements run the same way as a core section. GRA control 2 are measurement taken before run. GRA control 3 are control measurements from a standard mounted on the core boat.
Standard Queries
Table 32 GRA report.
Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type Database Link through [GRA Section]section_id Link through [GRA Section]section_id = [GRA Calibration] density_m0 + ln ([GRA Section data] meas_counts) / [GRA Section data] actual_daq_period) * [GRA Calibration] density_m1 [GRA Section] run_number [GRA Section] run_date_time [GRA Section] core_status
Short description A: Results Sample ID Depth Bulk density
B (optional): Parameters and measurements Run Run number Date/Time Run date/time Core Status HALF or FULL
35
Table 32
GRA report.
NONE, HALF or FULL User-defined sampling interval (cm) User-defined sampling period (s) Measured sampling period (s) Measured counts (not normalized) Core diameter, default = 6.6 cm Calibration date/time Calibration intercept (g/cm3) Calibration slope ([g/cm3)]/cps) [GRA Section] liner_status [GRA Section] requested_daq_interval [GRA Section] requested_daq_period [GRA Section Data] actual_daq_period [GRA Section Data] meas_counts [GRA Section Data] core_diameter [GRA Calibration] Calibration_date_time [GRA Calibration] density_m0 [GRA Calibration] density_m1
Liner Status Req. Interval Req. Period Period Counts Core Dia. Cal. Date/Time Cal. m0 Cal. m1
Table 33
GRA control 1 measurements (to be implemented).

Description Database =[GRA Calibration] density_m0 + ln ([GRA Ctrl 1 Data] meas_counts / [GRA Ctrl 1 Data] actual_daq_period) * [GRA Calibration] density_m1 [GRA Ctrl 1] run_number [GRA Ctrl 1] run_date_time [GRA Ctrl 1] core_status [GRA Ctrl 1] liner_status [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [GRA Ctrl 1 Data] mst_top_interval [GRA Ctrl 1] requested_daq_interval [GRA Ctrl 1] requested_daq_period [GRA Ctrl 1 Data] actual_daq_period [GRA Ctrl 1 Data] meas_counts [GRA Ctrl 1 Data] core_diameter [GRA Calibration] Calibration_date_time [GRA Calibration] density_m0 [GRA Calibration] density_m1
Short description Bulk density
Run Date/Time Core Status Liner Status Standard Std. Set Std. Expected Interval Req. Interval Req. Period Period Counts Core Dia. Cal. Date/Time Cal. m0 Cal. m1
Run number Run date/time HALF or FULL NONE, HALF or FULL Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Interval top User-defined sampling interval (cm) User-defined sampling period (s) Measured sampling period (s) Measured counts (not normalized) Core diameter, default = 6.6 cm Calibration date/time Calibration intercept (g/cm3) Calibration slope ([g/cm3)]/cps)
Table 34

Description Database =[GRA Calibration] density_m0 + ln ([GRA Ctrl 2 Data] meas_counts / [GRA Ctrl 2 Data] actual_daq_period) * [GRA Calibration] density_m1 [GRA Ctrl 2] run_number [GRA Ctrl 2] run_date_time [GRA Ctrl 2] requested_daq_period [GRA Ctrl 2 Data] actual_daq_period [GRA Ctrl 2 Data] meas_counts [GRA Calibration] Calibration_date_time [GRA Calibration] density_m0 [GRA Calibration] density_m1
Run Date/Time Req. Period Period Counts Cal. Date/Time Cal. m0 Cal. m1
Run number Run date/time User-defined sampling period (s) Measured sampling period (s) Measured counts (not normalized) Calibration date/time Calibration intercept (g/cm3) Calibration slope ([g/cm3)]/cps)
Table 35

Description Database =[GRA Calibration] density_m0 + ln ([GRA Ctrl 3 Data] meas_counts / [GRA Ctrl 3 Data] actual_daq_period)
36
Table 35
Run Date/Time Standard Std. Set Std. Expected

Run number Run date/time Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) User-defined sampling period (s) Measured sampling period (s) Measured counts (not normalized) Calibration date/time Calibration intercept (g/cm3) Calibration slope ([g/cm3)]/cps) * [GRA Calibration] density_m1 [GRA Ctrl 3] run_number [GRA Ctrl 3] run_date_time [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [GRA Ctrl 3] requested_daq_period [GRA Ctrl 3 Data] actual_daq_period [GRA Ctrl 3 Data] meas_counts [GRA Calibration] Calibration_date_time [GRA Calibration] density_m0 [GRA Calibration] density_m1
Req. Period Period Counts Cal. Date/Time Cal. m0 Cal. m1
Table 36
GRA calibration data (to be implemented).

Description Calibration date/time Calibration intercept (g/cm3) Calibration slope ([g/cm3)]/cps) Calibration mean squared error Run number NONE, HALF or FULL User-defined sampling period (s) Comments Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Density value from MST control Interval top Measured sampling period (s) Measured counts (not normalized) Database [GRA Calibration] calibration_date_time [GRA Calibration] density_m0 [GRA Calibration] density_m1 [GRA Calibration] mse [GRA Calibration] run_number [GRA Calibration] liner_status [GRA Calibration] requested_daq_period [GRA Calibration] comments [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [GRA Calibration Data] standard_density [GRA Calibration Data] mst_top_interval [GRA Calibration Data] actual_daq_period [GRA Calibration Data] meas_counts
Short description Date/Time Cal. m0 Cal. m1 Cal. mse Run Liner Status Req. Period Comments Standard Std. Set Std. Expected Density Interval Period Counts
3.3. Split-core GRA System

ODP has purchased a split-core GRA system that will be implemented as soon as resources become available. This system must be implemented together with the latest model GEOTEK P-wave logger which provides the caliper measurement required to correct split-core GRA measurements for uneven split-core thickness.
37
4. MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
4.1. Principles
Magnetic susceptibility is the degree to which a material can be magnetized in an external magnetic field. If the ratio of the magnetization is expressed per unit volume, volume susceptibility is defined as = M / H, (1) where M is the volume magnetization induced in a material of susceptibility by the applied external field H. Volume susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity. The value depends on the measurement system used: (SI) = 4 (cgs) = 4 G Oe1, where G and Oe are abbreviations for Gauss and Orstedt, respectively. The SI system should be used. Mass, or specific, susceptibility is defined as =/, therefore m3/kg. Magnetic susceptibility measured by the common methods is an apparent value because of the self-demagnetizing effect associated with anisotropy connected with the shape of magnetic bodies, such as magnetite grains (Thompson and Oldfield, 1986). When a substance is magnetized its internal magnetic field is less than the externally applied field. i, the intrinsic susceptibility, relates the induced magnetization to the internal magnetic field, whereas e, the extrinsic susceptibility which we actually observe, relates the induced magnetization to the externally applied field. The relationship between the two susceptibilities can be shown to be (4) e = i / (1 + Ni), where N is the demagnetization factor. For a strongly magnetic mineral, such as magnetite, Ni > 1, and e ~ 1/N. If N is known, there is a simple relationship between the concentration of ferrimagnetic grains and the magnetic susceptibility. This is the case for natural samples where the concentration of ferrimagnetic minerals is a few percent or less. The measured susceptibility can be approximated: (5) = e ~ /N , where is the volume fraction of ferrimagnetic grains. It is found that for natural samples N is reasonably constant with a value close to 1/3. Thus, if the grain (2)
(3)
where is the density of the material. The dimensions of mass susceptibility are
41
shapes are roughly spherical and the dominant mineral is magnetite, the volume fraction ( << 1) can be estimated by dividing the volume susceptibility by 3. The commonly used magnetic susceptibility is measured at very low fields usually not exceeding 0.5 mT (millitesla). It is therefore also referred to as low-field susceptibility. For comparison, about 50 mT is required to change orientation in magnetite, and high-field susceptibility is obtained from hysteresis measurements at fields of a few hundred millitesla. In practice, volume susceptibility is generally measured with core logging devices, for which calibration factors must be established to account for the specific geometry and effects of core conveyors and core liners. In the case of discrete specimen measurements, the mass of the specimen can be determined more accurately than volume and specific susceptibility is directly obtained. If average grain density and moisture content of the specimen are known, the specimen measurements can be compared with core logging measurements. Susceptibility values can then be normalized to mass and volume corrected for porosity. This can make susceptibility data more useful for quantitative estimates in conjunction with other mineral phases, such as carbonate, which are always normalized to dry mass. Susceptibility values for some common minerals and rocks are listed in Table 4 1.
Table 41 Susceptibilities of common minerals and rocks (simplified from Hunt et al., 1995; supplemented with underlined values from Thompson and Oldfield, 1986).
(10-6 SI) Non-iron-bearing Plastic (e.g., perspex, PVC) Ice or water Calcite Quartz, feldspar, magnesite Kaolinite Halite, gypsum, anhydrite Serpentinite Iron-bearing minerals Illite, montmorillonite Biotite Orthopyroxene, olivines, amphiboles Goethitea Franklinites Iron
a
(10-8 m3/kg) ~-0.5 -1/-0.9 -0.3 to -1.4 -0.5 to -0.6 -2 -0.5 to -2.0 120 to 2,900
~-5 -9 -7.5 to -39 -13 to -17 -50 -10 to -60 3,100 to 75,000
330 to 410 1,500 to 2,900 1,500 to 1,800 1,100 to 12,000 450,000 3,900,000
5 to 13 to 15 5 to 52 to 95 to 98 1 to 43 to 50 to 130 26 to 70 to 280 8,700 50,000 to 2,000,000
Iron sulfides Chalcopyrite Pyrite Pyrrhotitesa 23 to 400 35-5,000 460 to 1,400,000 0.6 to 3 to 10 1 to 30 to 100 10 to 5,000 to 30,000
42
Table 41 Susceptibilities of common minerals and rocks (simplified from Hunt et al., 1995; supplemented with underlined values from Thompson and Oldfield, 1986).
Iron-titanium oxides Hematitea Maghemitea Ilmenitea Magnetitea Titanomagnetite Titanomaghemite Ulvospinel Average rock values Sandstones, shales, limestones Dolomite Clay Coal Basalt, diabase Gabbro Peridotite Granite Rhyolite Amphibolite Gneiss Slate Schist, phyllite Serpentine
a
500 to 40,000 2,000,000 to 2,500,000 2,200 to 3,800,000 1,000,000 to 5,700,000 130,000 to 620,000 2,200,000 4,800
10 to 60 to 760 40,000 to 50,000 46 to 200 to 80,000 20,000 to 50,000 to 110,000 2,500 to 12,000 57,000 100
0 to 25,000 -10 to -940 170 to 250 25 250 to 180,000 1,000 to 90,000 96,000 to 200,000 0 to 50,000 250 to 38,000 750 0 to 25,000 0 to 38,000 26 to 3,000 3,100 to 18,000
0 to 1,200 -1 to -41 10 to 15 1.9 8.4 - 6,100 26 to 3,000 3,000 to 6,200 0 to 1,900 10 to 1,500 25 0 to 900 0 to 1,400 1 to 110 110 to 630
Remanence-carrying minerals
EN VIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Cores should be equilibrated to room temperature before measurement.
U S E O F MAG N E T I C S U S C E PT IB I L I T Y
Magnetic susceptibility is used mostly as a relative proxy indicator for changes in composition that can be linked to paleoclimate-controlled depositional processes. The high precision and sensitivity of susceptibility loggers makes this measurement extremely useful for core-to-core and core-downhole log correlation. The physical link of magnetic susceptibility to particular sediment components, ocean or wind current strength and direction, or provenance, usually requires more detailed magnetic properties studies in a specialized shorebased laboratory.
43
4.2. Bartington MS2C Coil Sensor for Whole Cores (MSL)

EQ U I P ME N T
A Bartington Instruments MS2C system is integrated in the ODP MST for wholecore logging. The main unit is the widely used, versatile MS2 susceptometer for rapid measurements with a number of sensors. The unit has a measuring range of 1 105 to 9999 105 (SI, volume specific) or 1 108 to 9999 108 (SI, mass specific). It has five front panel controls: on-off switch, sensitivity range switch, SI or cgs unit switch, zero button, measure button, and continuous measurement switch. None of these controls needs to be operated because the instrument is controlled by the MST program. The unit switch should always be on SI. The range switch should be on the lower sensitivity (1.0), which allows rapid 1-s measurements. The MST program allows the collection of multiple 1-s measurements, which are immediately averaged. This is useful if the sampling period is set, for example, at 3 s for the GRA measurement and there is time to take three susceptometer readings simultaneously. The MS2C loop sensor has an internal diameter of 80 mm, which corresponds to a coil diameter of 88 mm. It operates at a frequency of 0.565 kHz and an alternating field (AF) intensity of 80 A/m (= 0.1 mT). Temperature drift is less than 105 SI per hour. The resolution of the loop is 2 106 SI on the 0.1 range (9 s measuring time).
Dual-frequency Measurements
Fine-grained magnetic material (single-domain, about 0.003 m diameter) exhibits frequency-dependent susceptibility. The coefficient of frequency dependence can be determined from measurements in dual-frequency mode. The high frequency used is 5.65 kHz. This mode of measurement is rarely used in general, has never been requested onboard JOIDES Resolution, and is therefore not implemented for routine measurements in the MST program.
CALIBRAT IO N Drift Correction

The Bartington instrument is automatically zeroed at the beginning of each run, before the core enters the loop. Instrument drift may occur during the period of a core section scan. To correct for the drift, a zero-background measurement (MSbkgd) is taken at the end of a core section log. The drift is corrected under the assumption that it is linear over the time of interest (about 10 min.). The time elapsed between the zeroing of the instrument at the beginning of the run and the background measurement, tbkgd, is measured. For each measurement within the core (MSmeas) the elapsed time (t) is also measured, and the background-corrected susceptibility, Mscorr, is calculated as MScorr = MSmeas + MSbkgd / tbkgd t . (6)
Absolute Susceptibility Values
The Bartington instrument output values are relative, volume-specific susceptibilities (relative), which must be corrected before they can be reported in
44
SI units. Currently, no correction is implemented for standard queries from the database. Three ways of correcting the susceptibilities are described here. The third method is recommended for implementation on JOIDES Resolution in the near future. 1. Bartington correction factors. Theoretically, the instrument output is in volumespecific SI units for cores with diameters (d) passing exactly through the coil diameter (D), i.e., if d/D = 1. Bartington provides a table relating values of d/D to correction factors that must be applied to the relative susceptibility readings from the meter. For d = 66 mm and D = 88 mm, d/D is 0.75 and the corresponding correction factor is 1.48. Then, = relative / 1.48 105 = 0.68 105 relative . This correction does not take into account other effects such as those from core liner and core conveyer boat, etc. 2. Calibration with laboratory measurements. Absolute susceptibility is easily measured on sample cubes in shorebased or shipboard laboratories (Kappabridge). These measurements can be compared with corresponding readings from the Bartington instrument. Empirical correlation from Leg 154 and Leg 162 data gave correction factors of 7.7 106 and 8.0 106, respectively. On Leg 154, volumes of specimens were not exactly determined and may have been slightly smaller than assumed, which would underestimate the factor. 3. Calibration with core standard (Figure 41). The most straightforward approach is to calibrate the instrument using a piece of core liner (40 cm long) filled one-half with a homogenous mixture of magnetite (about 0.5%, pseudosingle domain) and epoxy (standard ~ 1000 106) and one-half with pure water (water = -9 106). The magnetic susceptibiltiy of the standard core is determined once and precisely from splits. The instrument response is then related to the actual volume susceptibiltiy, which also eliminates effects related to core geometry and the core conveyor system. Once this method is implemented, calibration coefficients can be routinely applied to future measurements and standard data queries will return absolute susceptibility in SI units. (7)

Precision is 2 106 (SI). Susceptibility values in natural, marine sediment samples over an interval of only a few meters (Milankovitch or millennial scale cyclicity) can range from a few tens to several thousands of 106 SI units. Typically, variations are 2 to 3 orders of magnitude greater than the precision. This makes magnetic susceptibility one of the most precise proxies for stratigraphic changes and extremely useful for core-to-core correlation.
Accuracy Spatial Resolution
Accuracy is 5% (according to Bartington). We determined the full-width-half-maximum (FWHM) response from measurements of four thin discs with varying amounts of iron dust (Figure 42). The discs were mounted 20 cm apart from each other in a core liner, representing
45
thin strata of high susceptibility. Relative susceptibility values ranged from 40 106 to 200 106. The four widths associated with half-maxima ranged from 4.0 to 4.4 cm. The width along the core axis corresponding to >99% response is about 15 cm. It is recommended that the first and last measurement in each core section be taken 34 cm away from the edge to avoid any deconvolution of edge effects.
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY LOGGER
A
20 cm
Core liner
20 cm Pseudo-single domain magnetite in epoxy; e.g. 0.001 mass fraction
Distilled water
Volume susceptibility:
1)To
k = -9 10-6 (SI)
k1) = 1,000 10-6 (SI)
be determined exactly in laboratory from splits of the homogeneous standard material.
Absolute volume susceptibility
(SI)
Core liner
m1(SI)
dcore
m0 (SI)
(x)
Relative volume susceptibilty
Induction and measurement loop
x = total relative susceptibility measured
core = m0 + m1 (x - xdrift)
core = 'core dcore2 / dstandard2
xdrift determined using elapsed time since start of core section log Standard report assumes dcore = dstandard (= 66 mm for ODP).
Figure 41 Schematic of proposed magnetic susceptibility logger calibration. A. physical standard used (To be implemented). B. Measurement geometry. C. Calibration principle. D. Application of calibration to core measurement.
MEASUREMEN T
The magnetic susceptibility is logged downcore automatically.
46
30
Relative magnetic volume susceptibility
25
Half-maximum values
20
15
12.4
10 5
2.64 5.18 3.9
0 -15
-10 -5 0 5 10 Distance from coil plane (cm)
15
Figure 42 Magnetic susceptibility response curves from the MS2C coil system. The curves were obtained from the measurement of four thin discs with various amounts of iron powder mounted in a piece of core liner.
47

Table 42 MSL database model.
MSL control 1 msl_ctrl_1_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time core_status liner_status requested_daq_interval req_daqs_per_sample standard_id bkgd_susceptibility bkgd_elapsed_zero_time core_temperature loop_temperature MSL control 3 msl_ctrl_3_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time req_daqs_per_sample standard_id bkgd_susceptibility bkgd_elapsed_zero_time core_temperature loop_temperature meas_susceptibilty_mean sample_elapsed_zero_time actual_daq_period
MSL section msl_id [PK1] section_id run_number run_date_time core_status liner_status requested_daq_interval req_daqs_per_sample bkgd_susceptibility bkgd_elapsed_zero_time core_temperature loop_temperature
MSL section data msl_id[PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] mst_bottom_interval meas_susceptibility_mean sample_elapsed_zero_time actual_daq_period core_diameter
MSL control 1 data msl_ctrl_1_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] mst_bottom_interval meas_susceptibility_mean sample_elapsed_zero_time actual_daq_period core_diameter
Notes: MSL control 1 are control measurements run the same way as a core section. MSL control 3 are control measurements from a standard mounted on the core boat.
Standard Queries
Table 43 MSL report
Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type Drift-corrected magnetic susceptibility Database Link through [MSL Section] section_id Link through [MSL Section] section_id =[MSL Section Data] meas_suscept_mean -[MSL Section] bkgd_susceptibility / [MSL Section] bkg_elapsed_zero_time * [MSL Section Data] sam_elapsed_zero_time [MSL Section] run_number [MSL Section] run_date_time [MSL Section] core_status [MSL Section] liner_status [MSL Section] requested_daq_interval [MSL Section] req_daqs_per_sample [MSL Section] bkgd_susceptibility [MSL Section] bkgd_elapsed_zero_time [MSL Section] core_temperature [MSL Section] loop_temperature [MSL Section Data] meas_suscept_mean [MSL Section Data] sam_elapsed_zero_time [MSL Section Data] actual_daq_period [MSL Section Data] core_diameter
Short description A: Results Sample ID Depth Mag. susc.
B (optional): Parameters and measurements Run Run number Date/Time Run date/time Core Status HALF or FULL Liner Status NONE, HALF or FULL Req. Interval User-defined sampling interval (cm) Daqs/sample User-def. data acquisitions per sample Bkgd. Susc. Background at end of section run Bkgd. Time Time elapsed since start of section. run Core Temp. Core temperature Loop Temp. Loop temperature (to be implemented.) Mag. Susc. Measured magnetic susceptibility Elapsed Time time elapsed since start of run (s) Period Actual sampling period Core Dia. Core diameter, default = 6.6 cm
48
Table 44
MSL control 1 measurements (to be implemented).

Description Database =[MSL Ctrl 1 Data] meas_suscept_mean -[MSL Ctrl 1] bkgd_susceptibility / [MSL Ctrl 1] bkg_elapsed_zero_time * [MSL Ctrl 1 Data] sam_elapsed_zero_time [MSL Ctrl 1] run_number [MSL Ctrl 1] run_date_time [MSL Ctrl 1] core_status [MSL Ctrl 1] liner_status [MSL Ctrl 1] requested_daq_interval [MSL Ctrl 1] req_daqs_per_sample [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [MSL Ctrl 1] bkgd_susceptibility [MSL Ctrl 1] bkgd_elapsed_zero_time [MSL Ctrl 1] core_temperature [MSL Ctrl 1] loop_temperature [MSL Ctrl 1 Data] mst_top_interval [MSL Ctrl 1 Data] meas_suscept_mean [MSL Ctrl 1 Data] sam_elapsed_zero_time [MSL Ctrl 1 Data] actual_daq_period [MSL Ctrl 1 Data] core_diameter
Short description Mag. susc.
Run Date/Time Core Status Liner Status Req. Interval Daqs/sample Standard Std. Set Std. Expected Bkgd. Susc. Bkgd. Time Core Temp. Loop Temp. Interval Mag. Susc. Elapsed Time Period Core Dia.
Run number Run date/time HALF or FULL NONE, HALF or FULL User-defined sampling interval (cm) User-def. data acquisitions per sample Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Background at end of section run Time elapsed since start of section run Core temperature Loop temperature (to be implemented.) Interval top Measured magnetic susceptibility time elapsed since start of run (s) Actual sampling period Core diameter, default = 6.6 cm
Table 45
MSL control 3 measurements (to be implemented).

Description Database =[MSL Ctrl 3] meas_suscept_mean -[MSL Ctrl 3] bkgd_susceptibility / [MSL Ctrl 3] bkg_elapsed_zero_time * [MSL Ctrl 3] sam_elapsed_zero_time [MSL Ctrl 3] run_number [MSL Ctrl 3] run_date_time [MSL Ctrl 3] req_daqs_per_sample [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [MSL Ctrl 3] bkgd_susceptibility [MSL Ctrl 3] bkgd_elapsed_zero_time [MSL Ctrl 3] core_temperature [MSL Ctrl 3] loop_temperature [MSL Ctrl 3] meas_suscept_mean [MSL Ctrl 3] sam_elapsed_zero_time [MSL Ctrl 3 Data] actual_daq_period
Short description Mag. susc.
Run Date/Time Daqs/sample Standard Std. Set Std. Expected Bkgd. Susc. Bkgd. Time Core Temp. Loop Temp. Mag. Susc. Elapsed Time Period
Run number Run date/time User-def. data acquisitions per sample Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Background at end of section run Time elapsed since start of section run Core temperature Loop temperature (to be implemented) Measured magnetic susceptibility time elapsed since start of run (s) Actual sampling period
4.3. MS2E1 Point Sensor for Split-Core Logger

At the end of 1996, ODP has purchased a magnetic susceptibility probe type MS2F manufactured by Bartington. This miniature probe is ideally suited for measurements on splitcore surfaces with roughness <1 mm. The FWHM response
49
measured in two axes on the plane of the sensing surface has linear dimensions of 3.8 10.5 mm, giving a spatial resolution 1 order of magnitude better than with the loop sensor (FWHM of 42 mm). The depth response below the surface of investigation drops to 50% at 1 mm and to 10% at 3.5 mm depth, requiring full contact with a smooth surface. The sensor operates at a frequency of 2 kHz and has the same resolution (2 106 SI on 0.1 range) and slightly larger measuring time (1.2 s at 1.0 setting) than the coil sensor. The MS2E1 sensing surface is at the end of a ceramic tube and is protected by a thin ceramic (aluminum oxide) plate that must be in immediate contact with the surface of investigation during the measurement. The tube is mounted on a metal enclosure that houses the electronic circuitry. Soft or wet cores may be protected by a thin plastic film of a thickness less than 0.05 mm. This also prevents the pickup of potentially contaminating material that could create inaccuracies. This sensor will be implemented on either the archive-half or working-half core logging system. Both systems are in the design stage.
410
5. NATURAL GAMMA RADIATION

5.1. Principles
PH YSICAL BACK GROUN D Source of radiation
Natural gamma radiation (NGR) is a useful lithologic parameter because the primeval emitters are at secular equilibrium; i.e., radiation at characteristic energies is constant with time (e.g., Adams and Gaspirini, 1970). Radioisotopes with sufficiently long life and that decay to produce an appreciable amount of gamma rays are potassium (40K) with a half-life of 1.3 109 years, thorium (232Th) with a half-life of 1.4 1010 years, and uranium (238U) with a half-life of 4.4 109 years. Minerals that fix K, U, and Th, such as clay minerals, are the principal source of NGR. Other examples include arkosic silt and sandstones, potassium salts, bituminous and alunitic schists, phosphates, certain carbonates, some coals, and acid or acido-basic igneous rocks (Serra, 1984).
Units
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves with frequencies between 1019 and 1021 Hz. They are emitted spontaneously from an atomic nucleus during radioactive decay, in packets referred to as photons. The energy transported by a photon is related to the wavelength or frequency by E = h = hc/ (1) where c is the velocity of light, and h is Plancks constant (6.626 1034 joule). The energy is expressed in eV (electron-volts). For our purposes, the multiples KeV or MeV are used. Each nuclear species (isotope) emits gamma rays of one or more specific energies. Activity, A, is the rate of radioactive decay and decreases exponentially according to (2) A = N = N e-dt
d d 0
where d is the decay constant, and N and N0 are the number of atoms at times t and t0, respectively. The original unit of activity was defined as the number of disintegrations per second occuring in 1 g of 226Ra. In 1950, the Curie (Ci) was redefined as exactly 3.7 1010 disintegrations per second. For most purposes, the multiples mCi or Ci are used. Each radioactive species has an intrinsic specific activity (ISA), which is the activity of a unit mass of the pure material (the isotope). According to Adams and Weaver (1958), the relative activities of the elements K, U, and Th, are 1, 1300, and 3600, respectively. The well-logging industry created an arbitrary NGR activity scale, the GAPI (gamma-ray, American Petroleum Industry) units. The GAPI scale is defined at a
51
calibration pit at the University of Houston, Texas. The pit consists of three zones of specific mixtures of Th, U, and K: two of low activity and one of high activity (Belknap et al., 1959). The GAPI is defined as 1/200 of the deflection measured between the high- and low-activity zones in the calibration pit. Limestones have readings of 1520 GAPI while shales vary from 75 to 150 GAPI, with maximum readings of about 300 GAPI for very radioactive shales (Dewan, 1983). In addition to the master calibration in the test pit, secondary calibrations are carried out in the field. Until recently, all commercial NGR logs, including the Schlumberger natural gamma tool (NGT) logs generated during ODP operations, were reported in GAPI units. The MST NGR apparatus can obviously not be calibrated in the API calibration pit, although Hoppie et al. (1994) suggested using downhole logs as a relative GAPI standard for core measurements. However, there appears to be no particular need or advantage to converting core measurements to GAPI, perhaps because NGR core logging devices are not widely used. MST-NGR data are therefore reported in counts per second (cps). This measurement unit is dependent on the device and the volume of material measured; i.e., the cps values from the same ODP cores are different if measured on a different instrument, and they are also different if measured in the ODP device but on different core diameters. Perhaps the most useful absolute quantification of NGR is expressing the total activity in terms of the elemental concentrations of K, U, and Th. Quantifying the emitters is most useful for geologic interpretation. Because most well-logging companies collect spectral NGR data these days, it is common for industry to report the measurement in K, U, and Th concentrations. However, the spectral analysis procedures are not standardized and the quality of the elemental yield estimates may vary significantly. An ODP project is under way to manufacture custom standards for the MST-NGR device that will allow elemental yield estimates in the future.
Statistical Error
Counting statistics play an important role in the measurement of radioactive phenomena, which are random and discrete in nature. The Poisson distribution, a simplified binomial distribution, is useful to discribe very small probabilities, p, of individual observations (decay of one particle in our case) and a very large number, n, of observations (number of particles in the sample). The parameter = np then occurs for a given variable, X, with the probability, P(X;), defined by the Poisson distribution: P(X;) = (X e) / X!. (3) In other words, P(X;) is the probability of observing X events when events are expected. The distributions for = 4, 16, 49, and 100, where values represent expected NGR count rates, are illustrated in Figure 51. If >>1, the Poisson distribution approaches a normal distribution (Figure 51) and is thus characterized by the mean, = , and the standard deviation, . The important point is that for binomial distributions is related to , and for the Poisson distribution: = 1/2. (4)
52
As a rule of thumb, the approximation to the normal distribution is adequate if 2; i.e., all but the left-most distribution in Figure 51 are adequate approximations. For a normal distribution, the uncertainty, or the probable error, is Perror = z , (5) where z is the independent variable of the normal distribution function. We can state that for about 68% of a large number of samples, the sample mean, y, will be within the interval (z = 1); about 5% of the estimates will be outside the interval 1.96 (z = 1.96); etc. In the case of NGR measurements, the sample mean y is the number of counts observed, or (6) y = t N, where t is the sampling period (s) and N is the count rate (cps). The sample mean, y, is an unbiased estimator of . Because the value of is not known, we cannot directly compute the error of the estimate N. However, statistical inference as outlined here allows us to express the uncertainty as t N z (t N)1/2 or %error = z (t N)1/2 / t N 100% = z / (t N)1/2 100%. (8) (7)
Equation on page 3 states that the error decreases exponentially with increasing sampling period, t, increasing count rate, N, and decreasing level of confidence, z. As a standard practice, z = 1. Standard deviations and relative statistical errors are indicated for the example distributions in Figure 51. It should be noted that for the generally low NGR count rates, the sampling time t must be as long as the measurement routine allows to reduce the statistical error significantly below 10%. This is particularly true if spectral analyses are attempted.
0.20
==4 =2 Relative error (%) for one standard deviation (68% confidence) = = 16 =4
50 %error (one standard deviation)
40
P(X,)
30 = = 49 =7
0.10
= = 100 = 10
20
10
0.00
20
40 60 80 100 X (estimated by observed counts, tN)
120
Figure 51 Poisson distributions for four selected lambda values. One-standard-deviation intervals are shown. The red line illustrates the relative error decreasing exponentially with increasing count rate and also corresponds to the Poisson distribution for = X.
53
NGR Total Counts
Total counts refers to the integration of all counts over the photon energy range between 0 and about 3.0 MeV (about 10 to 0.004 Angstrom wavelength). The total count is a function of the combined contributions by K, U, and Th (particulary from 0.5 to 3.0 MeV), matrix density resulting from Compton scattering (particularly 0.1 0.6 Mev), and matrix lithology resulting from photoelectric absorption (particularly 0 0.2 MeV). The average total count rate from the MST-NGR device and terrigenous sediments is about 30 cps. With a routine sampling time of 30 s, an average statistical precision for one standard deviation of 900 30, or 3%, may be achieved. This is a good result for core-to-core correlation. However, it is practically impossible to interprete the source of the radiation.
NGR Spectrometry
The MST-NGR apparatus acquires 256-channel spectral data that could potentially be used for calculating elemental yields for K, Th, and U. NGR spectra of rocks and soils are composed of one emission peak of 40K, more than a dozen emission peaks for the 238U series (mainly 214Bi), a similar number of 232Th series peaks (mainly 208Tl and 228Ac), and background (Figure 52 and Figure 53). The dominant background is produced by Compton scattering, photoelectric absorption, and pair production, as well as by low-intensity, discrete emission peaks of the 238U and 232Th series that disappear in the scatter. Spectral background is a function of the abundance and distribution of primeval emitters. The goal of NGR spectrometry is to determine spectral components, peaks as well as parts of the background, which effectively estimate the abundance of K, U, and Th despite the odds of large scatter background and matrix effects. NGR spectra have been analyzed over the past 30 years, mainly from wireline logging and airborne prospecting surveys. Various schemes of spectral stripping have been proposed and evolved with time as electronic circuitry and sensor performance improve. A basic concept was proposed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, 1976) in which one interval is defined for each of the main peaks of K, U, and Th, centered at the following characteristic energies: 1.46 MeV for 40K, 2.62 MeV for 208Tl (Th), and 1.76 MeV for 214Bi (U) (Figure 52). The problem with this concept is that the three main peak areas of K, Th, and U represent only about 10% of the total spectrum in terms of counting rates. About 90% of the counts come from the low-energy part of the spectrum, which is degraded by Compton scattering. The subsequent trend in petroleum industry was to divide the spectrum into five or more contiguous windows and establish a calibration matrix that allows solving a system of equations written as follows: (9) Wi = AiTh + BiU + CiK + ri, where Wi is the count rate from a predetermined energy window; Ai, Bi, and Ci are the calibration coefficients derived empirically; and ri is a factor representing the statistical error. The equations are then solved by minimizing r2 which is the sum of all ri2. The initial limitation to five-channel data acquisition was related to limitations in sensor efficiency and electronic circuitry.
54
An earlier version of the MST program collected spectral data in five energy windows compatible with the Schlumberger NGT tool. The windows were (see also Figure 52) Window 1: Window 2: Window 3: Window 4: Window 5: 0.2 0.5 MeV, 0.5 1.1 MeV, 1.1 1.59 KeV, 1.59 2.0 MeV, and 2.0 3.0 MeV.
Over the past few years, further improvements in downhole logging technology have allowed all survey companies to move to the acquisition of 256-channel data. This makes any a priori spectral stripping unnecessary, as the optimum information can be extracted from the spectra on a more rigorous statistical basis. Blum et al. (1997) analyzed NGR spectra from the MST device using 2-hr samples and calibrated the measurements with instrumental neutron acrivation analysis (INAA), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) measurements on corresponding core specimens. The abundance of K, U, and Th could be estimated with one standard deviation error of 14%, 20%, and 25%, respectively. These conservative error estimates include the error in the reference data. The next step for ODP is to obtain standard cores with known amounts of natural K, U, and Th and to derive a reliable calibration coefficient through linear inversion that can be used to estimate the abundance of K, U, and Th on a routine basis. Spectral analysis requires significantly longer counting times than total count rate sampling for a comparable precision. The work by Blum et al. (1997) shows that the 256-channel spectrum can be subdivided into 11 relevant spectral components, many of which have count rates of only a few counts per second. If the statistical error is to be kept at a few percent, a sampling period of several minutes will be required. In practice, this may be achieved by integrating shorter period (e.g., 30 s) measurements taken a closer intervals (e.g., 10 cm) over a reasonably long interval. Of course, the improved statistics will come with a reduced spacial resolution.
EN VIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Zero Background

We refer to zero background as gamma radiation detected in the measurement area without core material, which originates from a combinaton of high-energy cosmic radiation, impurities in the NaI crystals, and soil contamination in the measurement area. Zero background must be differentiated from spectral background, which is a result of scattering within the core (Figure 52 and Figure 53). The value of zero background is easily determined by measuring a core liner filled with distilled water, and the resulting spectrum is subtracted from the total measured spectrum of a core sample.
55
3000
B
Tl (584 KeV)
Calculated peak baseline Measured zero background Measured counts Smoothed, corrected counts Calculated minima
Bi (610 KeV)
150
100
Ac (912 and 966 KeV)
Counts/channel
Bi (1120 KeV)
2000
208
214
228
40
K (1460 KeV)
50
214
1000
Bi (1764 KeV) Tl (2615 KeV)
214
Interval
0 W0
1 2 3 4 1 2 W3 W4 W5
SCHLUM 2
5 W6
6 W7
IAEA 1 SCHLUM 3
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 8 9 W10 W11 W12 W13 W14 W15 16 17

SCHLUM 4 IAEA 2 SCHLUM 5 IAEA 3
SCHLUM 1
500
1000
1500 Energy (KeV)
2000
2500
208
3000
Figure 52 Natural gamma-ray spectrum acquired with the MST-NGR system (from Blum et al., 1997). The inset shows high-energy portion of spectrum at enlarged vertical scale. Counting time was 4 hr on a split core. W = window, SCHLUM 1 through 5 are the five Schlumberger tool logging windows.
Core Volume
Radiation counts are directly proportional to the volume of material in the measurement area of the scintillation counters. The MST program can be configured to avoid edge effects at the top and bottom of a core section. However, voids within a core section, or narrow-diameter cores in general, are not corrected for. The user can apply corrections based on core photographs or a high-resolution volume proxy such as gamma-ray densiometry (e.g., Hoppie et al., 1994). Pore volume may have some control on the NGR signal if variations in NGR activity downcore are low. Porosity variations are proportional to the concentration of the matrix, which may be proportional to the concentration of a radioactive mineral in the formation. However, bulk density varies by less than a factor of two in the natural materials with which we are concerned (1.42.7 g/cm3), whereas concentration and activity of radioactive material can vary by 1 order of magnitude (e.g., clay-rich vs. carbonate-rich material).
USE OF NGR DATA

NGR measurements are used for three purposes: (1) correlation of core and/or downhole data sets in single or multiple holes, (2) evaluation of the clay/shale content of a formation, and (3) abundance estimates for K, U, and Th. The first, and to some degree the second, goals can be achieved by simply measuring the
56
bulk emission (total counts) of the material. Elemental analysis is a more complex process that requires spectral data acquisition and longer sampling times.
A
Intensity (counts/channel)
Measured counts
Measured zero-background
Energy
B
Intensity (counts/channel) Selected window boundary Zero backgroundcorrected spectrum Calculated minimum
Window Wi
Window Wi+1
Energy
C
Intensity (counts/channel)
Energy interval Ii Peak boundary Peak baseline Peak area Pi
Background area B i
Energy
Figure 53 Schematic illustration of A. zero-background (to be subtracted routinely; B. zero-background corrected spectrum; and C. spectral background (to be discriminated in spectral analysis if warranted). Modified from Blum et al. (1997).
5.2. MST-NGR System

EQ U I P ME N T
The MST-NGR device consists of four shielded scintillation counters arranged at 90 angles from each other in a plane orthogonal to the core track (Figure 54), power supply and amplifiers, automated data acquisition control as part of MST program, and independent PC with EG&G Maestro software for spectral data acquisition and analysis. The scintillation counters contain doped sodium iodide (NaI) crystals (3 3 in or 7.6 7.6 cm) and photomultipliers to produce countable pulses. When a gamma ray strikes the crystal, a single photon of light is emitted and strikes a photocathode made from cesium antimony or silver magnesium.
57
Photons hitting the photocathode release bundles of electrons, which are accelerated in an electric field to strike a series of anodes of successively higher potential. A final electrode conducts a small current through a measure resistor to give a voltage pulse, signaling that a gamma ray struck the NaI crystal. Analog signals are converted to digital signals, and the peak height of each pulse is measured and stored in the appropriate one of 256 channels. The tool response depends on two factors: (1) detector efficiency or sensitivity; i.e., the number of gamma-rays detected per unit concentration; and (2) energy response of the detector; i.e., the resolution and conversion slope of volts input versus output. All detector and electronics components of the MST-NGR device were supplied by EG&G ORTEC, Inc. The apparatus was assembled onboard JOIDES Resolution in March 1993.
MST core pass-through Sensor 1 Sensor 2 Photo-multipliers 3 in. 3 in. NaI crystals Lead shielding Cu tubing Sensor 4 MST bench Sensor 3
CATWALK
CORELAB
Figure 54 system.
Configuration of four natural gamma ray sensors in the MST-NGR
CALIBRAT IO N Tuning the Amplifiers

The NGR system contains four scintillation counters that must be tuned to all return the same signal level for a particular emission energy. Amplification of signals from the four counters may drift, and it is therefore necessary to adjust the gain at least at the beginning of each leg. Currently, the independent MAESTRO program is used to adjust the gain, and the ODP technician should perform the tuning. The operator should be familiar with the general character of the potassium and thorium spectra. Using a potassium source, the MAESTRO display of the spectrum should show one sharp peak. If more than one peak or a very broad peak are displayed, the sensor gains must be adjusted. This is done by disconnecting three of the four
58
sensors from the amplifiers and marking the peak of the connected sensor. Then, the next counter is connected and all others disconnected and the gain is adjusted until the peak falls exactly on the marker. The same is done with the remaining two counters. The connections between sensor numbers, leads, and gain adjustment knobs on the amplifiers are shown in Figure 55.
LEADS: Disconnect three of four leads to isolate one sensor response
3 1 2 4 3 4
POSITION NUMBER: Corresponds to sensor number FINE GAIN One full turn to the right moves a peak several tens of KeV to the right
COARSE GAIN: Leave the following settings: Position 1: gain 2 Position 2: gain 2 Position 3: gain 4 Position 4: gain 2
Figure 55 Schematic diagram of the gain control panel used to tune the four sensor responses. The numbers indicate how lead connects relate to gain control knobs. This procedure is tedious because each time the gain is adjusted a new counting period must be initiated. A hot source, such as thorium, accelerates the procedure some. However, there are several characteristic peaks in the thorium spectrum, and operators must be very confident that they can match the appropriate ones. Once the four scintillation counter gains are tuned, an energy calibration must be performed.
Zero-Background Correction
Zero background is the radiation caused by impurities in the system, including the NaI crystal itself, and cosmic radiation by-passing the lead shielding. The background is measured with a water-filled core liner in the system. Counting times of 1 min and more provide accurate values. Many background measurements in 1993 and 1994, some taken with counting times of a few hours, show that the values are constant throughout the day and over a period of weeks at 8 to 9 cps. Standard deviations are less than 1 cps. Background measurements taken without a water core in the device tend to be higher by 1 to 2 cps, presumably because the water core helps to shield the sensor from external radiation. The zero background is relatively constant and frequent measurements are not required. A daily control measurement to check on potential contamination with soil is sufficient. The ODP standard query uses the latest background measurement in the database taken prior to the core measurement.
Energy Calibration
Radioactive decay events are recorded by 256 channels according to photon energy. These channels must be calibrated for energy by measuring standards with characteristic emission peaks at known energies. A linear regression yields
59
calibration coefficients that are used by the ODP standard query to convert channel numbers to energy intervals. At present, potassium and thorium standards are used with main emission peaks at 1.46 MeV and 2.62 MeV for 40K and 232Th, respectively. These peaks are the most suitable ones because they span the energy spectrum of general interest. The lowenergy, high-count spectrum may be somewhat distorted because of the nonlinearity of the detection and recording system. The physical standard illustrated in Figure 56 is part of a project that awaits resource allocation. At present, sources of convenience for K (core filled with KCl) and Th (Schlumberger calibration pad or small flask with Th oxide) are used for the calibration.
NATURAL GAMMA RADIATION: I. ENERGY SPECTRUM
Homogeneous mixture of natural K, U, and Th, and epoxy matrix 40 cm long

Core liner
Distilled water
K ~ 5%; U ~ 10 ppm; Th ~ 20 ppm Approx. concentrations 1): 1) To be determined exactly in the laboratory from aliquots of the standard material.
in
til
la
tio
de
te
ct
or
Known energy of characteristic peak (KeV)
Core liner
m1(KeV)
Sc
dcore
m0 (KeV)
256
Channel number i Energy of ith channel = m0 + m1 i
(Tcps)core
i=b i=a
(cps)channel i
(Tcps)core
= (Tcps)core dcore2 / dstd2
Tcps = Total counts per second a = (0 KeV - m0) / m1 [a 1]; b = (3000 KeV - m0) / m1 [b 256] For standard report: dcore = dstd (= 66 mm for ODP)
Figure 56 Schematic of NGR energy calibration. A. Physical standard used (To be implemented). B. Measurement geometery. C. Calibration principle. D. Application of calibration to core measurement.
510
Elemental Yield Calibration
Elemental yield calibration is required only if the goal is to estimate the abundance of K, U, and Th from spectral analysis. The sampling time must be sufficiently long for this purpose (at least several minutes). Currently, the calibration standards required to obtain a reliable estimation matrix do not exist. They have been specified and will be purchased when funds are available.

Because radioactive emissions are random and discrete, they follow the Poisson distribution, which in turn allows calculating the measurement precision from the number of accumulated counts. Equations on page 2 through on page 3 and Figure 51 in this chapter explain the principles. Accuracy estimates for K, U, and Th elemental abundance obtained from NGR measurements depend on the accuracy and precision of of the reference data, calibration, and the spectral analysis and statistical procedures used to obtain the abundance estimates. Blum et al. (1997) found that K, U, and Th estimates had total errors of 16%, 30%, and 20%, respectively. This is a conservative error estimate that includes the uncertainty in the reference values (3%7%), and is not based on the best possible optimization procedures. Custom-fabricated calibration standards and more rigorous inversion methods should lead to more accurate abundance estimates in the future. The diameter of the NaI crystals is 7.6 cm (3 in) and represents the intrinsic resolution of the system. However, actual spatial resolution is limited because the geometry of the device allows a longer piece of core to be exposed to the sensors: the total response curve has a width of about 40 cm. The HMFW is about 12 cm and represents perhaps the most reasonable measure of spatial resolution. Layers thinner than that can be detected only if they have NGR emissions vastly different from the surrounding core.
Accuracy
Spatial Resolution
MEASUREMEN T
NGR is logged downcore automatically.
511

Table 11
NGR section ngr_id [PK1] section_id run_number run_date_time core_status liner_status requested_daq_interval requested_daq_period energy_calibration_id energy_background_id mst_ngr_ctrl_3_id
NGR database model.

NGR control 1 ngr_ctrl_1_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time core_status liner_status requested_daq_interval requested_daq_period energy_calibration_id standard_id energy_background_id NGR calibration data energy_calibration_id [PK1] [FK] channel [PK2] NGR control 3 ngr_ctrl_3_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time requested_daq_period energy_calibration_id standard_id energy_background_id actual_daq_period NGR calibration energy_calibration_id [PK1] calibration_date_time run_number system_id channel_energy_m0 channel_energy_m1 channel_energy_mse comments
NGR section data ngr_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] mst_bottom_interval actual_daq_period core_diameter total_counts_sec
NGR control 1 data ngr_ctrl_1_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] mst_bottom_interval actual_daq_period core_diameter total_counts_sec
isotope energy
NGR background energy_background_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time standard_id liner_status requested_daq_period energy_calibration_id total_counts_sec actual_daq_period
NGR spectra data ngr_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] [FK] roi_start_channel [PK3] roi_length_channel meas_counts
NGR con. 1 spectra data ngr_ctrl_1_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] [FK] roi_start_channel [PK3] roi_length_channel meas_counts
NGR con. 3 spectra data ngr_ctrl_3_id [PK1] [FK] roi_start_channel [PK2] roi_length_channel meas_counts
NGR background spectra energy_background_id [PK1] roi_start_channel [PK2] roi_length_channel actual_daq_period meas_counts
Notes: NGR Ctrl 1 are control measurements run the same way as a core section. NGR Ctrl 3 are routine measurements on standards mounted on core boat (pure water, essentially a background measurement). NGR Background is for longer (precise) measurements of the background radiation due to cosmic radiation (imperfect shielding) and contamination of the system (crystal impurities, accumulated dirt). Recommended data acquisition period is 10 min (more for special studies with longer counting times on core material). Spectral data are available over the network on the ship. After the leg, they are transferred to off-line media and made available on request.
Standard Queries
Table 12 NGR report.
Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type Zero-background-corrected total counts Database Link through [NGR Section] section_id Link through [NGR Section] section_id = [NGR Section data] total_counts_sec [NGR Background] total_counts_sec
Short description A: Results Sample ID Depth Total counts
512
Table 12
NGR report.
[NGR Section] run_number [NGR Section] run_date_time [NGR Section] core_status [NGR Section] liner_status [NGR Section] requested_daq_interval [NGR Section] requested_daq_period [NGR Section Data] actual_daq_period [NGR Section Data] core_diameter [NGR Section Data] total_counts_sec [NGR Calibration] calibration_date_time [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m0 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m1 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_mse [NGR Background] total_counts_sec
B (optional): Parameters and measurements Run Run number Date/Time Run date/time Core Status HALF or FULL Liner Status NONE, HALF or FULL Req. Interval User-defined sampling interval (cm) Req. Period User-defined sampling period (s) Period Actual sampling period (s0 Diameter Core diameter (default + 6.6 cm) Counts Total counts (cps) Cal. Date/Time Calibration date/time Cal. m0 Calibration intercept (KeV) Cal. m1 Calibration slope (KeV/channel) Cal. mse Calibration mean squared error Bkgd Background total counts (cps)
Table 13
NGR control 1 measurements (to be implemented).

Description Database = [NGR Ctrl 1 data] total_counts_sec [NGR Background] total_counts_sec [NGR Ctrl 1] run_number [NGR Ctrl 1] run_date_time [NGR Ctrl 1] core_status [NGR Ctrl 1] liner_status [NGR Ctrl 1] requested_daq_interval [NGR Ctrl 1] requested_daq_period [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [NGR Ctrl 1 Data] mst_top_interval [NGR Ctrl 1 Data] actual_daq_period [NGR Ctrl 1 Data] core_diameter [NGR Ctrl 1 Data] total_counts_sec [NGR Calibration] calibration_date_time [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m0 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m1 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_mse [NGR Background] total_counts_sec
Short description Total counts Run Date/Time Core Status Liner Status Req. Interval Req. Period Standard Std. Set Std. Expected Interval Period Diameter Counts Cal. Date/Time Cal. m0 Cal. m1 Cal. mse Bkgd
Run number Run date/time HALF or FULL NONE, HALF or FULL User-defined sampling interval (cm) User-defined sampling period (s) Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Interval top Actual sampling period (s) Core diameter (default + 6.6 cm) Total counts (cps) Calibration date/time Calibration intercept (g/cm3) Calibration slope ([g/cm3)]/cps) Calibration slope ([g/cm )]/cps) Background total counts (cps)
3
Table 14

Description Database =[NGR Ctrl 3] total_counts_sec [NGR Background] total_counts_sec [NGR Ctrl 3] run_number [NGR Ctrl 3] run_date_time [NGR Ctrl 3] requested_daq_period [NGR Ctrl 3] actual_daq_period [NGR Ctrl 3] total_counts_sec [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [NGR Calibration] calibration_date_time
Short description Total counts Run Date/Time Req. Period Period Counts Standard Std. Set Std. Expected Cal. Date/Time
Run number Run date/time User-defined sampling period (s) Actual sampling period (s0 Total counts (cps) Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Calibration date/time
513
Table 14
Cal. m0 Cal. m1 Cal. mse Bkgd

Calibration intercept (g/cm3) Calibration slope ([g/cm )]/cps) Calibration slope ([g/cm )]/cps) Background total counts (cps)
3 3
[NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m0 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m1 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_mse [NGR Background] total_counts_sec
Table 15
NGR calibration data (to be implemented).

Description Calibration date/time Run number Calibration intercept m0 (MeV) Calibration slope m1 (MeV/channel) Calibration mean squared error Comments Channel number Characteristic isotope emitting at peak Energy of emission at peak Database [NGR Calibration] calibration_date_time [NGR Calibration] run_number [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m0 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m1 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_mse [NGR Calibration] comments [NGR Calibration Data] channel [NGR Calibration Data] isotope [NGR Calibration Data] energy
Short description Date/Time Run Cal. m0 Cal. m1 Cal. mse Comments Channel Isotope Energy
Table 16
NGR zero background (to be implemented).

Description Date/time of background meas. Run number NONE, HALF or FULL User-defined sampling period (s) Actual sampling period (s) Total background counts (cps) Calibration date/time Calibration intercept (g/cm3) Calibration slope ([g/cm3)]/cps) Calibration slope ([g/cm )]/cps)
3
Short description Date/Time Run Liner Status Req. Period Period Counts Cal. Date/Time Cal. m0 Cal. m1 Cal. mse
Database [NGR Background] run_date_time [NGR Background] run_number [NGR Background] liner_status [NGR Background] requested_daq_period [NGR Background] actual_daq_period [NGR Background] total_counts_sec [NGR Calibration] calibration_date_time [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m0 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_m1 [NGR Calibration] channel_energy_mse
514
6. P-WAVE VELOCITY
6.1. Principles
The basic relationship for sonic velocity is v = d / t, (1)
where d is the distance traveled through the material (in meters) and t is the travel time through the material (in seconds). The ODP user can choose among four measurement systems, each using a piezoelectric transducer pair. The basic equation is adapted to reflect the particular measurement condition. The PWL system is mounted on the whole-core MST and measures d and t horizontally through the whole core, with or without the core liner. The measurements are anywhere in the x-y plane in the conventional core orientation system (Figure 61). PWS1 and PWS2 transducer pairs are designed to be inserted into the soft and semiconsolidated sediment of split cores. The two systems are mounted orthogonal to each other to measure along the core axis (PWS1, z-direction), and perpendicular to the axis and within the split plane (PWS2, y-direction). The core liner is not involved in these measurements. The PWS3 system allows measurements on split cores in the x-direction, with or without the core liner. In addition, other directions can be measured with the PWS3 system on cubic or cylindrical, consolidated or lithified core specimens. Total travel time measured between the transducers includes three types of delays: delay related to transducer faces and electronic circuitry (tdelay), delay related to the peak detection procedure (tpulse), and transit time through the core liner, if applicable (tliner). These delays are explained in detail in the Calibration sections. Travel distance measurements must also be corrected for the liner wall thickness, dliner, if core liners are involved. For routine measurements on whole cores in core liners (PWL system): vcore = (dcore 2dliner) / (t0 tpulse tdelay 2tliner) 1000, where vcore = corrected velocity through core (km/s), dcore = measured diameter of core and liner (mm), d1iner = liner wall thickness (mm), and t0 = measured total travel time (s).
(2)
61
For the PWS3 system measuring the transit time through the core material and a split liner, Equation on page 1 is modified only by the factor of 2 for the core liner correction: vcore = (dcore dliner) / (t0 tpulse tdelay tliner) 1000. (3) The liner wall correction is applied by default. If rock cuboids or cylinders are measured with the PWS3 system, the liner correction must be disabled by the user. For the PWS1 and PWS2 systems as well as the PWS3 system measuring discrete core specimens: (4) vcore = dcore / (t0 tpulse tdelay) 1000. With the PWL and PWS3 systems, dcore is determined for each measurement. For the PWS1 and PWS2 systems, the constant dcore is obtained through calibration in water.
EN VIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Core Quality

Core quality strongly affects the data quality or the ability to aquire P-wave velocity data. Even if good acoustic coupling with the core liner is achieved, there may be insufficient coupling between the core material and the core liner. A typical observation is that the uppermost sediment (seafloor to 1050 mbsf) yields good data, presumably because the high porosity and limited elastic expansion maintains cohesion in the soft sediment. Below this and to depth of a few hundered meters, the signal is often strongly attenuated. This effect is more severe if gas escape is observed on the core cutting platform. Free gas in the sediment expands greatly upon recovery and may create voids and microcracks that make P-wave measurements impossible. Once the sediment becomes sufficiently consolidated and lithified, measurements tend to be more successful. The measured signal degenerates because of incompletely filled core liner or voids or because of attenuation caused by microcracks that formed during core recovery. This degeneration is partly reflected by the gain (signal strength) factor applied to the original signal by the automated gain control. However, signal strength also represents the grain size of the sediment, and low-strength signals can therefore not simply be interpreted as proportional to attenuation. If a filter is applied for data reduction, the relative decrease in signal strength from one sample to the other should be taken into consideration as well as the absolute signal strength. P-wave velocity in water is sensitive to temperature. Cores should therefore be at equilibrium when they are measured. Cores are routinely left to equilibrate for at least 4 hr (ODP technicians monitor the temperature with a thremistor probe). The core temperature should be entered by the operator (see Data Specifications section; currently this is a manual operation). Measurements on sediment or rock cores differ from in situ measurements because cores expand on recovery because of lithostatic rebound and, possibly, gas expansion and other factors. Calibration of the measurements with corresponding sonic well logs is recommended. Velocities from sediment cores originating from
Signal Strength and Attenuation
Temperature Equilibrium
In Situ vs. Core Measurements
62
more than a few hundred meters below seafloor typically are compatible with downhole measurements to within less than 3%, whereas shallower core measurements tend to be up to 5% lower than corresponding downhole measurements.
USE OF P - WA V E V E L OC ITY D A T A
P-wave velocity varies with the lithology, porosity, and bulk density of the material; state of stress, such as lithostatic pressure; and fabric or degree of fracturing. In marine sediments and rocks, velocity values are also controlled by the degree of consolidation and lithification, fracturing, occurence and abundance of free gas and gas hydrate, etc. Together with density measurements, sonic velocity is used to calculate acoustic impedance, or reflection coefficients, which can be used to estimate the depth of reflectors observed in seismic profiles and to construct synthetic seismic profiles. Core measurement should be calibrated with in situ measurements wherever possible.
6.2. MST (Whole-Core) P-Wave Logger (PWL)

EQ U I P ME N T
The PWL system was purchased from GEOTEK Ltd. (UK) and modified for the specific requirements of ODP routine core logging. The core travels between two piezoelectric transducers mounted in epoxy and stainless-steel housings. The two transducers are used as a transmitter and receiver. Acoustic coupling is through an epoxy resin surface and is enhanced by a water film supplied by an automated sprinkler system. Firm contact is ensured through spring-loaded transducer housings. Two serially mounted linear variable-displacement transformers (LVDT) measure the diameter of the core (plus liner). A hydraulic piston system displaces the transducers by several millimeters at the beginning and end of a core section log to prevent the end caps from catching on to the transducers. A 500-kHz pulse (2-s wave period; 120 V) is produced at a repetition rate of 1 kHz. The pulse is sent to the transmitter transducer, which generates an ultrasonic compressional pulse at about 500 kHz. Pulse timing is measured with a resolution of 50 ns. The P-wave propagates through the core, is received by the receiver transducer, and is amplified by an automatic gain control amplifier to produce the received signal. A delay pulse is generated after the transmit pulse (Figure 61). The delay time must be set (thumbwheel control) to a few microseconds less than the arrival of the signal. A 20-s gate pulse follows the delay pulse; during this period a peak detector senses the peak voltage of the received signal after gain control. A threshold detector is used for automatic peak detection: it is set low when a preset fraction of the peak level (the threshold level) is crossed. In addition, a zero-crossing detector detects all zero voltage crossings. A count pulse, which is displayed on the instrument unit in microseconds, is generated at a time
63
corresponding to the first zero crossing after the first low-threshold event. The resulting pulse detection delay is one wavelength (2 s) if the the first peak is positive and 1.5 wavelengths (3 s) if the first peak is negative, because the threshold is always detected on the negative signal. By detecting the travel time using a zero-crossing technique, the travel time recorded is independent of the signal amplitude.
Transmitter pulse (2 s) Delay pulse (0-999.9 s) Gate pulse (0-999.9 s)
Oscilloscope trigger
Received signal Threshold level
Threshold detector Zero-crossing detector Count pulse tpulse
First zero crossing after first threshold interval
Figure 61 Schematic diagram of pulse timing and threshold peak detection (modified after GEOTEK manual).
CALIBRAT IO N Pulse Detection

Pulse detection settings are checked by ODP personnel on a regular basis and should not require any adjustment by the user. It may become necessary to adjust the pulse from time to time (e.g., when equipment is replaced or materials of different geometry are measured). The oscilloscope normally connected for the user to monitor the received signal can be used for adjusting pulse timing and threshold detection. The following procedure is modified after the GEOTEK manual: 1. Place a water core (large signal) between the transducers. Ensure a good (wet) coupling. The Level indicator should be high. A clear received pulse should be visible on channel 1 and the delay pulse on channel 2. Use the thumbwheel to adjust the delay time such that it ends just prior to the start of the received signal (approximately 35 s).
2. Check that the count pulse occurs at the first zero-crossing after the first (or second, if wired in the opposite sense) negative excursion. If this is not the case, the threshold voltage level requires adjustment (procedure follows).
64
3. Remove the water core and observe the signal through air (small signal; Level indicator low). Check again that the count pulse occurs at the first zero-crossing after the first (or second, if wired in the opposite sense) negative excursion. If this is not the case, the threshold voltage level requires adjustment (procedure follows). 4. Check that the travel time shown on the LCD is in approximate agreement with the travel time shown on the oscilloscope. If the threshold level requires adjustment: 1. The purpose is to ensure that that the threshold operating level Vop consistently picks first negative excursions over as wide an amplitude range as possible. 2. Place the water core (large signal) between the transducers. Adjust Set high so that the threshold operates just on the first (or second, if wired in the opposite sense) negative excursion. 3. With a very small signal (through air with the transducers at their closest position), adjust the threshold operating voltage using Set low such that the threshold operates above the noise level but detects the first (or second, if wired in the opposite sense) real negative excursion. 4. Repeat this procedure until the threshold operates correctly over the entire range of signal levels.
Pulse Time
The pulse time is a time constant included in the total time measured as a result of the threshold peak detection procedure used. This constant may not be apparent with peak detection or calibration procedures different from those described here. ODP subtracts this constant from raw measurements of time because (1) it allows a more precise monitoring of system performance (pulse time and hardware delay, discussed in the following section) and (2) it renders measured time values that are independent of a particular peak detection procedure.The constant tpulse is therefore subtracted from the raw measurement of time t0 so that t0 = t0 tpulse. (5)
The important thing to note is that the pulse time value changes depending on the wiring of the system. If the first received peak voltage is positive (Figure 61) the pulse time will be one wavelength, or 2 s, for the 500 kHz transducers. However, if the wiring is in the opposite direction, as was the case for the ODP system at least for some time, the pulse time is 1.5 wavelength, or 3 s, because the threshold detection is always on the negative signal.
Transducer Displacement and Traveltime Delay
These two calibrations are performed simultaneously in one procedure (Figure 6 2). They should be executed once per leg on a routine basis. They should also be performed when changes or replacement of equipment have occurred, transducer surfaces have experienced extraordinary wear, or if other problems are suspected. Variation in the thickness of the sediment-filled core liner (dcore) is measured using an LVDT connected to the spring-loaded transducer housings. Displacement measured in volts must be calibrated to give millimeters. At least three of the available standard acrylic cylinders are measured. A linear least-squares fit to the points defined by the voltage readings (x-axis) and the known standard thicknesses
65
in millimeters (y-axis) yields the linear coefficients md1 (mm/V) and md0 (mm). Then, for any calibration standard or core measurement, respectively: dcal = md0 + md1V0 dcore = md0 + md1V0 , where V0 is the voltage reading. As previously mentioned, the total travel time (t0) measured between the transducers includes three types of delays: delay related to the peak detection procedure ( tpulse; see Pulse Time section), transit time through the core liner, if applicable (tliner; see Liner Correction section), and undifferentiable delay related to transducer faces and electronic circuitry (tdelay), which is determined with this procedure. Although it is not necessary for the routine logging of sediment cores, ODP differentiates between these types of delay because it allows for more rigorous system monitoring and more flexibility in measurements. The constant tpulse is subtracted from the raw measurement of time t0 so that tcal = t0 tpulse. The hardware delay of tdelay is then determined from another least-squares regression. Here, the x-axis is defined by the dcal values of the standards determined previously, and the y-axis is tcal. The linear coefficient, m1 (s/mm), is the inverse of the velocity of the standards (1/vstandard), and the intercept, m0 (s), is tdelay (Figure 62). Thus, the corrected transit time through a core is tcore = t0 tpulse tdelay. (9) (8) (6) (7)
If no core liner correction must be applied (i.e., if the material to be measured is directly in contact with the transducers), the velocity is calculated as (10) vcore = dcore / tcore.
Liner correction
In most cases (i.e., when logging whole cores in core liners), measured travel distance and time must be corrected for twice the liner thickness. The liner calibration is a measurement of thickness and transit time through core liner material and is performed by ODP personnel. The liner correction is applied by default (unless disabled by the user), using a constant liner thickness, dliner, and sonic velocity for the liner material, vliner: dcore = dcore 2dliner tcore = tcore 2dliner/vliner vcore = dcore / tcore. (11) (12) (13)
At present, we have no means of routinely measuring and correcting for variations in liner wall thickness during logging. Vendor specifications for the wall thickness are 5.64 to 4.70 mm, and we use 5.17 mm, or 2dliner = 1.03 cm.
66
P-WAVE LOGGER (FULL-CORE)
A
Acrylic cylinders
dcal (mm)
d1
mV1 (mm/V)
d2
d3
mV0 (mm)
Potential (V)
S1
S2
S3
V = potentials from transducer LVDT dcal = known standard thicknesses
Ultrasonic transducer pair and pneumatic caliper
tcal (s)
Core liner
m0 = tdelay (s)
m1 = vcal-1 (s/mm) dcal (mm)
dcore dcore
dcal = known standard thicknesses tcal = t0 - tpulse, (tpulse = = 2 s)
vcore =
dcore V0 md1 + md0 = tcore t0 - tpulse - tdelay
d dcore - 2dliner vcore = core = tcore tcore - 2dliner/vliner
dliner and vliner are determined separately option vcore: no liner correction (e.g., direct rock measurements)
Figure 62 Schematic of PWL calibration. A. Physical standard used. B. Measurement geometery. C. and D. Calibration principle. E. Application of calibration to core measurement.

Measurements on standard materials (e.g., water, acrylic calibration standards) are repeatable within 1 km/s. (Systematic evaluation required.) Accuracy can be evaluated by measuring pure water at varying and exactly known temperatures. Past experience shows that for a properly calibrated system and good acoustic coupling, the disagreement with published v(T) values is less than 2 km/s. (Systematic evaluation needed.)
Accuracy
MEASUREMEN T
P-wave velocity is logged downcore automatically.
67

Table 61 PWL Database Model.
PWL control 1 pwl_ctrl_1_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time core_status liner_status liner_correction requested_daq_interval req_daqs_per_sample pwl_calibration_id standard_id acoustic_signal_threshold core temperature standard_liner_id PWL control 3 pwl_ctrl_3_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time req_daqs_per_sample pwl_calibration_id standard_id acoustic_signal_threshold core temperature core_status liner_status meas_separation_mean meas_separation_sd meas_time_mean meas_time_sd acoustic_signal_mean attempted_daqs valid_daqs liner_thickness standard_liner_id PWL calibration pwl_calibration_id [PK1] calibration_date_time run_number system_id req_daqs_per_sample acoustic_signal_threshold pwl_frequency pulse_time_correction separation_m0 separation_m1 separation_mse delay_m0 delay_1_m1 delay_mse comments PWL calibration data pwl_calibration_id [PK1] [FK] standard_id [PK2] [FK] mst_top_interval mst_bottom_interval standard_length meas_separation_mean meas_separation_sd meas_time_mean meas_time_sd acoustic_signal_mean attempted_daqs valid_daqs
PWL section pwl_id [PK1] section_id run_number run_date_time core_status liner_status liner_correction liner_standard_id requested_daq_interval req_daqs_per_sample pwl_calibration_id acoustic_signal_threshold core temperature mst_pwl_ctrl_3_id
PWL section data pwl_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] mst_bottom_interval meas_separation_mean meas_separation_sd meas_time_mean meas_time_sd acoustic_signal_mean attempted_daqs valid_daqs liner_thickness liner_standard_id
PWL control 1 data pwl_ctrl_1_id [PK1] [FK] mst_top_interval [PK2] mst_bottom_interval meas_separation_mean meas_separation_sd meas_time_mean meas_time_sd acoustic_signal_mean attempted_daqs valid_daqs liner_thickness
Notes: PWL Ctrl 1 are control measurements run the same way as a core section. PWL Ctrl 3 are control measurements from a standard mounted on the core boat (pure water).
Standard Queries
Table 62
PWL report.
Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type Calculated P-wave velocity Database Link through [PWL Section] section_id Link through [PWL Section] section_id = ([PWL Section Data] meas_separation_mean - 2* [PWL Section Data] liner_thickness) / ([PWL Section Data] meas_time_mean - {2* [PWL Section Data] liner_thickness / [PP Std Data] liner_velocity} - [PWL Calibration] delay_m0) [PWL Section] run_number [PWL Section] run_date_time [PWL Section] core_status [PWL Section] liner_status
Short description A: results Sample ID Depth Velocity
B (optional): Parameteres and measurements Run Run number Date/Time Run date/time Core Status HALF or FULL Liner Status NONE, HALF or FULL
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Table 62
PWL report.
Liner correction (Yes/No) User-defined sampling interval (cm) Requested DAQS per sample Acoustic signal threshold Core temperature Mean of transducer separation Standard deviation of transducer separation Mean of transit tme Standard deviation of transit time Mean of acoustic signal Attempted numnber of data acquisitions Valid number ofdata acquisitions Liner thickness (entered manually) Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Calibration date/time Intercept of transducer separation calibration Slope of transducer separation calibration Mean squared errorof transducer separation cal. Intercept of transit time calibration Slopeof transit time calibration Mean squared error of transit time calibration [PWL Section] liner_correction [PWL Section] requested_daq_interval [PWL Section] requested_daqs_per_sample [PWL Section] acoustic_signal_threshold [PWL Section] core_temperature [PWL Section Data] meas_separation_mean [PWL Section Data] meas_separation_sd [PWL Section Data] meas_time_mean [PWL Section Data] meas_time_sd [PWL Section Data] acoustic_signal_mean [PWL Section Data] attempted_daqs [PWL Section Data] valid_daqs [PWL Section Data] liner_thickness [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [PWL Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWL Calibration] separation_m0 [PWL Calibration] separation_m1 [PWL Calibration] separation_mse [PWL Calibration] delay_m0 [PWL Calibration] delay_m1 [PWL Calibration] delay_mse
Liner correction Req. Interval Req. Sample Signal Core Temp Sep. Mean Sep. S.D. Time Mean Time std. dev. Signal Attempted DAQS Valid DAQS Liner Thickness Standard name Standard Set Std. Expected Cal. Date/Time Cal. Separ. m0 Cal. Separ. m1 Cal. Separ. mse Cal. Time m0 Cal. Time m1 Cal. Time mse
Table 63
PWL control 1 measurements (to be implemented).

Description Calculated P-wave velocity Database = ([PWL Ctrl 1 Data] meas_separation_mean - 2* [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] liner_thickness) / ([PWL Ctrl 1 Data] meas_time_mean - {2* [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] liner_thickness / [PP Std Data] liner_velocity} - [PWL Calibration] delay_m0) [PWL Ctrl 1] run_number [PWL Ctrl 1] run_date_time [PWL Ctrl 1] core_status [PWL Ctrl 1] liner_status [PWL Ctrl 1] liner_correction [PWL Ctrl 1] requested_daq_interval [PWL Ctrl 1] requested_daqs_per_sample [PWL Ctrl 1] acoustic_signal_threshold [PWL Ctrl 1] core_temperature [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] mst_top_interval [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] meas_separation_mean [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] meas_separation_sd [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] meas_time_mean [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] meas_time_sd [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] acoustin_signal_mean [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] attempted_daqs [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] valid_daqs [PWL Ctrl 1 Data] liner_thickness [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [PWL Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWL Calibration] separation_m0 [PWL Calibration] separation_m1
Short description Velocity
Run Date/Time Core Status Liner Status Liner Corr. Req. Interval Req. Sample Signal Core Temp Interval Sep. Mean Sep. S.D. Time Mean Time S.D. Signal Daqs Attempt Daqs Valid Liner Thick Standard Std. Set Std. Expected Cal. Date/Time Cal. Separ. m0 Cal. Separ. m1
Run number Run date/time HALF or FULL NONE, HALF or FULL Liner correction (Yes/No) User-defined sampling interval (cm) User-defined DAQs per sample Acoustic signal threshold Core temperature Interval top Separation mean Separation standard deviation Time mean Time standard deviation Acoustic signal mean Attempted data acquisitions Valid data acquisitions Liner thickness (entered manually) Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Cal. date/time Cal. separation intercept m0 Cal. separation slope m1
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Table 63

Cal. separation mean squared error Cal. time intercept m0 Cal. time slope m1 Cal. time mean squared error [PWL Calibration] separation_mse [PWL Calibration] delay_m0 [PWL Calibration] delay_m1 [PWL Calibration] delay_mse
Cal. Separ. mse Cal. Time m0 Cal. Time m1 Cal. Time mse
Table 64

Description Calculated P-wave velocity Database = ([PWL Ctrl 3] meas_separation_mean - 2* [PWL Ctrl 3] liner_thickness) / ([PWL Ctrl 3] meas_time_mean - {2* [PWL Ctrl 3] liner_thickness / [PP Std Data] liner_velocity} - [PWL Calibration] delay_m0) [PWL Ctrl 3] run_number [PWL Ctrl 3] run_date_time [PWL Ctrl 3] core_status [PWL Ctrl 3] liner_status [PWL Ctrl 3] requested_daq_interval [PWL Ctrl 3] requested_daqs_per_sample [PWL Ctrl 3] acoustic_signal_threshold [PWL Ctrl 3] core_temperature [PWL Ctrl 3] meas_separation_mean [PWL Ctrl 3] meas_separation_sd [PWL Ctrl 3] meas_time_mean [PWL Ctrl 3] meas_time_sd [PWL Ctrl 3] acoustic_signal_mean [PWL Ctrl 3] attempted_daqs [PWL Ctrl 3] valid_daqs [PWL Ctrl 3] liner_thickness [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [PWL Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWL Calibration] separation_m0 [PWL Calibration] separation_m1 [PWL Calibration] separation_mse [PWL Calibration] delay_m0 [PWL Calibration] delay_m1 [PWL Calibration] delay_mse
Run Date/Time Core Status Liner Status Req. Interval Req. Sample Signal Core Temp Sep. Mean Sep. S.D. Time Mean Time S.D. Signal Daqs Attempt Daqs Valid Liner Thick Standard Std. Set Std. Expected Cal. Date/Time Cal. Separ. m0 Cal. Separ. m1 Cal. Separ. mse Cal. Time m0 Cal. Time m1 Cal. Time mse
Run number Run date/time HALF or FULL NONE, HALF or FULL User-defined sampling interval (cm) User-defined DAQs per sample Acoustic signal threshold Core temperature Separation mean Separation standard deviation Time mean Time standard deviation Acoustic signal mean Attempted data acquisitions Valid data acquisitions Liner thickness (entered manually) Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Cal. date/time Cal. separation intercept m0 Cal. separation slope m1 Cal. separation mean squared error Cal. time intercept m0 Cal. time slope m1 Cal. time mean squared error
Table 65
PWL calibration data (to be implemented).

Description Cal. date/time Cal. run number User-defined DAQs per sample Acoustic signal threshold PWL frequency Pulse time correction Cal. separation intercept m0 Cal. separation slope m1 Cal. separation mean squared error Cal. time intercept m0 Cal. time slope m1 Database [PWL Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWL Calibration] run_number [PWL Calibration] requested_daqs_per_sample [PWL Calibration] acoustic_signal_threshold [PWL Calibration] pwl_frequency [PWL Calibration] pule_time_correction [PWL Calibration] separation_m0 [PWL Calibration] separation_m1 [PWL Calibration] separation_mse [PWL Calibration] delay_m0 [PWL Calibration] delay_m1
Short description Date/Time Run Req. Sample Signal Frequency Pulse Time Separ. m0 Separ. m1 Separ. mse Time m0 Time m1
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Table 65
Time mse Comments Time mse Interval Std. Length Separ. Mean Separ. S.D. Time Mean Time S.D. Signal Daqs Attempt Daqs Valid Standard Std. Set Std. Expected
PWL calibration data (to be implemented).

Cal. time mean squared error Cal. comments Cal. time mean squared error Interval top Length of standard Mean of transducer separation Standard deviation of transducer separation Mean of transit time Standard deviation of transit time Acoustic signal mean Attempted data acquisitions Valid data acquisitions Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) [PWL Calibration] delay_mse [PWL Calibration] comments [PWL Calibration] delay_mse [PWL Calibration Data] mst_top_interval [PWL Calibration Data] standard_length [PWL Calibration Data] separation_mean [PWL Calibration Data] separation_sd [PWL Calibration Data] time_mean [PWL Calibration Data] time_sd [PWL Calibration Data] acoustic_signal_mean [PWL Calibration Data] attempted_daqs [PWL Calibration Data] valid_daqs [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value
6.3. PWS1 and PWS2 Insertion Probe Systems

EQ U I P ME N T
The current equipment has replaced the Digital Sonic Velocimeter (DSV) developed at Dalhousie University and the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Nova Scotia, which was first used on ODP Leg 138 in 1991 (PWS1 and PWS2). The principles remain the same, but hardware and computer control have been improved significantly, and calibration and measurement procedures are simplified at this upgraded station. A vise-like frame holds the two transducers pairs. Their use is limited approximately to the depth range of APC cores (i.e., a maximum depth of 50 to 300 mbsf), depending on the lithology. A Tectronix signal generator, differential amplifier, and oscilloscope are used to transmit and receive signals from all three transducer pairs and to digitize analog waveform data. The instrument can record two voltage inputs with a minimum sampling time of 5 ns and a digitizing signal to noise ratio of 50 dB. An external digital thermometer is used to record core temperature. The values are recorded in the database but are not used for shipboard reporting. Correction algorithms must be researched, selected, and applied by the user.
CALIBRAT IO N Delay
The distance d between the transducers is measured with calipers once every few days (or even once per leg) and then assumed to be constant. The distance between the probe surfaces does not exactly correspond to the distance between the transducers. In addition, there is some electrical delay. The total delay tdelay is
611
determined in this calibration by inserting the probes into a container filled with distilled water of known temperature and therefore of known sound velocity vwater. Because d is known, transit time in water, twater, can be computed as twater = vwater d. The measured total transit time, t, is: t = twater + tdelay. Combining these equations, the delay can be expressed as: tdelay = t vwater d. (14)
(15)
(16)
This calibration should be performed when the operator suspects a change in the distance between the probes because of heavy use or from other reasons.
PERFORM ANCE
No performance evaluation data exist at present.
MEASUREMEN T
An on-line guide is available at the neasurement station.
DATA SPECIFICATIONS Data Mode

l Table 66 PWS1 and PWS2 data model.
PWS1/2 control 1 pws_ctrl_1_id [PK1] run_number run_date_time system_id standard_id pws_calibration_id direction core_temperature raw_data_collected transducer_separation measured_time PWS1/2 calibration pws_calibration_id [PK1] calibration_date_time run_num system_id water_temperature standard_velocity measured_time delay freq comments
PWS1/2 section pws_id [PK1] section_id run_num run_date_time system_id pws_calibration_id direction core_temperature raw_data_collected
PWS1/2 section data pws_id [PK1 [FK] pp_top_interval [PK2] measurement_no [PK3] pp_bottom_interval transducer_separation measured_time PWS1/2 raw data pws_id [PK1 [FK] pp_top_interval [PK2] [FK] measurement_no [PK3] [FK] voltage [PK4] time PWS1/2 control 1 raw data pws_ctrl_1_id [PK1 [FK] voltage [PK2] time
Notes: Control 1 measurements are run like core measurements, using a standard of known velocity.
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Standard queries
Table 67 PWS1 or PWS2 report
Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type Direction (PWS1 = z; PWS2 = y) Calculated P-wave velocity Database Link through [PWS1/2 Section] section_id Link through [PWS1/2 Section] section_id [PWS1/2 Section] direction = [PWS1/2 Section Data] transd_separation / ([PWS1/2 Section Data] measured_time - [PWS1/2 Calibration] delay) [PWS1/2 Section] run_number [PWS1/2 Section] run_date_time [PWS1/2 Section] core_temperature [PWS1/2 Section] raw_data_collected [PWS1/2 Section Data] measurement_no [PWS1/2 Section Data] transducer_separation [PWS1/2 Section Data] measured_time [PWS1/2 Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWS1/2 Calibration] delay
Short description A: Results Sample ID Depth Direction Velocity
B (optional): Measurement parameters and raw data Run Run number Date/Time Run date/time Core Temperature Core temperature Raw Data Raw data collected flag (yes/no) Meas. No Measurement number Separation Transducer separation Time Measured time Cal. Date/Time Cal. date/time Cal. Delay Cal. delay
Table 68
PWS1 or PWS2 control 1 measurements (to be implemented).

Description Calculated P-wave velocity Database = [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] transd_separation / ([PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] measured_time - [PWS1/2 Calibration] delay) [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] run_number [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] run_date_time [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] direction [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] core_temperature [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] raw_data_collected [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] transducer_separation [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] measured_time [PWS1/2 Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWS1/2 Calibration] delay [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value
Run Date/Time Direction Core Temp Raw Data Separation Time Cal. Date/Time Cal. Delay Standard Std. Set Std. Expected
Run number Run date/time Direction (PWS1 = z; PWS2 = y) Core temperature Raw data collected flag (yes/no) Transducer separation Measured time Cal. date/time Cal. delay Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3)
Table 69
PWS1 or PWS2 calibration data (to be implemented).

Description Cal. date/time Cal. run number Water temperature Velocity of water at given temperature. Measured time Delay time derived from calibration. Transducer frequency Comments Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Database [PWS1/2 Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWS1/2 Calibration] run_number [PWS1/2 Calibration] water_temperature [PWS1/2 Calibration] standard_velocity [PWS1/2 Calibration Data] measured_time [PWS1/2 Calibration Data] delay [PWS1/2 Calibration Data] freq [PWS1/2 Calibration Data] comments [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value
Short description Date/Time Run Water Temperature Velocity Time Delay Frequency Comments Standard Std. Set Std. Expected
613
Table 610 PWS1 or PWS2 wave form data (to be implemented).

Short description Sample ID Measurement Voltage Time Description ODP standard sample designation Measurement number Voltage Time Database [PWS1/2 Raw Data] measurement_no [PWS1/2 Raw Data] voltage [PWS1/2 Raw Data] time
Table 611 PWS1 or PWS2 wave form control 1 data (to be implemented).
Short description Date/Time Voltage Time Description Run date/time Voltage Time Database [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1] run_date_time [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1 Raw Data] voltage [PWS1/2 Ctrl 1 Raw Data] time
6.4. PWS3 Contact Probe System

EQ U I P ME N T
The current equipment has replaced the Hamilton Frame used on the ship since the beginning of ODP. The principles remain the same but the hardware and computer control have been improved significantly, and calibration and measurement procedures are simplified at this upgraded station. The PWS3 is equipped with a digital scale unit that allows rapid, precise determination of sample thickness and enters the value into the database. A pressure gauge is built into the monitor, and pressure is applied to the sample when lowering the transducer onto the specimen or split core in the liner. In the split core (logging) mode, the core section liner rests on the bottom transducer and the upper transducer is lowered manually (procedure to be automated soon) onto the core surface. In the specimen mode, the sample is placed directly between the two transducers in the desired orientation.
CALIBRAT IO N Delay
This calibration procedure is equivalent to the one employed for the P-wave logger on the MST. Delay time tdelay is obtained by measuring a standard material of different thicknesses d1, d2, . . . dn, and total transit times t1, t2, . . . tn. The coefficient m0 (intercept) obtained from a linear least-squares fit represents the delay tdelay. The inverse of the coefficient m1 (slope) of that regression is the velocity of the standard material.
PERFORM ANCE
No performance evaluation data exist at present.
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MEASUREMEN T
An on-line guide is available at the neasurement station.
Table 612 PWS3 database model.

PWS3 section pws_id [PK1] section_id run_num run_date_time system_id pws_calibration_id direction core_temperature liner_correction raw_data_collected standard_liner_id PWS3 section data pws_id [PK1] [FK] pp_top_interval [PK2] measurement_no [PK3] pp_bottom_interval transducer_separation measured_time contact_pressure liner_thickness PWS3 raw data pws_id [PK1] [FK] pp_top_interval [PK2] [FK] measurement_no [PK3] [FK] voltage [PK4] time PWS3 control 1 pws_ctrl_1_id [PK1] run_num run_date_time system_id standard_id pws_calibration_id direction core_temperature standard_liner_id raw_data_collected transducer_separation measured_time contact_pressure liner_thickness PWS3 calibration pws_calibration_id [PK1] calibration_date_time run_number system_id delay_1_over_m1 delay_m0 delay_mse freq comments
PWS3 calibration data pws_calibration_id [PK1] [FK] standard_id [PK2] [FK] transducer_separation measured_time contact_pressure
PWS3 control 1 raw data pws_ctrl_1_id [PK1] [FK] voltage [PK2] time
Notes: Control 1 measurements are run like core measurements, using a standard of known velocity.
Standard Queries
Table 613 PWS3 report.
Short description A: Results Sample ID Depth Velocity Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type IF (liner_correction = TRUE) Database Link through [PWS3 Section] section_id Link through [PWS3 Section] section_id = ([PWS3 Section Data] transducer_separation - [PWS3 Section Data] liner_thickness) / ([PWS3 Section Data] measured_time - [PWS3 Section Data] liner_thickness / [PP Std Data] liner_velocity} - [PWS3 Calibration] delay_m0) = ([PWS3 Section Data] transducer_separation / ([PWS3 Section Data] measured_time
Velocity
IF (liner_correction =FALSE)
615
Table 613 PWS3 report.

- [PWS3 Calibration] delay_m0) B (optional): Measurement parameters and raw data Run Run number Date/Time Run date/time Direction Direction (PWS1 = z; PWS2 = y) Core Temp Core temperature Liner Corr. Liner correction required (yes/no) Raw Data Raw data collected flag (yes/no) Standard Standard name Std. Set Standard set name Std. Expected Expected value (range) (g/cm3) Meas. No Separation Time Pressure Liner Thick Cal. Date/Time Cal. m0 Cal. 1/m1 Cal. Time mse Measurement number Transducer separation Measured time Contact pressure applied Liner thickness Cal. date/time Cal. time intercept m0 Cal. time inverse of slope 1/m1 Cal. time mean squared error [PWS3 Section] run_number [PWS3 Section] run_date_time [PWS3 Section] direction [PWS3 Section] core_temperature [PWS3 Section] liner_correction [PWS3 Section] raw_data_collected [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value [PWS3 Section Data] measurement_no [PWS3 Section Data] transducer_separation [PWS3 Section Data] measured_time [PWS3 Section Data] contact pressure [PWS3 Section Data] liner thickness [PWS3 Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWS3 Calibration] delay_m0 [PWS3 Calibration] delay_1_over_m1 [PWS3 Calibration] delay_mse
Table 614 PWS3 control 1 measurements (to be implemented).

Short description Velocity Description IF (liner_correction = TRUE) Database = ([PWS3 Ctrl 1] transducer_separation - [PWS3 Ctrl 1] liner_thickness) / ([PWS3 Ctrl 1] measured_time - [PWS3 Ctrl 1] liner_thickness / [PP Std Data] liner_velocity} - [PWS3 Calibration] delay_m0) = ([PWS3 Ctrl 1] transducer_separation / ([PWS3 Ctrl 1] measured_time - [PWS3 Calibration] delay_m0) [PWS3 Ctrl 1] run_number [PWS3 Ctrl 1] run_date_time [PWS3 Ctrl 1] direction [PWS3 Ctrl 1] core_temperature [PWS3 Ctrl 1] liner_correction [PWS3 Ctrl 1] raw_data_collected [PWS3 Ctrl 1] transducer_separation [PWS3 Ctrl 1] measured_time [PWS3 Section Data] contact pressure [PWS3 Section Data] liner thickness [PWS3 Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWS3 Calibration] delay_m0 [PWS3 Calibration] delay_1_over_m1 [PWS3 Calibration] delay_mse [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value
Velocity
IF (liner_correction =FALSE)
Run Date/Time Direction Core Temperature Liner Correction Raw Data Separation Time Pressure Liner Thick Cal. Date/Time Cal. m0 Cal. 1/m1 Cal. Time mse Standard Std. Set Std. Expected
Run number Run date/time Direction (PWS1 = z; PWS2 = y) Core temperature Liner correction required (yes/no) Raw data collected flag (yes/no) Transducer separation Measured time Contact pressure applied Liner thickness Cal. date/time Cal. time intercept m0 Cal. time inverse of slope 1/m1 Cal. time mean squared error Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3)
Table 615 PWS3 calibration data (to be implemented).

Short description Date/Time Run Cal. m0 Description Cal. date/time Cal. run number Cal. time intercept m0 Database [PWS3 Calibration] calibration_date_time [PWS3 Calibration] run_number [PWS3 Calibration] delay_m0
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Table 615 PWS3 calibration data (to be implemented).

Cal. 1/m1 Cal. Time mse Frequency Comments Separation Time Pressure Standard Std. Set Std. Expected Cal. time inverse of slope 1/m1 Cal. time mean squared error Transducer frequency Comments Transducer separation Measured time Contact pressure Standard name Standard set name Expected value (range) (g/cm3) [PWS3 Calibration] delay_1_over_m1 [PWS3 Calibration] delay_mse [PWS3 Calibration] freq [PWS3 Calibration] comments [PWS3 Calibration Data] transducer_separation [PWS3 Calibration Data] measured_time [PWS3 Calibration Data] contact_pressure [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_name [Phys. Properties Std.] standard_set_name [Phys. Prop. Std. Data] property_value
Table 616 PWS3 wave form data (to be implemented).

Column Head Sample ID Measurement Voltage Time Description ODP standard sample designation Measurement number Voltage Time Database [PWS3 Raw Data] measurement_no [PWS3 Raw Data] voltage [PWS3 Raw Data] time
Table 617 PWS3 wave form control 1 data (to be implemented).

Short description Date/Time Voltage Time Description Run date/time Voltage Time Database [PWS3 Ctrl 1] run_date_time [PWS3 Ctrl 1 Raw Data] voltage [PWS3 Ctrl 1 Raw Data] time
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7. REFLECTANCE SPECTROPHOTOMETRY AND COLORIMETRY

7.1. Principles
PHYS I C A L B A CK GROU N D
Color is the human eyes perception of reected radiation in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum (400700 nm). It originates from electromagnetic energy changes in electron orbitals, caused by the absorption of photons, in the transition elements contained in the crystal structure of minerals (e.g., Burns, 1970). One of the most objective ways to measure color is to use diffuse-reected spectrophotometry. Light reected from the material is collected in an integration sphere, normalized to the source light of the reectance, and calibrated with the measurement of a pure white standard (100% reection) and a black box (zero reection) over the entire wavelength spectrum of visible light. For material studies, near-ultraviolet (250400 nm) and near-infrared (700850 nm) have been shown to be useful. Reectance spectra are related to color using established international conventions. According to the Commission Internationale d'Eclairage (CIE) (1986) method, tristimulus values are derived from the color reectance spectra as follows: For 2 standard observer (CIE, 1931) and 400 700 (nm): (1) X = K S() x() R(), (2) Y = K S() y() R(), (3) Z = K S() z() R(), (4) K = 100/ S() y(). (5) For 10 standard observer (CIE 1964) and 400 700 (nm): (6) X10 = K S() x10() R(), (7) Y10 = K S() y10() R(), Z10 = K S() z10() R(), K = 100/ S() y10(), (8) (9) (10)
where is the wavelength at a 10-nm pitch; S() is the relative spectral power distribution of the illuminant; x(), x10(), y(), y10(), z(), and z10() are colormatching functions; and R() is the spectral reectance of the specimen.
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Several color spaces have been dened based on the tristimulus values X, Y, Z, such as the Yxy, L*a*b* and its derivative L*C*H, Lab, and L*u*v* systems. The L*a*b* system is presented here in more detail, and its use is recommended for sediment and rock color analyses. It is far superior to and therefore supersedes the Munsell color system traditionally used in earth science.
The L*a*b* Color System
The L*a*b* system is also referred to as the CIELAB system. It can be visualized as a cylindrical coordinate system in which the axis of the cylinder is the lightness variable L*, ranging from 0% to 100%, and the radii are the chromaticity variables a* and b*. Variable a* is the green (negative) to red (positive) axis, and variable b* is the blue (negative) to yellow (positive) axis. The variables are dened as follows (CIE, 1986; related references: ASTM, 1985a; ASTM, 1985b; ISO, 1984; DIN, 1980): If (X/Xn), (Y/Yn), (Z/Zn) > 0.008856: L* + 116(Y/Yn)1/3 - 16, a* = 500[(X/Xn)1/3 - (Y/Yn)1/3], b* = 200[(Y/Yn)1/3 - (Z/Zn)1/3]. If (X/Xn), (Y/Yn), (Z/Zn) < 0.008856: L* + 903.29(Y/Yn), a* = 500{7.787[(X/Xn) + 16/116] - 7.787[(Y/Yn) + 16/116]}, b* = 200{7.787[(Y/Yn) + 16/116] - 7.787[(Z/Zn) + 16/116]}, (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)
where X, Y, and Z are tristimulus values for the 2 or 10 observer of the specimen, and Xn, Yn, and Zn are tristimulus values for the 2 or 10 observer of a perfect reecting diffuser.
Derived Parameters
Various standard parameters can be calculated from the L*a*b* system variables. If L*, a*, b* are the specimen data, and L*t, a*t, b*t are the target color data, differences are dened as: L* = L* - L*t' a* = a* - a*t' b* = b* - b*t , and the color difference between two points is E*ab = [(L*)2 + (a*)2 + (b*)2]1/2. (20) (17) (18) (19)
In the L*C*H system, the metric chroma parameter, C*, and the metric hue-angle, H, are dened as: C* = [(a*)2 + (b*)2]1/2 H = tan
1(b*/a*)
(21) (22) (23)
(degrees), 0 H 360.
Differences between specimen and target color are L* = L* - L*t' C* = C* - C*t, = [(a*)2 + (b*)2]1/2 [(at*)2 + (bt*)2]1/2,
(24)
and the metric hue difference, H*, between two points is dened as H* = [(E*ab)2 - (L*)2 + (C*)2]1/2 = [(a*)2 - (b*)2 + (C*)2]1/2 (25)
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Munsell Colors
There is no international standard for converting tristimulus values to Munsell HVC (hue, value, and chroma) notation. Tables have been established to relate Munsell colors to Yxy data, and the L*C*H parameters can be related to Munsell colors using such tables. Interpolation is used if necessary to approximate values not available in the tables. The use of Munsell colors has many disadvantages: different conditions of illumination and viewing angle and variability in human eyes response and sensitivity. It is a procedure that is neither highly objective nor can the data be analyzed quantitatively. Munsell color classification should therefore not be used.
EN VIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Measuring Color of Split-Core Surfaces

Measuring split-core surfaces poses some potential problems affecting the measurement: moisture, or uncontrolled drying of the material, surface roughness, particle size, oxidation, and use of protective plastic wrap. Cores are split with a wire if they are soft enough, and with a saw once wire cutting is no longer effective. The problem is that wire cuts of very soft sediment and quite stiff sediment from farther downhole may create different surface roughnesses. This can affect color reflectance significantly. The problem is mostly solved by cleaning the core surface with a sharp edge such as a knife blade or glass slide. The process is tedious and time-consuming, however. Moisture content affects color reflectance significantly. Automated shipboard measurements at very small sampling intervals require that the material is measured at whatever moisture content is present. Both uncontrolled drying and oxidation that begin as soon as the core is split lighten material characterized by organic matter or iron compounds. The oxidation of iron compounds also tends to increase reflectance, particularly at the red end of the spectrum. Unfortunately, it cannot be assumed that the changes caused by drying or oxidation are uniform over the entire spectrum of visible light. Absolute spectral characteristics for sediment and rock colors must therefore be established with dry powders. There is no practical solution to the discrepancy between dry and wet material measurement, and it must be accepted as the inherent analytical error. To keep the variation as systematic as possible, it is a good practice to take color measurements at constant periods after the core has been split, such as about 1 hr. Nagao and Nakashima (1991) examined the difference between wet and dry measurements of marine cores in L*a*b* color space. They found that for typical pelagic sediment of the uppermost meter below seafloor, L* is up to 20% higher in dried specimens and a* and b* are higher by approximately 1. Fortunately, however, color parameter profiles, such as L*a*b*, do not change their character as a function of moisture content (Nagao and Nakashima, 1992). These authors also examined and discussed the effects of grain size, addition of water to dried samples, and oxidation. They concluded that L* values are controlled mainly by
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water content with a small grain-size and homogenization effect; a* and b* values are controlled by water content, oxidation of greenish materials, and grain size. Pore-water composition may have an effect, as shown by the difference in measurements of samples remolded with pure water from original values. Balsam et al. (1997) performed factor analyses on spectral data from Leg 155 cores obtained with the shipboard Minolta CM-2002 on wet split cores and with a Perkin-Elmer Lambda 6 on corresponding dried and powdered samples. Shipboard data yield a four-factor solution to explain 99% of the cumulative variance, whereas shore-based data produced at least seven interpretable factors to explain 99% of the cumulative variance. The four factors identified in the ship data are also present in the shore data. This and other statistics indicate that measurements from dried sediments are significantly more sensitive to subtle variations in the data set than measurements on wet cores, which appear to contain less information. However, differences in instrumentation and the fact that wet cores were measured through a film of Saran Wrap may also have affected the sensitivity of these measurements.
USE OF COLOR D ATA

The two most common uses of color reflectance data are (1) color parameters such as L*a*b* provide detailed time series of relative changes in the composition of the bulk material and are frequently used to correlate sections from core to core or hole to hole and to analyze the cyclicity of lithologic changes; and (2) spectral data can be used to estimate the abundance of certain compounds. The first type of investigation, referred to as colorimetry, is simple and straightforward. Spectral analysis of visual light spectra (VIS) provides semiquantitative estimates of hematite and goethite with a sensitivity that is at least 1 order of magnitude better than from XRD analysis (Deaton and Balsam, 1991). Carbonate, opal, organic matter, chlorite, and some combinations of clay minerals can also be detected, although near-ultraviolet (NUV) and near-infrared (NIR) data (which cannot be obtained with the Minolta CM-2002) should or must be included for at least some of these analysis (Balsam and Deaton, 1991, 1996; Nakashima et al., 1992; Balsam and Wolhart, 1993; Balsam and Otto-Bliesner, 1995). The spectra of marine sediments are typically smooth and show small peaks and valleys. A common statistical method to enhance relative changes is to use the first derivative of the measurement intervals. This boundary hunting method reveals the maximum rate of change in the original spectrum or the shoulders of the original absorption peaks, which occur at characteristic wavelengths. The added advantage of using first derivatives is that problems inherent in core surface measurement (moisture, oxidation, use of plastic wrap, surface texture and grain size, etc.) or the difference between measurements using different instruments (Balsam et al., 1997) are minimized. Yet, several effects must be considered when using first derivatives for quantitative estimation: matrix composition has a severe effect on peak height and the exact wavelength of a peak depends on the concentration of a component (Deaton and Balsam, 1991; Balsam and Wolhart, 1993) and the grain size of a component may influence the reflectivity and absolute band intensity (Gaffey, 1986).
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Results from many ODP legs have shown that the correlation between L* and carbonate content is usually the best and most obvious one and also is similar at many sites. Parameters a* and b* do not seem to yield much characteristic information or cyclic variations. They are, however, sensitive to clay mineralogy, nannofossil content, etc. Ratios such as a*/b*, or parameters of the L*C*H system, may distinguish these variations better than a* and b*.
7.2. Minolta CM-2002 System

EQ U I P ME N T
The Minolta Photospectrometer CM-2002 is a compact, hand-held instrument for measuring the spectral reflectance of surfaces with a diameter of more than 8 mm. The instrument combines measurement, data processing, and display functions in a single unit. Ultracompact spectral sensors developed by Minolta, hybrid IC analog circuitry, and a 32-bit, 16-MHz microcomputer provide high-speed, high-accuracy measurements of spectral reflectance from 400 to 700 nm. To ensure accuracy, the CM-2002 uses a double-beam feedback system, monitoring the illumination on the specimen at the time of measurement and automatically compensating for any changes in the intensity or spectral distribution of the light. Objects are illuminated diffusely with a pulsed xenon arc light and viewed at an 8 angle to the normal to the objects surface (standard observer, Commission Internationale d'Eclairage, CIE). The width of the viewing beam is 7.4. This geometry meets the specification for diffuse illumination and 0 viewing angle (CIE, 1986) as well as the specification for diffuse illumination and 8 viewing angle (ISO, 1984; DIN, 1980). In addition, the instruments geometry and design allow for the specular component to be included (SCI setting) or to be excluded (SCE setting). The SCE setting is the recommended mode of operation for sediments in which the light reflected at a certain angle (angle of specular reflection) is trapped and absorbed at the light trap position on the integration sphere. Specular reflectance is perfect reflectance, or glare, and including it provides a better estimate of color as seen by the human eye. However, glare does not contribute to the spectrum, and Minolta recommends the SCE setting for general purposes (the SCI setting is useful for color mixing or computer color matching). Also, the SCE setting is favored for comparison with laboratory data based only on diffuse light (Balsam et al., 1997). Light reflected from the surface of the specimen at an angle of 8 to the normal enters the optical fiber cable and is transmitted to spectral sensor 1. At the same time, the light inside the integration sphere illuminating the specimen is transmitted to spectral sensor 2. The light from each optical fiber cable is divided by wavelength at a 10-nm pitch (400700 nm) before striking the segments of the silicon photodiode array of the spectral sensors. The sensors convert the light into electrical currents proportional to the intensity of the light. The currents are then passed to the analog control circuits and converted into digital signals.
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Measurements can be calculated based on either the 2 or 10 standard observer and any of 11 illuminants (CIE standard illuminants A, C, D50, and D65 and fluorescent illuminants F2, F6, F7, F8, F10, F11, and F12). Measurement results can then be displayed in a variety of ways: graphically as spectral reflectance or color difference, or as numerical absolute and/or difference values for XYZ, Yxy, L*a*b*, L*C*H, Hunter Lab, or L*u*v* color spaces; metamerism index, Munsell notation; CMC (2:1) or (1:1); FMC-2; whiteness index (ASTM E 313 or CIE); or yellowness index (ASTM D 1925 or ASTM E 313). The standard output for the ODP database includes the full, 31-channel spectra, X, Y, Z; L*a*b* parameters; and Munsell notation. Do not expose this instrument to heat > 55C (e.g., lights, direct sunlight) or magnetic fields (e.g., speakers).
CALIBRAT IO N Loading Calibration Data

A white ceramic attachment (cap) is supplied with the Minolta CM-2002 as a standard accessory. The cap is a transfer calibration standard that was factorycalibrated over 31 intervals of 10-nm length between 400 and 700 nm against the primary standard consisting of pressed BaSO4 (ISO 7724/2) at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom. The calibration coefficients from this primary calibration are supplied with the Minolta CM-2002 memory card. When a new camera or standard is purchased, the calibration data must be loaded by installing the new memory card. The data remain in memory until they are changed. The life time of the lithium battery on the memory card is approximately 2 years.
Zero Calibration
Zero calibration is performed to compensate for the effects of stray light owing to the flare characteristics of the optical system. Flare characteristics may change over time because of dust, stains, etc., in the optical system. In addition, zero calibration may also eliminate variations resulting from changes in ambient or internal temperature. At the time of shipment, zero calibration data measured by Minolta are stored in an EEPROM in the CM-2002. These data should be updated routinely. The calibration is performed by removing the protective cap or any other attachment from the aperture and aiming the aperture into the air so that no objects are within 1 m and no light source is aimed at. A zero-calibration box can also be used, but it is not available on the ship. Zero calibration must be performed under the same conditions as the measurements are taken (SCE setting, ambient temperature, etc.). Zero-calibration data will remain in memory even if the power is switched off. If a zero calibration is performed it must be followed immediately by a white calibration.
White Calibration
The white calibration sets the maximum reflectance to 100%. Each time the camera is switched on, or after a zero calibration has been performed, white calibration must be performed before measurements are taken. In addition, changes in ambient or internal temperature may affect the accuracy of the
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measurement. The white calibration should therefore be performed regularly, meaning every few hours if the instrument is used around the clock. White calibration must be performed under the same conditions as the measurements are taken (SCE setting, ambient temperature, etc.). The calibration data for the cap have been obtained at temperatures of 23 1C. For highest accuracy, the instrument should always be operated at this temperature. Do not apply plastic wrap to the standard. Although this may make relative sense on the ship, such a calibration would not allow comparison with corresponding data obtained in other laboratories. Always cover the standard with a protective cap when not in use because the color may change, even in normal room light. The calibration standard can be cleaned with lens-cleaning fluid. Wipe the surface clean with a soft cloth moistened with water and let dry before use. If the white calibration cap becomes scratched or stained, a new standard must be purchased. In this case, the new calibration data must be loaded (refer to the preceding Loading Calibration Data section, and the manufacturers manual).
Calibration Procedure
Before measuring a new core: 1. Switch the instrument off and on. This brings you automatically to the calibration mode. 2. Remove any attachment from the aperture. Aim the aperture away from any light sources and at least 1 m away from any object (zero-calibration box should be available in the future). 3. Press ZERO CALIB. Wait until three measurements have been taken (three light flashes, ~10 s). The CM-2002 automatically returns to calibration mode. 4. Attach the white calibration cap. Do not cover the white calibration pad with the plastic wrap because this reduces its validity as a factory-calibrated transfer standard. 5. Press MEAS WHITE CALIB. Wait until three measurements have been taken (three light flashes, ~10 s). The CM-2002 automatically returns to MENU mode. 6. Select DATA OUT mode from the menu. This sets up the system for measurements controlled by the external computer. 7. It is recommended that a control measurement be taken with the white calibration cap on. 8. Remove the calibration cap and start core measurement. Automation of color measurements in the near future may allow semiautomatic calibration at the beginning of each core, and automatic control measurements would monitor drift at the beginning and the end of each section scan.
PERFORM ANCE Precision (repeatability)

Spectral reflectance: standard deviation within 0.1%. Chromaticity value: E*ab within 0.03.
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Accuracy
Accuracy depends strongly on the calibration routine. The error should be less than 1% if calibration is performed regularly. The calibration data for the white calibration cap were obtained at a temperature of 23 1C. For the highest accuracy, the instrument should always be operated at this temperature.
MEASUREMEN T
At present, the Minolta CM-2002 is operated manually, using an external datacapture program. Thus, data quality depends largely on the operator. 1. Perform a zero calibration followed by a white calibration before measuring a new core (see procedure in Calibration section). Perform zero and white calibrations at least once per shift (every 12 hr; see Calibration section). 2. Use a consistent time lag after core splitting for the color measurements; about 1 hr is standard. Surface moisture variations from splitting and subsequent exposure of the split surface are largest during the first half hour to hour. 3. Cover the split-core with GLAD Cling Wrap crystal clear polyethylene, which transmits light uniformly over the spectrum of visible light and has minimal effect on the spectra (Balsam et al., 1997). 4. Do not use the optional granular-materials cover (part CM-A40). 5. Exclude the specular component (SCE setting). Although the specular component, which is essentially glare, provides a better estimate of color as seen by the human eye, it does not contribute to the spectrum reflected from sediment. Using the SCE setting should reduce the effect of varying moisture on the core surface. 6. Set the number of measurements per position. One measurement per position is sufficiently precise, but three measurements are better. Dense sampling should not be compromised for multiple measurements. 7. Set the appropriate core identifier and sampling interval on the external computer program. 8. Take a control measurement using the white calibration attachment. The current program expects you to take a control measurement at the beginning and the end of a core, which are written to the data file. (The future program will write these measurements to a separate file.) 9. Set the photospectrometer gently on the split-core surface, and hold it orthogonal to the core surface. 10. Avoid measuring cracks because the measurement result will be useless and will degrade the value of the color profile. 11. Press the measurement button and wait until a flash occurs. 12. Set the instrument at the next interval; the program increments the prespecified interval automatically. 13. Take another control measurement when the core is measured. 14. Repeat steps 2 through 12. 15. Regularly clean the protective glass cover on the aperture.
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DATA SPECIFICATIONS Spectralog Output File

Spectralog is the original ODP data acquisition program for the Minolta CM-2002 which outputs the spectral measurements as well as scores of calculated parameters. The list below shows the ODP-customized Spectralog output, consisting of space-delimited records written to one file per hole. Column headers are not written by that program. During past legs, the output has produced three columns at the end of the file which are not defined.
Table 71
Spectralog (expected) output.

Description Leg Site Hole Core Core type Section Interval top (cm) Interval bottom (cm) Empty for depth Calculated L* Calculated a* Calculated b* Calculated Munsell hue-value/chroma 395405 nm bin 405415 nm bin 415425 nm bin etc. 695705 nm bin Undefined value Undefined value Undefined value Output file designation [Spectralog 1-4] leg [Spectralog 8-11] site [Spectralog 13] hole [Spectralog 15-17] core [Spectralog 19] core_type [Spectralog 21-22] section_or_std [Spectralog 24-28] interval_top [Spectralog 30-34] interval_bottom [Spectralog 36-42] [Spectralog] l_star [Spectralog] a_star [Spectralog] b_star [Spectralog] munsell_hvc [Spectralog] 395405_nm [Spectralog] 405415_nm [Spectralog] 415425_nm etc. [Spectralog] 695-705_nm
Short description Leg Site Hole Core Core type Section Top Bottom (Depth) L* a* b* Munsell HVC 395-405 405415 415425 ... 695705
The Spectralog program is being replaced by an updated version which will also acquire the tristimulus values X, Y, Z. The database model is designed accordingly.
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Database Model
Table 72 RSC database model
RSC Control standard_id [PK1] [FK] leg [PK2] [FK] rsc_run_num [PK3] [FK] RSC Run leg [PK1] [FK] rsc_run_num [PK2] rsc_num_meas rsc_run_date_time rsc_calib_date_time RSC Run Data leg [PK1] [FK] rsc_run_num [PK2] [FK] top_interval [PK3] bottom_interval rsc_cielab_l_star rsc_cielab_a_star rsc_cielab_b_star rsc_height rsc_height_assumed_flag rsc_munsell_hvc rsc_tristimulus_x rsc_tristimulus_y rsc_tristimulus_z rsc_first_channel rsc_last_channel rsc_channel_increment rsc_spectra RSC Calibration rsc_calib_date_time [PK1] rsc_comment rsc_illumination_condition rsc_num_meas rsc_observer_angle rsc_reflectance_corr rsc_specular_status rsc_zero_calib_flag system_id
RSC Section section_id [PK1] [FK] leg [PK2] [FK] rsc_run_num [PK3] [FK]
Standard Queries
Table 73 RSC report.
Short description Description Database A: Colorimetry results Sample ID ODP standard sample designation Link through [RSC Section] section_id Depth User-selected depth type Link through [RSC Section] section_id L* First L*a*b* parameter [RSC Run Data] rsc_cielab_l_star a* Second L*a*b* parameter [RSC Run Data] rsc_cielab_a_star b* Third L*a*b* parameter [RSC Run Data] rsc_cielab_b_star Munsell Munsell hue, value, chroma [RSC Run Data] rsc_munsell_hvc X Tristimulus value X [RSC Run Data] rsc_tristimulus_x Y Tristimulus value Y [RSC Run Data] rsc_tristimulus_y Z Tristimulus value Z [RSC Run Data] rsc_tristimulus_z B (optional): Spectral results Spectrum String of 31 spectral reflectance values (% intensity) [RSC Run Data] rsc_spectra C (optional): Measurement parameters Run Run number on a leg [RSC Run] rsc_run_number Date/time Run data and time [RSC Run] rsc_run_date_time No. of Meas. Number of measurements for each data point [RSC Run] rsc_num_meas Cal. date/time Date and time of last calibration [RSC Run] rsc_calib_date_time Height Distance between aperture and core surface [RSC Run Data] rsc_height First lambda Wavelength of first channel [RSC Run Data] rsc_first_channel Last lambda Wavelength of last channel [RSC Run Data] rsc_last_channel Increment lambda Wavelength increment between channels [RSC Run Data] rsc_channel_increment
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Table 74
RSC control 1 data (to be implemented).
Short description Description Database Run Run number on a leg [RSC Run] rsc_run_number Date/time Run data and time [RSC Run] rsc_run_date_time No. of Meas. Number of measurements for each data point [RSC Run] rsc_num_meas Cal. date/time Date and time of last calibration [RSC Run] rsc_calib_date_time Height Distance between aperture and core surface [RSC Run Data] rsc_height First lambda Wavelength of first channel [RSC Run Data] rsc_first_channel Last lambda Wavelength of last channel [RSC Run Data] rsc_last_channel Increment lambda Wavelength increment between channels [RSC Run Data] rsc_channel_increment L* First L*a*b* parameter [RSC Run Data] rsc_cielab_l_star a* Second L*a*b* parameter [RSC Run Data] rsc_cielab_a_star b* Third L*a*b* parameter [RSC Run Data] rsc_cielab_b_star Munsell Munsell hue, value, chroma [RSC Run Data] rsc_munsell_hvc X Tristimulus value X [RSC Run Data] rsc_tristimulus_x Y Tristimulus value Y [RSC Run Data] rsc_tristimulus_y Z Tristimulus value Z [RSC Run Data] rsc_tristimulus_z Spectrum String of 31 spectral reflectance values (% intensity) [RSC Run Data] rsc_spectra
Table 75
RSC calibration data (to be implemented).

Description Calibration date and time Number of measurements for each data point Illumination type/condition Number of measurements averaged Observer angle Reflectance correction applied or not Specular components measured or not Zero (black) calibration performed or not Database [RSC Calib] rsc_calib_date_time [RSC Calib] rsc_comment [RSC Calib] rsc_illumination_condition [RSC Calib] rsc_num_meas [RSC Calib] rsc_observer_anglel [RSC Calib] rsc_reflectance_corr [RSC Calib] rsc_specular_status [RSC Calib] rsc_zero_calib_flag
Short description Date/time Comments Illumination No. of Meas. Observer angle Correction Specular Zero calib.
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8. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
8.1. Principles
PHYS I C A L B A CK G ROU N D
The coefcient of thermal conductivity, k [W/(mK)], is a measure of the rate q (W) at which heat ows through a material. It is the coefcient of heat transfer across a steady-state temperature difference (T2 T1) over a distance (x2 x1), or q = k (T/x). (1) Thermal conductivity can be measured by transient heating of a material with a known heating power generated from a source of known geometry and measuring the temperature change with time. The method assumes isotropic materials. Theoretical discussion for measuring thermal conductivity with cylindrical sources is found in Blackwell (1954), Carslaw and Jaeger (1959), De Vries et al. (1958), Von Herzen and Maxwell (1959), Kristiansen (1982), and Vacquier (1985). For a full-space needle probe, the length L can be assumed to be innite and the problem is reduced to two dimensions. Given the resistance R of a looped wire in a needle, the generated heat is q = 2 i2 R / L, (2)
where R/L is the resistance of the needle per unit length. At any time t after heating has started, the temperature T is related to the thermal conductivity k by T = (q / 4k) ln(t) + C, (3) where q is the heat input per unit length and unit time and C is a constant. A simple way of calculating the thermal conductivity coefcient k is picking T1 and T2 at times t1 and t2, respectively, from the temperature versus time measurement curve (see also ASTM, 1993): ka(t) = q / 4 [ln(t2) - ln(t1)] / (T2 - T1). ka(t) is the apparent thermal conductivity because the true conductivity, k, is approached only by a sufciently large heating duration. This method assumes that the measurement curve is linear and ignores the imperfections of the experiment expressed in the constant C. In practice, the correct choice of a time interval is difcult. During the early stage of heating, the source temperature is affected by the contact resistance between the source and the surrounding material. During the later stage of heating, boundary effects of the nite length of the source affect the measurement. The position of the optimum interval generally differs from measurement to measurement. The two systems presently available on the ship employ different procedures to select the time interval: the older Thermcon-85 system relies on operator judgment based on visual examination of the ln(t) vs. T plot; the newer TK04 system uses an (4)
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algorithm that automatically finds the optimal time interval (Erbas, 1985). More information is provided about each in the following sections.
EN VIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
In situ thermal conductivity is a function of in situ temperature and pressure conditions. Corrections may be applied to laboratory measurements on cores, based on in situ information and theoretical and empirical relationships. Data in the ODP database are not corrected for in situ conditions.
USE OF THERMAL CONDUC TIVITY

Thermal conductivity is an intrinsic material property for which the values depend on the chemical composition, porosity, density, structure, and fabric of the material (e.g., Jumikis, 1966). In marine geophysics, mainly thermal conductivity profiles of sediment and rock sections are used, along with temperature measurements, to determine heat flow. Heat flow is not only characteristic of the material, but an indicator of type and age of ocean crust and fluid circulation processes at shallow and great depths.
8.2. Thermcon-85 System

EQ U I P ME N T
The Thermcon-85 system consists of the following components: Thermcon-85 unit, calibrated needle probes, personal computer, TC-PC control and data reduction program, and calibration file for TC-PC. The Thermcon-85 unit was purchased from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. It is under the control of PROM-based programming, and an RS-232 serial interface is available. One to five needle probes can be connected to the rear panel. An eight-channel multiplexer selects the appropriate input for each measurement. See the Thermcon-85 manual for more details. The needle probes are either assembled at ODP or purchased preassembled. In either case, they contain factory-calibrated thermistors. The TC-PC program was developed at ODP in 1991 using Quick Basic (v. 4.5) and runs on a PC clone. The following programs are involved: TCMENU: controls the overall data acquisition process; COLLECT: communicates with the Thermcon-85; performs drift study; collects raw data and writes raw data file; monitors bad data conditions (warnings not written to data file);
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PROCESS: allows selection of probe positions; allows for optional correction for temperature drift at drift study termination; allows selection of optimal interval; reduces the raw data and calculates thermal conductivity; writes to a results file; and PROBES: used to enter thermistor calibration coefficients for new probes and secondary probe calibration constants into the PROBES.DAT file. The user normally runs TCMENU. Interaction with the COLLECT and PROCESS programs is accomplished via menu selection. The calibration data must be entered into the PROBES.DAT file when appropriate.
CALIBRAT IO N Power Supply, Digital Volt Meter, and Heater Current Needle Probe Resistance
Calibration must be periodically performed by an ODP Electronics Technician. Refer to the Thermcon-85 manual for details.
The thermistors in each needle probe are calibrated at the factory over a range of temperatures (usually 15 to 75C) and fit to an equation of the form T-1 = alpha + beta ln(R) + gamma (ln(R))3, (5)
where T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin, R is the thermistor resistance in ohms, and alpha, beta, and gamma are constants. The error in this procedure is far smaller than the general uncertainty in thermal conductivity measurements. The constants are available to the data reduction program and are used for conversion of measured resistance into temperature. Electronics Technicians are responsible for entering the constants of a new resistor into the program. Do not attempt to recalibrate the thermistorsa specialized facility is required.
Needle Probe Secondary Calibration
ODP procedure with the Thermcon-85 system includes a calibration of each needle probe using standard materials of known thermal conductivity values (Table 81). These values were established on Legs 127, 129, and 131 and on subsequent legs using this same instrument. This calibration should be viewed as a relative one that makes ODP shipboard data a little more consistent. Table 81 Standard materials used for calibrations and control measurements.
Thermal conductivity [W/(mK)] 0.54 0.96 1.61
Standard material Black rubber Red rubber Macor
The standard measurements must be entered into a separate spreadsheet and the liner coefficients (slope, intercept) determined. The coefficients are then entered into the PROBES.DAT file using the PROBES program utility. The thermal conductivity values returned by the PC-TC program are subsequently corrected using these coefficients.
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PERFORM ANCE Precision Accuracy MEASUREMEN T

1. Bring cores to temperature equilibrium (about 4 hr). Hard-rock specimens should be placed in a water bath to equilibrate. 2. Soft sediment: drill holes into core liner. Also drill a small hole in semiconsolidated sediment if necessary. Apply thermal joint compound if necessary. Insert full-space probes carefully into sediment. Rocks: prepare smooth surface on a split-core specimen at least 5 cm long. Treat the needles gently, and store them properly when not in use. 3. Insert one probe into a standard material for a control measurement, to be used for later corrections if necessary. 4. Start the TCMENU program and follow the prompts for parameters. Default values are provided for each prompt. 5. Press the reset button on the Thermcon-85 unit to start the drift study. After a couple of minutes, the drift data will be displayed. The drift study is performed in phases of 25 minutes, the maximum time the box can be programmed. The drift study is terminated if all positions are equilibrated or if the user overrides the drift study. 6. Press the reset button twice to start the process of heating, data acquisition, and creation of the raw data file. Messages will be displayed if there are data or hardware problems. 7. The user has the option of acquiring more data and processing batches of data later or processing the data collected immediately. It is recommended to process the data immediately. 8. Load the PROCESS program from the TCMENU screen. The run just completed will appear as the default run to be processed. Accept or change it. 9. Select the position to be processed and the drift correction. The ln(t) vs. T graph will be displayed. 10. Select the time interval to be processed by moving the cross hairs on the screen. For routine processing, use the same interval used for secondary probe calibration. Adjust if necessary. Press enter to calculate conductivity and the fit parameter. Warnings will come up if the nonlinear component is considered too large, the fit is poor, the segment is considered too short, etc. 11. Press enter twice to write the conductivity of a segment to the Results file. About 5%. (Systematic evaluation is required.) About 5%. (Systematic evaluation is required.)
DATA PROCESSING
Data reduction with the TC-PC program written for the Thermcon-85 system is based on a least-squares fit of the measured temperatures to the following equation, which is a variation of Equation XXX(107?): T = (q / 4k) ln(t) + At + B. (6)
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The constant A is the temperature drift rate (also including edge effect, asymmetry, nonzero epoxy conductivity, etc.) during measurement and is expressed in K/min. The constant B represents other imperfections in the experiment. The unknowns in this system are k, A, and B, so when more than three data pairs are acquired the system is overdetermined. Using the previous equation for the rate of heating, the coefficient k can be determined at any time increment dt as k = [2 i2 R / L dln(t)] / 4 (dT - At - B)], or k = (i R / 2L) [dln(t) / (dT)].
2
(7) (8)
The first group of terms in these equations is an instrument constant including generated heat and needle geometry. The second group of terms is calculated for each measurement. The optimum time segment for calculating thermal conductivity is selected interactively by the user by placing cross hairs on a ln(t) vs. T plot of the data. Information on the quality of the fit is updated on the screen as the cross-hairs are moved. The curve-fit parameter is the root mean square of the temperature deviation and should not exceed 0.04C/min. However, it is more important to choose a consistent sampling time than it is to reduce the drift as much as possible.
DATA SPECIFICATIONS TC-PC Output Files

At present, the TC-PC data are not integrated in the new ODP database. The following two program output files are archived: the Processed Data or Results (*.DAT) files and the Raw Data (*.TC) files. Data in the *.DAT files are fixed format, mixed string, and numeric, with one record (line) per position per TC run. If a given position on a run is not processed, then there is no entry in this file. However, if a given position is processed more than once, there are multiple lines in this file for that position. The file name is the hole identifier. Data in the *.RAW files are free-format in which each line represents an output string from the program. If a position was not used, some strings are omitted and some return zero values. The file name is a combination of hole ID and run number.
Table 82
TC-PC Processed Data file.

Description Leg Site Hole Core Core type Section Interval top (cm) Interval bottom (cm) Space model Run number Probe number Position number Uncorr. thermal conductivity. [W/(mK)] Data file designations [TC-PC Results 1-4] leg [TC-PC Results 8-11] site [TC-PC Results 13] hole [TC-PC Results 15-17] core [TC-PC Results 19] core_type [TC-PC Results 21-22] section_or_std [TC-PC Results 24-28] interval_top [TC-PC Results 30-34] interval_bottom [TC-PC Results 49] full_or_half [TC-PC Results 51-53] run_number [TC-PC Results 55-57] probe_number [TC-PC Results 59] position_number [TC-PC Results 61-67] calculated_tc
Short description Leg Site Hole Core Core type Section Top Bottom Space Run No. Probe Position TC uncorr.
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Table 82
TC corr. R2 Drift Lower end First time Upper end Last time Drift status T drift Drift rate Drift fit Run status Alpha Beta Gamma Resistance Half space Probe m1 Probe m0 Lower end Upper end Drift corr. Version Comment
TC-PC Processed Data file.

Corr. thermal conductivity. [W/(mK)] Standard error R2 Calculated drift (C/s) Lower end point used Time at lower end point (s) Upper end point used Time at upper end point (s) Drift study status Temp. at drift study termination (C) Drift rate at termination (C/s) Least-squares fit for drift Run status (NORMAL, ...) Probe alpha constant Probe beta constant Probe gamma constant Probe wire resistance (ohm/cm) Probe half-space flag (1 = true) Probe secondary calibration slope Probe secondary calibration intercept Upper end point, probe calibration (s) Lower end point, probe calibration (s) Drift correction status Version of TC-PC program Comment [TC-PC Results 69-75] corrected_tc [TC-PC Results 77-87] standard_error [TC-PC Results 89-97] calculated_drift [TC-PC Results 99-100] lower_end_point [TC-PC Results 102-104] time_at_first_point [TC-PC Results 106-107] upper_end_point [TC-PC Results 109-111] time_at_last_point [TC-PC Results 113-126] drift_status [TC-PC Results 128-132] drift_temperature [TC-PC Results 134-142] drift_rate [TC-PC Results 144-151] drift_fit [TC-PC Results 153-160] run_status [TC-PC Results 162-180] probe_alpha [TC-PC Results 182-200] probe_beta [TC-PC Results 202-220] probe_gamma [TC-PC Results 222-227] probe_wire_resistance [TC-PC Results 229-230] half_space_flag [TC-PC Results 232=238] probe_m1 [TC-PC Results 240-246] probe_m0 [TC-PC Results 248-250] time_at_first_point [TC-PC Results 252-254] time_at_last_point [TC-PC Results 256-268] drift_correction_status [TC-PC Results 270-274] tcpc_version [TC-PC Results 276-356] comment
Notes: The numbers following the file name (TC-PC Results . . .) are positions in the fixed-space format of the output file. Corrected thermal conductivity is corrected using the secondary probe calibration coefficients m1 and m0 obtained from standard measurements. Corrected thermal conductivity is added only if the user selects this option when specifying data reduction. If correction is not selected, the position numbers are reduced by 8 spaces starting with the Standard error field.
Table 83
TC-PC Raw Data file (free format).

Data file designations [TC-PC Raw 1] title [TC-PC Raw 2] run_number [TC-PC Raw 3] no_of_positions_length [TC-PC Raw 4] sample_id [TC-PC Raw 5] piece [TC-PC Raw 5] sub_piece [TC-PC Raw 7] full_or_half [TC-PC Raw 8] position_number [TC-PC Raw 9.1] probe_alpha [TC-PC Raw 9.2] probe_beta [TC-PC Raw 9.3] probe_gamma [TC-PC Raw 9.4] probe_wire_resistance [TC-PC Raw 9.5] half_space_flag [TC-PC Raw 9.6] probe_m1 [TC-PC Raw 9.7] probe_m0 [TC-PC Raw 9.8] time_at_first_point [TC-PC Raw 9.9] time_at_last_point [TC-PC Raw 10] comment [TC-PC Raw one line, two values] [TC-PC Raw one line, unlimited pairs] [TC-PC Raw one line, three values]
Short description Description Run parameters Title Title string Run Run number Positions No. of positions used; length (min.) Parameters for first position Sample ID ODP sample identification Piece Piece Subpiece Subpiece Space Space model Position no. Position number Alpha Probe alpha constant Beta Probe beta constant Gamma Probe gamma constant Resistance Probe wire resistance (ohm/cm) Half space Probe half-space flag (1 = half) Probe secondary calibr. slope Probe m1 Probe m0 Lower end Upper end Comment Probe secondary calibr. intercept Lower end point, probe calib. (s) Upper end point, probe calib. (s) Position-specific comment
Parameters repeated for other positionsa Drift time Drift: no. of readings; length(s) Drift study for first position Drift t-T String of time-temperature pairs Drift end Temp., rate., fit, at end of drift study Drift study repeated for other positionsb
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Table 83
TC-PC Raw Data file (free format).

[TC-PC Raw one line, one alpha string] [TC-PC Raw multiple lines, 3-8 values per line) [TC-PC Raw one line, one alpha string]
Drift status Drift status (OK; OVERRIDE) Data for positions 15 Data Cycle #; ref. volt; I1 to I5; current Data repeated for each meas. cyclec Run status Run status (NORMAL...)
aThe
Notes: probe parameters of lines 410 are written for subsequent positions only if the positions were used, otherwise the lines are omitted. bThe drift study data lines (two lines per position) are always written to the file regardless whether positions were used or not. If a position was not used, all values are zero. cData are written on one line for each measurement cycle. On each line, there are the following readings separated in time by 3 s (hard-coded in the program): (1) cycle number; (2) internal reference voltage; (3) to (7) up to five probe voltage readings (no reading for unused positions); (8) heater current. Total time for one cycle is (2 + <number of positions used>) times 3 s (2 stands for reference and heater current readings). It varies between 6 s (no position used) and 21 s (five positions used).
Database Model
Table 84
Database model
TCON probe proc. data tcon_id [PK1] [FK] tcon_probe_num [PK2] tcon_comment tcon_meas_calib_m0 tcon_meas_calib_m1 tcon_meas_calib_time_first tcon_meas_calib_time_last tcon_meas_drift_lsq_fit tcon_meas_drift_rate_final tcon_meas_drift_temp_final tcon_probe_alpha tcon_probe_beta tcon_probe_gamma tcon_probe_half_full tcon_probe_specific_res tcon_proc_drift_corr_flag tcon_proc_point_first tcon_proc_point_last tcon_proc_thermcon tcon_proc_time_first tcon_proc_time_last tcon_raw_drift_status tcon_raw_pos_num TCON run tcon_id [PK1] tcon_run_minutes tcon_run_number tcon_run_status
TCON section tcon_id [PK1] [FK] tcon_probe_num [PK2] [FK] top_interval bottom_interval section_id
TCON control tcon_id [PK1] [FK] tcon_probe_num [PK2] [FK] standard_id [PK3] [FK]
TCON cycle tcon_id [PK1] [FK] tcon_cycle_num [PK2] tcon_raw_heater_current tcon_raw_heater_curr_time tcon_raw_rel_voltage tcon_raw_rel_voltage_time
TCON drift raw data tcon_id [PK1] [FK] tcon_probe_num [PK2] [FK] tcon_raw_drift_time [PK3] tcon_raw_drift_temp
TCON probe cycle tcon_id [PK1] [FK] tcon_cycle_num [PK2] [FK] tcon_probe_num [PK3] tcon_raw_time tcon_raw_voltage
Standard Queries
The standard queries will be defined once the upload routine has been implemented.
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8.3. TK04 System

EQ U I P ME N T
ODP purchased the TK04 system in late 1995 and deployed it permanently on the ship on Leg 168 (1996). The system was to replace the ailing Thermcon-85 device, built at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) and in service on the ship for many years. Currently, both systems are available to the user on the ship. The TK04 was built by the Berlin company Teka based on an apparatus that had been developed at the Technische Universitt Berlin. It was used successfully for thousands of measurements on material from the Continental Deep Drilling Program (KTB). The TK04 consists of automatic self-test, heating, and measurement unit TK04, full-space (VLQ) and half-space (HLQ) needle probes, vice and manual hydraulic pump for half-space contact measurements on rocks, and Macor standards for both types of needle probes. The TK04 measuring system features a self-test at the beginning of each measuring cycle (including probe number validation), registration of the source temperature and its drift, and calculation of the heating power used. The following executable programs are used to operate the system: TKMEAS.EXE to acquire time-temperature data series (creating *.DWL files), TKEVA for standard (<5% uncertainty) or special (<2% uncertainty) reevaluation of data, creating short *.DAT or long *.ERG lists and parameter files, and TKGRAPH to display all solutions and assess the quality of the calculated solutions. In addition, the following parameter files are used: TKMEAS.MNU, a list of standard menu settings for TKMEAS.EXE, *.INI, list of parameters for probes, where * is the number engraved on the probe, and TKEVA.INI, list of user-modifiable parameters required for TKEVA.EXE. Multiple measurements can be taken under identical conditions. The instrument cycles through the measurements automatically, creating files with the userdefined root name (e.g., Core-Section-Interval; only six characters allowed) and a two-digit serial number incrementing by one for each measurement within a cycle. The following files are created by the TK04 system: <Rootname-SerialNo>.DWL, (if Save data was selected); contains measurement parameters and temperature-time series (raw data), required for extended evaluations; it is not necessary, but strongly recommended, to save the heating curves for routine evaluation. These files allow later extended evaluation and graphical display of the solutions. <Rootname->.LST, short list of results from evaluating one root-namebatch of *.DWL files using either the special approximation method
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(SAM) or conventional (CON) method; contains evaluation parameters and the optimal calculated thermal conductivity value. This is the standard results file. TC-LIST.DAT, multiline short list (optional); contains the same information as previous file <Rootname->.LST but for multiple root names. This file is updated as new evaluations are performed. This file is created only by the optional extended evaluation. <Rootname>.ERG, long lists of results from evaluating *.DWL files with the SAM method; contains evaluation parameters and all valid calculated thermal conductivity values. This file is optional and required only if graphical evaluation of all valid solutions is desired. It can be created at any time if the *.DWL files are saved. This file is created only by the optional extended evaluation.
CALIBRAT IO N
No calibration is required. The unit conducts a self-test at the beginning of each measurement cycle. Macor standards are used to confirm the 1.65 W/(mK) value.
DATA PROCESSING The Special Approximation Method (SAM)

The main advantage of the Teka data reduction program is the SAM that ensures that only results of physical significance are considered. The critical choice of time interval for calculation of conductivity, selected manually by the user with the Thermcon-85 system, is accomplished by an algorithm that automatically finds the optimal time interval. The solution can be judged in great detail and the data reevaluated with different boundary parameters if warranted. The following explanations are modified from the Teka user manual. The first evaluation step is an approximation to the solution of a constantly heated line source (Kristiansen, 1982): (9) T(t) = A1 + A2ln(t) + A3[ln(t)/t] + A4(1/t). The coefficients Ai are calculated with the least-squares method. A1, A3, and A4 are related to source geometry and thermal properties. A2 is calculated by A2 = q / 4k, (10)
where q is the heating power (Wm) and k [W/(mK)] is the thermal conductivity. If the coefficients Ai are determined, T(t) can be expressed analytically and the apparent thermal conductivity Ka(t) can be calculated by differentiating Equation on page 9 with respect to ln(t): ka(t) = dT/dln(t) = q/4 {A2 + A3[1/t ln(t)/t] + A4/t}. (11)
It can be shown that the desired value k is at ka(tmax), where tmax is the extreme time. The requirement for the maximum is d/dt[ka(tmax)] = 0, and tmax is tmax = e(2A3A4)/A3, A3 > 0. The logarithm of the extreme time (LET) becomes (13) (12)
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LET = ln(tmax) = (2A3 - A4) / A3. The time-dependent terms in previous equation are: T(tmax) = A2ln(tmax) + A3[ln(tmax)/tmax] + A4/tmax. A4 can be substituted with (previous) Equation (118?) to give T(tmax) = A2ln(tmax) + 2A3[ln(tmax)/tmax].
(14)
(15)
(16)
This equation shows that the purely logarithmic dependence of the approximated temperature (required by the theory) is stronger the larger tmax gets. For large tmax, the second term in Equation on page 10 approaches zero. The evaluation procedure approximates the heating curve in as many time intervals as possible and examines each interval for its suitability for thermal conductivity calculation using the following criteria: 1. ka(t) is located above a given value of time defined by LET, 2. standard deviation of the function for A2 is below a given value, 3. ka(t) is a maximum: A3 > 0, and 4. derivation ka(t) is continuous for t = tmax: A2tmax A3 - 0. If these criteria are met, thermal conductivity can be calculated as k = q / (4A2). (17)
The evaluation interval is restricted by the dimension of the line source. It must be within the interval of 20 to 80 s to avoid boundary effects, and at least 25 s long for a stable calculation of the coefficients. The input parameters for standard evaluation are minimum duration of approximation interval: 25 s, start of first approximation interval: 20 s, end of last approximation interval: 80 s, lower limit for LET: 4, and maximum standard deviation of calculated temperature curve from measured heating curve: 0.0003. With the default parameters, the heating curve is approximated for the following time intervals: [20,45] [20,46] [20,47] . . . [20,78] [20,79] [20,80] [21,46] [21,47] . . . [21,78] [21,79] [21,80] [22,47] . . . [22,78] [22,79] [22,80] ... [53,78] [53,79] [53,80] [54,79] [54,80] [55,80] Among all time intervals that fulfill the listed criteria, the one with the largest LET is used to calculate thermal conductivity. No solutions may be found if the measurement is disturbed by poor sample condition or ambient temperature changes.
Extended Evaluation
An extended evaluation is required if
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the valid solutions are to be plotted against the calculation parameters to judge the results graphically, or the measurements are to be reevaluated with different parameters (e.g., a stronger criterion for the LET). In both cases, the *.DWL files containing the temperature-time data are required. The *.ERG files (long result lists) that can be created contain all valid solutions for the thermal conductivity, and a line entry in the TC-LIST.DAT file is created with the asymptotic (optimal) thermal conductivity value. There are three options for extended evaluation: single evaluation: typing <TKSAM> prompts for filename, batch mode with filename as parameter: typing <TKSAM filename> starts evaluation using the standard parameters (no *.ERG file is created), and Batch mode evaluating a sequence of data files: after typing TKSAM, type return instead of a filename; all *.DWL files in the directory will be evaluated. The manufacturers manual should be consulted for details in regard to file path requirements, data quality issues, etc.
Graphical Evaluation
The program TKGRAPH can be used to visualize and judge the quality of all valid SAM evaluation results for thermal conductivity. *.ERG files are required for plotting. Four graphs are presented for each measurement: thermal conductivity vs. LET, thermal conductivity vs. interval duration, thermal conductivity vs. start of interval, and thermal conductivity vs. end of interval. A series of files can also be viewed. Consult the manufacturers manual for system configuration, practical hints, guidance for the judgment of results, etc.
Evaluation with Conventional Method
Under certain experimental circumstances (e.g., porous material, high water content) the SAM evaluation may not accept any results because the measurements are too disturbed for the sensitive approximations. In these cases, results may be obtained using the conventional evaluation method in which thermal conductivity is calculated from the inverse slope of the heating curve in a section of logarithmic linearity. In general, a heating duration > 80 s becomes necessary. Accuracy of conventional evaluations is not as good as that of SAM evaluations and the quality cannot be verified graphically. The program TKCON.EXE is used for the conventional evaluation. The structure and application is similar to the TKSAM.EXE program. The configuration file TKCON.INI includes the following standard parameters: minimum duration of interval: 30 s, start time: end time: 30 s, 120 s, and
standard deviation of fit: 0.003.
811
Existing data can be evaluated later with the conventional method (i.e., after the SAM method has failed to yield solutions). Automatic Evaluation with TKCON can be set by typing TKMEAS/EVA=CON or if the option TKMEAS/DCL=20/EVA=CON is entered. Calling TKMEAS without the /EVA option invokes evaluation with TKSAM.EXE. A short list of results is created by TKCON with similar structure as the file created by TKSAM. The difference is that instead of LET the standard deviation is reported. The evaluation method used (SAM; CON) is indicated in each line of the file. A long list of results for each measurement can be produced by typing, prior to starting TKMEAS: set TKCON=ON The long list includes the calculated values of thermal conductivity, standard deviation, and the start, duration, and end of each interval.
Half-Space Measurements
For the half-space needle probe (HLQ) it is expected that the total amount of produced heat penetrates into the sample. The thermal conductivity is thus calculated with twice the heating power used for the full-space solution. This assumption is justified if the thermal conductivity of the samples is not lower than about 1 W/(mK); at lower values an error arises because some of the produced heat is penetrating the probe half-space, in which case it is necessary to determine correction factors to compensate for the heat loss.

Extended evaluation, using special parameters adapted to circumstances, yields an uncertainty of less than 2%. This is clearly smaller than variations caused by sample preparation and inhomogeneities in rocks and sediments, and special evaluations are appropriate only for standard materials and fundamental material investigations. Random variations of thermal conductivity in natural materials such as sediments and rocks typically give an uncertainty of about 5%. Routine evaluation using the TKEVA.EXE has an accuracy of about 5% and is therefore appropriate.
Accuracy
MEASUREMEN T Standard Settings for Data Acquisition

1. Bring cores to temperature equilibrium (about 4 hr). Hard-rock specimens should be placed in a water bath to equilibrate. 2. Soft sediment: drill holes into core liner. Also drill a small hole in semiconsolidated sediment if necessary. Apply thermal joint compound if necessary. Insert full-space probes carefully into sediment. Hard-rocks: prepare smooth surface on a half-core specimen at least 5 cm long. Treat needles gently, store them properly when not in use.
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3. On the computer, change to directory containing the TKMEAS.EXE file, press enter. 4. Type TKERG = ON, press enter. 5. Type the command tkmeas, press enter. 6. Set the parameters on the screen. Heating power should be about 5 W/m (adjust if necessary); measuring time should be about 80 s; enter Y to save time-temperature data.
DATA SPECIFICATIONS TK04 Output Files

Currently, TK04 data are not integrated in the new ODP database. The following program output files are archived.
Table 85
TK04 raw data file: <Rootname-Serial>.DWL.

Description Root name (custom sample id), serial Probe ID, TK04, date Comment, used to identify sample Heating power (W/m) Slope, Std. dev., temperature ?Reserved ?Some (drift?) value 1 ?Some (drift?) value 2 Temperature (C) Time (s) Resistance (ohm) Data file designation [TK04 Raw Data] rootname_serial [TK04 Raw Data] probe [TK04 Raw Data] comment [TK04 Raw Data] heating_power [TK04 Raw Data] fit [TK04 Raw Data] ?something [TK04 Raw Data] ?value1 [TK04 Raw Data] ?value2 [TK04 Raw Data] temperature [TK04 Raw Data] time [TK04 Raw Data] resistance
Short description Header Filename Probe Comment Heat Fit ?Something ?Value1 ?Value2 Data Temp Time Resistance
Table 86
TK04 results short list: <Rootname>.LST (one rootname batch).

Description Root name + serial (sample ID) Calculated thermal conductivity LET (SAM) of std. dev. (CON) No. of solutions found Start of approx. time interval (s) Length of approx. time interval (s) End of optimal time interval (s) Evaluation method (SAM or CON) Comments (from *.DWL file) Data file designation [TK04 Results] rootname_serial [TK04 Results] calculated_tc [TK04 Results] let_or_sd [TK04 Results] solutions [TK04 Results] time_start [TK04 Results] time_length [TK04 Results] time_end [TK04 Results] eval_method [TK04 Results] hints
Short description Filename TC LET/STD Solutions Start time Time End time Eval. Hints
Table 87
*TK04 appended results short list: <Rootname>.LST (all rootnames).

Description Root name + serial (sample id) Calculated thermal conductivity LET (SAM) of std. dev. (CON) Number of solutions found Start of approximate time interval (s) Length of approx. time interval (s) End of optimal time interval (s) Evaluation method (SAM or CON) Comments (from *.DWL file) Data file designation [TK04 Results] rootname_serial [TK04 Results] calculated_tc [TK04 Results] let_or_sd [TK04 Results] solutions [TK04 Results] time_start [TK04 Results] time_length [TK04 Results] time_end [TK04 Results] eval_method [TK04 Results] hints
Short description Filename TC LET/STD Solutions Start time Time End time Eval. Hints
813
Table 88
*TK04 extended results file: *.ERG files.

Description SAM Evaluation Parameters Root name + serial (sample ID) Comment, used to identify sample Time interval minimum (s) Start of evaluation (s) End of optimal time interval (s) Nat. log. of time Limit of std. dev. (optional; 0.0003) Data file designation TKSAM.EXE [TK04 Results] rootname_serial [TK04 Raw Data] comment [TK04 Results] eval_interval_min [TK04 Results] eval_time_start [TK04 Results] eval_time_end [TK04 Results] eval_let [TK04 Results] eval_limit_sd
Short description Header: Filename Comment Time Start time End time LET Std. Dev.
Table 89
Valid solutions.
Description Calculated thermal conductivity Natural logarithm of time at max. therm.al condition Start of approx. time interval (s) Length of approx. time interval (s) End of optimal time interval (s) Standard deviation of fit Data file designation [TK04 Results] calculated_tc [TK04 Results] let [TK04 Results] time_start [TK04 Results] time_length [TK04 Results] time_end [TK04 Results] std-deviation
Short description TC LET Start time Time End time Std. Dev.
Notes: *ERG files are optional. They are created by extended evaluation and are required only for graphical evaluation. They can be recreated from *.DWL files at any time.
Database Model
A database model and integration into the database are difficult to implement without writing an ODP sample identification routine linked to the TK04 output. A better approach is to write an entirely new user interface for the system, preferably for an upgraded version with multiple-channel capability.
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9. STRENGTH
9.1. Principles
PH YSICAL BACK GROUN D Definition of Sediment Strength
Most soils and rocks are visco-elastic materials. Well-developed mathematical theories are available only for linear visco-elasticity, whereas soils and rocks have highly nonlinear stress-strain-time behavior. Therefore, time-independent elastoplastic theory is often used to describe the stress-strain relationships of natural materials: the material is linearly elastic up to the yield point, and then it becomes perfectly plastic (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). Some materials are brittle and exhibit little stress when strained (rocks); others are work-hardening (e.g., compacted clays and loose sands) or work-softening. The latter model is particularly applicable to clayey, soft, saturated, marine sediments, such as those usually measured with the instruments described in this chapter: stress decreases as the sediment is strained beyond a peak stress. The sediment yields (fails) at the peak stress, which can be defined as the sediments strength. According to Mohr, the shear stress on a failure plane at failure reaches some unique function of the normal stress on that plane, or (1) = (), where is the shear stress and is the normal stress. The first subscript refers to the failure plane and the second means at failure. This function can graphically be expressed by the Mohr failure envelope, the tangent to Mohr circles at different and at failure. The Mohr failure hypothesis states that the point of tangency of the Mohr failure envelope with the Mohr circle at failure determines the inclination of the failure plane. Coulomb found that there was a stress-independent component of shear strength and a stress-dependent component. He called the latter the internal angle of friction, , and the former seems to be related to the intrinsic cohesion and is denoted by the symbol c. The Coulomb equation is then (2) = tan + c, where is the shear strength of the soil, is the applied normal stress, and and c are the strength parameters. Both parameters are not inherent properties of the material tested, but also depend on the test conditions. The Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion is the combination Mohr failure envelope, approximated by linear intervals over certain stress ranges, and the Coulomb strength parameters: (3) = tan + c.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
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This is the only failure criterion that predicts the stresses on the failure plane at failure, which is relevant to potential sliding surfaces in geotechnical applicatons.
Drained and Undrained Shear
When sediment is sheared under a load or applied stress, excess pore pressure is produced that may or may not escape depending on the permeability of the sediment and the time available. If the pore pressure can dissipate, the sediment is most likely work-hardened. Therefore, from an experimental standpoint (triaxial testing), undrained shear (total stress analysis) or drained shear (effective stress analysis) can be applied to the sediment. In the undrained shear scenario, volume changes translate into pore pressure changes, and the assumption is made that the pore pressure and therefore the effective stress (= total stress minus pore pressure) are indentical to those in the field. The total, or the undrained shear strength, is used for the stress analysis. Tests must be conducted rapidly enough so that undrained conditions prevail if draining is possible in the experimental setup. In the second, drained scenario, shear stress is used in terms of effective stresses. The excess hydrostatic pressure must be measured or estimated. Knowing the initial and the applied (total) stresses, the effective stress acting in the sediment can be calculated. The volume change depends on the relative density and the confining pressure. This approach is philosphically more satisfying because pore water cannot carry any shear stress; i.e., shear strength is thought to be controlled by the effective stresses (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). Drained shear can ordinarily be determined only in the laboratory and the procedure is not popular because there are serious practical problems. Particularly in low-permeability material, the rate of loading must be sufficiently slow to avoid the development of excessive pore pressure, which can cause a test to take many days or weeks, and valve, seal, and membrane leaks may become a problem.
Testing for Shear Strength
There are three limiting conditions of consolidation (happens before shear) and drainage (happens during shear) that model real field situations: consolidateddrained (CD), consolidated-undrained (CU), and unconsolidated-undrained (UU). Unconsolidated-drained is not a meaningful condition because drainage would occur during shear and the effects of confining pressure and shear could not be separated. A special case of the UU test is the unconfined compression (labeled here informally as UUU) test, where the confining pressure equals zero (atmospheric pressure). This is by far the most common laboratory strength test used in geotechnical engineering today (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). The effective stress at failure, and therefore the strength, is identical for the UU and UUU tests. In practical terms, the following conditions must be satisfied for this to be true: 1. 100% saturation, 2. specimen (core interval) must be intact and homogenous, 3. material must be fine-grained (clay), and 4. specimen must be sheared rapidly to failure to avoid draining and evaporation. Direct shear test and triaxial tests are the common laboratory shear strength tests. Addiitonal special tests are for direct simple shear, ring shear, plain strain, and true
92
triaxial test. These tests allow independent control and measurement of at least the principle stresses, 1 and 3, and changes in void ratio and pore pressure. The results can be analyzed in the - diagram (Mohr circle), p-q diagram (stress path), and other methods (e.g., Lambe and Whitman, 1979; Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). However, all these tests are too complex to be conducted in the shipboard laboratory. Instead, ODP provides two rapid and simple tests, the vane shear tests and the penetrometer test. These tests should be used as a guide only because there are many reasons why the results are only approximate (e.g., Lambe and Whitman, 1979). Particularly the inuence of pore pressure changes during the undrained experiment cannot be estimated.
Vane Shear Test
Undrained shear strength can be determined using a vane that is inserted into soft sediment and rotated until the sediment fails. The torque, T, required to shear the sediment along the vertical and horizontal edges of the vane is a relatively direct measure of the shear strength. It must be normalized to the vane constant, K, which is a function of the vane size and geometry: ~ su = T / K, (4) where su is a common notation for the vane shear strength (e.g., Lambe and Whitman, 1979). Shear strength has the units of pascals (= N/m2), torque has the units of newtonmeters (Nm), and K has the units of meters cubed (m3). Two systems are available onboard JOIDES Resolution to determine vane shear strength. The automated vane shear system measures angular deection of springs that were calibrated for torque. The hand-held Torvane directly returns a measure of shear strength from calibrated springs.
Penetrometer Test
Failure can be dened as the maximum principal stress difference, which is the same as the (unconned) compressive strength of the specimen, 1 3. At a prescribed strain, shear strength, , is related to compressive strength, , by ~ max = (1 3) / 2 = / 2. (5) If is determined in a UUU test by reading off the vertical strain, such as with the pocket penetrometer, the value must be divided by 2 to obtain the shear strength.
E NV I RO N ME N T A L E F FE C T S
If there is visible core disturbance, measurements should not be taken. Moisture loss while the split core is being processed affects the shear strength measurements.
USE OF SHEAR STRENGTH

Shear strength, or shear resistance, of sediments is the most important aspect of slope stability. However, the shear strength values obtained onboard do not alone allow any slope stability analysis. They represent merely a relative strength prole.
93
For clay-rich marine sediments, the stress-strain behavior is greatly dependent on the stress history of the sample. The latter can be estimated in a semiquantitative way by the ratio of measured shear strength to in situ overburden stress, ov: h = su / ov. (6)
For normally consolidated, ne-grained, cohesive soils, h has a value of about 0.25. Larger values indicate overconsolidaion, smaller values indicate underconsolidation. Marine sediments are typically overconsolidated in the uppermost few to several meters and slightly or strongly underconsolidated in the subjacent 100200 m and deeper.
9.2. Automated Vane Shear (AVS) System

E Q U I P ME N T
Vane shear strength, Su, of soft sediment at laboratory conditions is determined using a motorized miniature vane shear apparatus, following the ASTM D 4648-87 procedure (ASTM, 1987). A four-bladed vane is inserted into the split core and rotated at a constant rate of 90/min to determine the torque required to cause a cylindrical surface to be sheared by the vane. The difference in rotational strain between the top and bottom of a linear spring is measured using digital shaft encoders. Maximum spring deection at peak strength is determined by the AVS program and can easily be veried or adjusted by the user. Undrained shear strength is Su = T / K = ( / B) / K, (7)
where Su is in pascals (N/m2), T is torque (Nm), K is the vane constant (m3), is the maximum torque angle at failure (), and B is the spring constant that relates the deection angle to the torque (/[Nm]). This simple relationship applies only if all the terms have been converted to SI units; otherwise, conversion factors must be used appropriately. Potential sources of error using the motorized vane shear device are fracturing, particularly at Su greater than 100150 kPa, sand- and gravel-sized material (e.g., ice-rafted debris in glacial sediments), and surface drying of the core. The moderately destructive measurements are done in the working half, with the rotation axis parallel to the bedding plane. Typical sampling rates are one per core section until the sediment becomes too rm for instrument penetration. The motorized vane shear apparatus and springs were purchased from Wykeham Farrance Engineering, Ltd. The vanes are usually manufactured by ODP.
94
C A L I B RA T ION
No routine calibration is performed by the user. However, spring constant B and vane geometry K are important coefcients that must be veried and measured if new specimens are purchased or manufactured.
Vane Calibration
When a new AVS blade is produced or purchased, the vane blade constant K must be determined. ODP personnel are responsible for this occasional calibration. K is a geometrical factor and is calculated as K = D2 H/2 (1 + D / 3H) 109, (8)
where D and H are the vane diameter (maximum width of two wings) and height in millimeters and K has the units of cubic meters. The procedure is as follows: 1. Take multiple measurements of vane height and diameter, and enter them in the program utility available at the AVS station. 2. Press Calibrate in the calibration utility; the program calculates the mean value, standard deviation, number of measurements, and vane constant. The new constants are automatically used by the measurement program. 3. Initiate upload of the calibration statistics and vane constant into the ODP database.
Spring Calibration
The springs used to measure torque must be calibrated to the angles of rotation. ODP personnel are responsible for this occasional calibration. The spring constant, B, is dened as B = /T, (9) where T is the torque (provided in kgcm by the manufacturer) and is the corresponding deection angle. ODP personnel enter the data into a calibration utility that converts the data to Nm and determines the regression slope that corresponds to B. The conversion is T (Nm) = 0.0981 T (kgcm). (10) The calibration procedure is as follows 1. Enter the factory-supplied angle and torque data in the program utility available at the AVS station. 2. Press Calibrate in the calibration utility; the program calculates the regression coefcients. 3. Update the spring constant for the measurement program. 4. Initiate upload of the calibration statistics and spring constant into the ODP database. In 1995, the following springs and constants were used (they are presumably based on regression of torque values in kg-1cm-1): 1. 0.0092109, 2. 0.018857, 3. 0.030852, and 4. 0.045146.
95

Repeatability of torque measurement in the exactly same material is estimated to be better than 5%. This depends on the reference method used (e.g., common triaxial test) and the material measured (e.g., sand vs. soft clay) and includes uncertainties resulting from pore pressure developed during the measurement and the lack of confining pressure. For large vane shear field tests, Lambe and Whitman (1979) estimated that results are accurate to 20% at best.
Accuracy
MEASUREMEN T
The user is guided through the measurements by the AVS program. The position of the measurement in the core section is entered automatically in the program. Measured strain is plotted against calculated torque. The principal measurement steps are 1. Choose and mount the appropriate spring and vane and ensure that the corresponding identifiers are selected in the program. 2. Insert the vane until it is completely immersed in the sediment and start the program. It is crucially important for the relative precision and accuracy of the measurement that the vane is always inserted completely. 3. When the run has terminated, withdraw the vane and clean it.
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Table 91 AVS database model.
AVS vane calibration vane_calibration_id [PK1] calibration_date_time vane_id vane_constant diameter_mean diameter_sd number_of_dia_meas height_mean height_sd number_of_height_meas comments AVS spring calibration spring_calibration_id [PK1] calibration_date_time spring_id spring_constant_m1 spring_m0 spring_mse comments AVS spring calibr. data spring_calibration_id [PK1] [FK] torque_angle [PK2] pp_torque
AVS section avs_id [PK1] section_id run_num run_date_time system_id spring_calibration_id vane_calibration_id direction rotation_rate raw_data_collected AVS section data avs_id[PK1] [FK] pp_top_interval [PK2] pp_bottom_interval max_torque_angle residual_torque_angle AVS raw data avs_id [PK1] [FK] pp_top_interval [PK2] [FK] avs_record_number [PK3] torque_angle [PK4] strain_angle
Notes: All values in the database should be in SI units (general rule). Vane and spring constants should be converted during the calibration procedure so that conversion factors do not have to be applied in standard queries.
Standard Queries
Table 92 AVS query A (results, measurements, and parameters) (to be implemented).
Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type Shear strength Su Database Link through [Sample]sample_id Link through [Sample]sample_id = [AVS Section Data] max_torque_angle / [AVS Spring Calibration] spring_constant_m1 / [AVS Vane Calibration] vane_constant [AVS Section Data] max_torque_angle [AVS Section Data] residual_torque_angle [AVS Section] run_number [AVS Section] run_date_time [AVS Section] direction [AVS Section] raw_data_collected [AVS Vane Calibration] vane_id [AVS Spring Calibration] spring_id Short description Sample ID Depth Su
Max. Angle Res. Angle Run DateTime Direction Raw Data Vane Spring
Maximum torque angle (at failure) Residual torque angle Run number Date and time of measurement Direction of measurement (usually x) Flags if raw data were saved Vane identification Spring identification
Table 93
AVS query B (raw data) (to be implemented).

Description Torque angle Strain angle ODP standard sample designation Database [AVS Raw Data] torque_angle [AVS Raw Data] strain_angle Link through [Sample]sample_id
Short description Torque Strain Sample ID
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Table 94
AVS query C (vane calibration) (to be implemented).

Description Calibration date/time Vane identification Vane constant Diameter, mean of measurements Diameter, std. dev. of measurements Diameter, no. of measurements Height, mean of measurements Height, std. dev. of measurements Height, no. of measurements Comments Database [AVS Vane Calibration] calibration_date_time [AVS Vane Calibration] vane_id [AVS Vane Calibration] vane_constant [AVS Vane Calibration] diameter_mean [AVS Vane Calibration] diameter_sd [AVS Vane Calibration] number_of_dia_meas [AVS Vane Calibration] height_mean [AVS Vane Calibration] height_sd [AVS Vane Calibration] height_of_dia_meas [AVS Vane Calibration] comments
Short description DateTime Vane ID Vane Const. Dia. mean Dia. s.d. Dia. n Height mean Height s.d. Height n Comments
Table 95
AVS query D (spring calibration) (to be implemented).

Description Calibration date/time Spring identification Spring m1 (spring constant; slope) Spring m0 (intercept) Mean squared error (mse) Comments Database [AVS Spring Calibration] calibration_date_time [AVS Spring Calibration] spring_id [AVS Spring Calibration] spring_constant_m1 [AVS Spring Calibration] spring _m0 [AVS Spring Calibration] spring _mse [AVS Spring Calibration] comments
Short description DateTime Spring ID Spring m1 Spring m0 R square Comments
Table 96
AVS query E (spring calibration data) (to be implemented).

Description Angle Calibration torque at angle Calibration date/time Spring identification Database [AVS Spring Calibration] torque_angle [AVS Spring Calibration] pp_torque [AVS Spring Calibration] calibration_date_time [AVS Spring Calibration] spring_id
Short description Angle Torque DateTime Spring ID
9.3. Torvane
EQ U I P ME N T
The Torvane is a hand-held instrument with attachments calibrated to shear strength for different ranges (stiffness of sediment; Table on page 8). It is rarely used because the automated vane shear device available has a larger range, better precision, and presumably superior accuracy. Table 97 Specifications of Torvane attachments.
Height of vanes (mm) 3 5 5
Diameter (mm) 19 25 48
Maximum (kPa)
250 100 20
98

Table 98 Database model.
TOR sample data tor_id [PK1] [FK] pp_top_interval [PK2] measurement_no [PK3] pp_bottom_interval strength_reading comments
TOR section data tor_id [PK1] sys_id section_id run_date_time direction core_temperature range comments
Standard Queries
Table 99 AVS query A (results and more) (to be implemented).
Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type Strength reading (at failure) Date and time of measurement Direction of measurement (usually x) Sensitivity range Comments Database Link through [Sample]sample_id Link through [Sample]sample_id [TOR Sample Data] strength_reading [TOR Section Data] run_date_time [TOR Section Data] direction [TOR Section Data] range [TOR Sample Data] comments Short description Sample ID Depth Strength DateTime Direction Range Comments
9.4. Pocket Penetrometer

EQ U I P ME N T
The penetrometer is a flat-footed, cylindrical probe that is pushed 6.4 mm deep below the split-core surface. The resulting resistance is the unconfined compressive strength or 2Su. The mechanical scale is in units of kilograms per square centimeter, which are converted into units of kilopascals by 2 (kPa) = 98.1 2 (kg/cm2). (11)
The maximum that can be measured with the pocket penetrometer is 220 kPa.
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Table 910 Database model.
PEN section data pen_id [PK1] sys_id section_id run_date_time direction core_temperature adapter_used comments PEN sample data pen_id [PK1] [FK] pp_top_interval [PK2] measurement_no [PK3] pp_bottom_interval strength_reading comments
Standard Queries
Table 911 AVS query A (results and more) (to be implemented).
Short description Sample ID Depth Strength DateTime Direction Adaptor Comments Description ODP standard sample designation User-selected depth type Strength reading (at failure) Date and time of measurement Direction of meas (usually x) Adaptor used (sensitivity range) Comments Database Link through [Sample]sample_id Link through [Sample]sample_id [PEN Sample Data] strength_reading [PEN Section Data] run_date_time [PEN Section Data] direction [PEN Section Data] adapter_used [PEN Sample Data] comments
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Belknap, W.B., Dewan, J.T., Kirkpatrick, C.V., Mott, W.E., Pearson, A.J., and Rabson, W.R., 1959. API calibration facility for nuclear logs. Drill. and Prod. Prac., ? Blackwell, J.H., 1954. A transient-flow method for determination of thermal constants of insulating materials in bulk, Part Itheory. J. Appl. Phys., 25: 137144. Blum, P., Allan, J., Coyne, J., Hagelberg, T., MacLeod, C. Mato, C., deMenocal, P., Merrill, R., Mithal, R., Rhinehart, B., Weaver, P., Wilkens, R., and Coarser, G., 1995. Depth data acquisition, processing and archiving in the Ocean Drilling Program. Results and recommendations from the ODP/TAMU Depth Workshop. Blum, P., Rabaute, A., Gaudon, P., andAllan. J.F., 1997. Analysis of natural gamma ray spectra obtained from sediment cores with the shipboard scintillation detector of the Ocean Drilling Program: Example form Leg 156. In Shipley, T.H., Ogawa, Y., Blum, P. and Bahr, J.M. (Eds.), Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 156: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program), ?-?. Burns, R.G., 1970. Mineralogical Applications of Crystal Field Theory: Cambridge (Cambridge University Press). Carslaw, H.S., and Jaeger, J.C., 1959. Conduction of Heat in Solids: Oxford (Oxford University Press). Commission Internationale d'Eclairage (CIE), 1986. CIE Colorimetry (2nd ed.), Publication 15.2. CGPM, 1960. 11th Confrence Gnrale des Poids et Mesure. CGPM, 1971. 14th Confrence Gnrale des Poids et Mesure. Deaton, B.C., and Balsam, W.L., 1991. Visible spectroscopya rapid method for determining hematite and goethite concentration in geological materials. J. Sediment. Petr., 61: 628632. De Vries, D.A., and Peck, A.J., 1958. On the cylindrical probe method of measuring thermal conductivity with special reference to soils. Australian J. Phys., 11: 255271. DIN, 1980. Farbmessung; Farbmasszahlen. Publication, 5033: part 3. Erbas, K., 1985. Bestimmung der Wrmeleitfhigkeit von Festkrpern mit einer HalbraumLinienquellen-Apparatur [MS? thesis]. Institute fur Angewandte Geophysik, Technische Universitt Berlin. Evans, 1965. GRAPEA device for continuous determination of material density and porosity. SPWLA, 6th Ann. Symposium, 2: 25. Evans, H.B., and Lucia, J.A., 1970. Natural gamma radiation scanner. In Peterson, M.N.A., Edgar, N.T., et al., Init. Repts. DSDP, 2: Washington (U.S. Govt. Printing Office), 458460.
References2
Gaffey, S.J., 1986. Spectral reflectance of carbonate minerals in the visible and nearinfrared (0.352.55 microns): calcite, aragonite, and dolomite. American Mineralogist, 71: 151162. Harms, J.C. and Choquette, P.W., 1965. Geologic evaluation of a gamma-ray porosity device. 6th Annual SPWLA Logging Symp., Dallas, Texas, C1-C37 Holtz, R.D., and Kovacs, W.D., 1981. Geotechnical engineering: where? (Prentice Hall). ISO, 1984. Paints and varnishesColorimetryPart 1: principles. Publication, 7724/1. Jumikis, A.R., 1966. Thermal Soil Mechanics: New Brunswick, NJ (Rutgers University Press). Kristiansen, J.I., 1982. The transient cylindrical probe method for determination of thermal parameters of earth materials [Ph.D. diss.]. Geoskrifter, 18, Dept. of Geology, Aaehus University. Lambe, T.W., and Whitman, R.V., 1979. Soil Mechanics (SI version): New York (John Wiley). Lyman, J., and Fleming, R.H., 1940. Composition of seawater. J. Marine Res., 3: 134146. Mesri, G., 1975. New design procedure for stability of soft clays. Discussion. ASCE Journal of the Geotech. Eng. Div., 101, 409-412. Mesry, G., 1989. A reevaluation of su(mob) = 0.22p using laboratory shear tests. Can. Geotch. J., 26, 162-164. Millero, F.J., and Poisson, A., 1981. Internationalone-atmosphere equation of state of seawater. Deep-Sea Research, 28A: 625629. Millero, F.J., Chen, C.-T., Bradshaw, A., and Schleicher, K., 1980. Deep-Sea Research, 27A: 255264. Nagao, S., and Nakashima, S., 1991. A convenient method of color measurement of marine sediments by colorimetry. Geochemical Journal, 25: 187197. Nagao, S., and Nakashima, S., 1992. The factors controlling vertical color variations of North Atlantic Madeira Abyssal Plain sediments. Marine Geology, 109: 8394. Nakashima, S., Miyagi, I., Nakata, E., Sasaki, H., Nittono, S., Hirano, T., Sato, T., and Hayashi, H., 1992. Color measurement of some natural and synthetic materialsI. Rep. Res. Inst. Natural Resources, Mining College, Akita Univ., 57: 5776. Serra, O., 1984. Fundamentals of Well Log Interpretation: Amsterdam (Elsevier). Sverdrup, H.U., Johnson, M.W., and Fleming, R.H., 1942. The Oceans: Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology: where? (Prentice Hall, Inc.).
References3
Thompson, R., and Oldfield, F., 1986. Environmental Magnetism: where? (Allen and Unwin). Tittman, J, and Wahl, J.S., 1965. The physical foundations of formation density logging (gamma-gamma). Geophysics, 30: 284294. Vacquier, V., 1985. The measurement of thermal conductivity of solids with a transient linear heat source on the plane surface of a poorly conducting body. Earth and Plan. Sci. Letters, 74: 275279. Von Herzen, R., and Maxwell, E.A. (1959). The measurement of thermal conductivity of deep sea sediments by a needle probe method. J. Geophys. Res., 64: 15571563. Weast, R.C., Astle, M.J., and Beyer, W.H., 1985. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: Boca Raton, FL (CRC Press).
References4
APPENDIX I. PHYSICAL UNITS

Unit systems
A coherent system of physical units is based on a certain set of base units (e.g., meter, kilogram, second) that are well defined in terms of actual physical phenomena (e.g., length, mass, and time, respectively). Derived units in a coherent system are formed as products of powers of base units without introducing numerical factors. Their algebraic expressions in terms of the base units can be replaced by special names and their symbols (e.g., 1 N = 1 mkgs 2). Derived units can themselves be used to form other derived units and their symbols (e.g., 1 Pa = 1 Nm2). Values of dimensionless quantities are expressed by pure numbers. The corresponding unit is the ratio of a unit to itself, or the dimensionless unit of the coherent system, and may be expressed by the number 1 (Weast et al., 1985). There are two commonly known coherent systems of units: the Systme International dUnits (SI) and the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) system. The SI is the only internationally recommended system and should be used throughout for ODP physical measurements and analyses. The obsolescent electrostatic CGS and electromagnetic CGS units cannot strictly be compared to the corresponding units of the SI. This is because the electromagnetic CGS system is a three-dimensional system of units in which the electric and magnetic quantities are considered to be derived from the centimeter, gram, and second as base units, whereas the SI has four dimensions for these quantities (meter, kilogram, second, and ampere). The complexities involved in such conversions are well known to those working with rock magnetic properties.
SI UNITS
The SI name was adopted by the Conference des Poids et Mesure (CGPM) in 1960. It is based on the seven base units (CGPM 1960, 1971) listed in Table A-1 (see Weast et al., 1985, for definitions). Table Appendix1SI base units.
Base quantity Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temperature Amount of substance Luminous intensity Name meter kilogram second ampere kelvin mole candela Symbol m kg s A K mol cd
Appendix1
The base unit of mass is the only one with a name that, for historical reasons, contains a prefix. Several subsystems of the SI are used in different fields of science (e.g., the meter-kilogram-second [MKS] system in mechanics).
Derived SI units are listed in Table A-2. Table Appendix2Derived SI units.

Quantity Plane angle Solid angle Frequency Force Pressure, stress Energy, work, quantity of heat Power, radiant flux Quantity of electricity, electric charge Electric potential, potential difference, electromotive force Capacitance Electric resistance Conductance Magnetic flux Magnetic flux density Inductance Luminous flux Illuminance Activity Absorbed dose Name radian steradian hertz newton pascal Symbol rad sr Hz N Pa Base unit mm
-1
Other SI
m2 m-2 s-1 m kg s-2 m-1 kg s-2 J/m N/m2
joule watt coulomb
J W C
m2 kg s-2 m2 kg s-2 sA
Nm J/s As
volt farad ohm siemens weber tesla henry lumen lux becquerel gray
V F W S Wb T H lm lx Bq Gy
m2 kg s-3 A-1 m-2 kg-1 s4 A2 m kg s A m

-2 2 3 2 -3 -2 2
W/A C/V V/A A/V Vs Wb/m2 Wb/A cd sr m-2 cd sr
kg-1 s A
-2
m kg s A kg s-2 A-1
-1
m2 kg s-2 A-2
s-1 m2 s-2 J/kg
The radian and steradian actually belong to a third class of supplementary SI units for which the CGPM (1960) declined to state whether they were base units or derived units. In addition to the set of formal derived units listed in Table A-2, there are scores of additional SI derived units and unit symbols for other quantities (volume, density, velocity, magnetic field strength, etc.). These are either trivial or defined within the
Appendix2
appropriate context. Other units exactly defined in terms of SI units, but not part of the SI, are listed in Table A-3. Table Appendix3Units exactly defined in terms of SI units.
Quantity Time Name minute hour day Angle degree minute second Temperature degree Celsius Symbol min h d C Base unit 60 s 3,600 s 86,400 s (/180) rad (/10,800) rad (/648,000) rad = T(K) - 273.15 K
Similarly, the use of certain decimal fractions and multiples of SI units, including those listed in Table A-4, is considered appropriate. Table Appendix4 Accepted decimal multiples and fractions of SI units.
Quantity Length Cross section Volume Mass Pressure Name ngstrm barn liter tonne bar Symbol A b lL t bar SI base unit 10-10 m 10-28 m2 10-3 m3 103 kg 105 Pa
O BSO LE S CEN T U NIT S

Table A-5 lists a selection of units used in the ODP and which are to be abandoned. The conversion to SI units is also listed. Table Appendix5Obsolescent units and their conversion to SI units.
Quantity Length Name inch foot mile Mass Force pound short ton kilogram-force pound kilo-pound Pressure kg/m2 dyne/cm
2
Symbol in ft mi lb kgf lb kip kg/m2 dyne/cm atm mm Hg

2
SI base unit 2.54 x 10-2 m 0.3048 m 1609 m 0.453592 kg 907.2 kg 9.80665 N 4.448 N 4.448 kN 9.8067 Pa 0.1 Pa 1.0133 x 105 Pa 1.3332 x 102 Pa
atmosphere mm Hg (0C)
Appendix3
Table Appendix5Obsolescent units and their conversion to SI units.

pounds per square inch pounds per square foot tons per square foot Magnetic flux density gauss electromag. units/cm3 Magnetic force oersted psi psf tsf G emu/cm3 oe 6.8948 x 103 Pa 47.880 Pa 9.5761 x 104 Pa 10-4 T = 10-4 kgs-2A-1 1.257 10-3 T = 10-3 Am2 equivalent to 10-4 T
Appendix4

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1.

1.2. Shipboard Laboratory Stations and Sampling

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

Core orientation conventions.

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

MULTISEN SOR TRACK (W HOLE- COR E MST) STATION Measurement Systems

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

MST sampling parameters.

GRA MSL PWL NGR

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

THERMAL CONDU CTIVITY (TC) STATION Measurement Systems

A R C H I V E -H A L F C O R E L O GG ER ( A- LOGGER, TO BE IM PLEM ENTE D ) Measurement Systems (to be implemented)

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

Present Measurement System

WO RKING-H ALF CORE STATION (W- LOGGER) Measurement Systems

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

M O I S T UR E A N D D EN S IT Y ( MAD) STATION Measurement Systems

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

1.3. New Shipboard Data Management Environment

Data Upload Utilities

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

Database and Data Models

Data Access and Standard Queries

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

SA MPLE IDENTIFIERS AND DEPTH CALCULA TIO N Links to Curatorial Identifiers

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

Map Type map_type [PK1] description map_type_name map_type_date

1.4. Physical Properties Standards

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

2. MOISTURE AND DENSITY (BY MASS AND VOLUME)

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

EN VIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Core Expansion

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

Composition of sea water.

SrCl2 SrCl2.2H2O NaF Total

Lyman and Fleming (1940). Weast et al. (1985).

Density of Pore water

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

20C 40C 0C 20C

1070 Density (kg/m )

990 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Pressure (bar)

USE OF MAD DATA

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

2.2. Moisture and Density System

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

Purging cells to be used

Vent valve closed

Reference volume isolated

Sample cell pressurized

Sample pressure isolated

Reference volume added

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

The convection oven can maintain 105 5C.

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

CALIBRAT IO N Beaker Mass and Volume

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

PERFORM ANCE Precision

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

Mass error: 0.1%. Volume error: 1%.

PP Handbook , Peter Blum , November, 1997

DATA SPECIFICATIONS Database model

MAD database model.

MAD calibration history mad_calibratin_id [PK1] calibration_date_time calibration_type