Theoretical Explanations for Cosmic Acceleration

Eanna Flanagan, Cornell Physics Colloquium, University of Guelph, 17 October 2006

Outline
Recent observations show that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating, which according to general relativity implies the existence of a form of matter with negative pressure (dark energy).

Negative pressure in general relativity Acceleration: observational pillars Why the new physics required is puzzling Survey of (i) frameworks (ii) models (iii) theoretical problems (iv) potential new observational channels Can we avoid dark energy by modifying gravity?

The Hot Big Bang

Image credit: Wayne Hu and Martin White

Constituents of the Universe today

Dark matter: we dont know what this is, but there are several well-motivated ideas (particles). Dark energy: we dont know what this is (not particles), many ideas but few compelling ones.

The Large-scale Universe

Observations show that on scales larger than about 10 million light years, the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic

Image credit: Stephen Landy

The Large-scale Universe

Observations show that on scales larger than about 10 million light years, the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic

Fluctuations in the temperature of the 3K cosmic microwave background, 1 in 100,000

Characterizing sources of gravity

Characterizing sources of gravity (cont)

Examples:

Dynamics of the Expanding Universe

Uniform expansion with scale factor a(t) Concentric spherical shells labeled by r, size a(t)r First law of thermodynamics: dE = pdV d(c2 r3 a3 ) = pd(r3 a3 ) 1 2 p = wc = 3(1+w) a

Dynamics of the Expanding Universe

Uniform expansion with scale factor a(t) Concentric spherical shells labeled by r, size a(t)r First law of thermodynamics: dE = pdV d(c2 r3 a3 ) = pd(r3 a3 ) 1 2 p = wc = 3(1+w) a

Newtons second law:

a (t)r a a = G [ra] 4 G = [ 3
4 3 3 r a 3 2

Dynamics of the Expanding Universe

Uniform expansion with scale factor a(t) Concentric spherical shells labeled by r, size a(t)r First law of thermodynamics: dE = pdV d(c2 r3 a3 ) = pd(r3 a3 ) 1 2 p = wc = 3(1+w) a

Newtons second law:

a (t)r a a = G [ra] 4 G = + 3pc2 3
4 3 3 r a 3 2

Correction due to general relativity

Dynamics of the Expanding Universe

Uniform expansion with scale factor a(t) Concentric spherical shells labeled by r, size a(t)r First law of thermodynamics: dE = pdV d(c2 r3 a3 ) = pd(r3 a3 ) 1 2 p = wc = 3(1+w) a

Newtons second law:

a (t)r a a = G [ra] 4 G = + 3pc2 3
4 3 3 r a 3 2

Correction due to general relativity

1 2 Acceleration if p < 3 c

Analog of dark energy

Evidence for acceleration

By combining rst law of thermodynamics and acceleration equation:

8 G 2 a = a k, 3
2

k = 0, 1

Rewrite as:

1 a 2 M R k = + 3(1+w) + 4 + 2 , 2 2 3 H0 a a a a a 1 = M + + R + k

Evidence for acceleration

By combining rst law of thermodynamics and acceleration equation:

8 G 2 a = a k, 3
2

k = 0, 1

Rewrite as:

1 a 2 M R k = + 3(1+w) + 4 + 2 , 2 2 3 H0 a a a a a 1 = M + + R + k

Cosmic microwave background (standard yardstick) R 104 , |k | 0.05

Evidence for acceleration

By combining rst law of thermodynamics and acceleration equation:

8 G 2 a = a k, 3
2

k = 0, 1

Rewrite as:

1 a 2 M R k = + 3(1+w) + 4 + 2 , 2 2 3 H0 a a a a a 1 = M + + R + k

Cosmic microwave background (standard yardstick) R 104 , |k | 0.05

Infer a(t) from brightness and redshifts of standard candles (Type Ia supernova)

Evidence for acceleration (cont.)

Evidence for acceleration (cont.)

Evidence for acceleration (cont.)

Supernova Cosmology Project

3
No Big Bang
Knop et al. (2003) Spergel et al. (2003) Allen et al. (2002)

2
Supernovae

1
CMB

0
Clusters

expands forever ll y recollapses eventua

clo se d

fla

-1

t e op n

Evidence for acceleration (cont.)

0 0.5

SNe

Supernova Cosmology Project Knop et al. (2003)

1 1.5

Assuming constant w
0 0.5

2dFGRS
CM B

1 1.5

With limits from; 2dFGRS (Hawkins et al. 2002) and CMB (Bennet et al. 2003, Spergel et al. 2003) Combined

0 0.5

1 1.5 2

w = 1.05 +0.15 (statistical) 0.20

+ 0.09 (systematic)
0 0.5

Simplest model: Cosmological constant

The case w = 1 , constant energy density (103 eV)4 Puzzle: expect quantum loops to generate a much larger 4 energy density, Ecuto Unknown higher energy physics can in principle cancel out this contribution, but it requires exquisite ne tuning. String theory predicts a multiverse with huge number of different vacua, each with its own . Anthropic principle could explain smallness of our Problem: life might still evolve if were 1000 times larger.
Puzzle: The Universe has expanded by 35 orders of magnitude. Why are dark energy and matter comparable right now? Seems to require ne tuning of initial conditions.

Dark energy versus time

Dynamical models of dark energy

Typically do not address cosmological constant problem Can address the cosmic coincidence problem Typically invoke new fundamental or effective elds
S= 1 d4 x g ()2 + V () 2

Quintessence:
=

1 2 1 2 + V (), p = V () 2 2

V ()

Like ination models, but at much lower energy scale Problem: expect loop corrections to spoil atness of potential and small mass of scalar eld One solution: scalar eld is the size of compact extra dimensions (radion), protected by diffeomorphism invariance

Modied Gravity vs. Dark Energy

Evidence for dark energy presumes validity of general relativity. Perhaps, instead, general relativity is modied on large scales.

Modied Gravity vs. Dark Energy

Evidence for dark energy presumes validity of general relativity. Perhaps, instead, general relativity is modied on large scales. How do we decide if a given a modication of the laws of physics involves a modication of gravity? Perhaps ask which side of the Einstein equation is modied, or which term in action is modied:
S= G R d4 x g 16 G = 8 GT + Smatter [g , matter ]

Modied Gravity vs. Dark Energy

Evidence for dark energy presumes validity of general relativity. Perhaps, instead, general relativity is modied on large scales. How do we decide if a given a modication of the laws of physics involves a modication of gravity? Perhaps ask which side of the Einstein equation is modied, or which term in action is modied:
S= G R d4 x g 16 G = 8 GT + Smatter [g , matter ]

This criterion is in fact ambiguous. Instead, we should ask if there are universal, long-range, 5th forces between macroscopic bodies.

Modied Gravity vs. Dark Energy

Example:
S g S R = + Smatter [e() g , matter ] d x g 16 G f (), e() g ,
4

1 d x g ()2 V () 2
4

)R 1 2 A( ( ) V () + Smatter [ d x g g , matter ] 16 G 2
4

Modied Gravity vs. Dark Energy

Example:
S g S R = + Smatter [e() g , matter ] d x g 16 G f (), e() g ,
4

1 d x g ()2 V () 2
4

)R 1 2 A( ( ) V () + Smatter [ d x g g , matter ] 16 G 2
4

In this theory, scalar eld both acts like quintessence and mediates 5th forces. This mixed character is generic, since loop corrections generate matter couplings. Solar system tests of gravity (light bending, perihelion precession) require | ()| 102 if V () (A.U.)2 These theories can arise as effective description of extra dimensions Other possible observational signatures: time evolution of effective Newtons constant (ne structure constant for generalized models)

Modifying gravitational action: a catalog

Are there successful models that are not mostly quintessence?

f (R) d x g 16 G
4

S [g , m ] =

+ Sm [g , m ]

Equivalent to last model with

() = / 6 , ruled out by Solar System

S [g , m ] =

f (R, R R , R R ) d x g 16 G
4

+ Sm [g , m ]

Problems with ghosts/acausality

Modifying gravitational action: a catalog

S [g , , m ] = ) f (R d x g 16 G
4

+ Sm [g , m ]

Ruled out; predicts modications of particle physics at energy scale

H0 Mp 103 eV
) f (R, R d x g 16 G
4

S [g , , m ] =

+ Sm [g , m ]

Some successful models.

Equivalent to tensor bi-scalar model similar to the mixed models discussed earlier.

Some interesting models based on extra dimensions do not have a simple effective 4-dimensional description, eg DGP model

Observational probes of dark energy

Probes of the expansion history of the Universe Probes of the growth of perturbations Precision tests of general relativity Specic observational windows (i) Supernovae (ii) Measurements of numbers of clusters using CMBR (iii) Weak gravitational lensing (iv) Baryon acoustic oscillations

Image credit: Max Tegmark

Conclusions

The discovery of the acceleration of the Universe requires new fundamental physics The dark energy might be a cosmological constant. We may never be able to explain its tiny size. The dark energy may be dynamical. Potential observational windows include (i) Probing the expansion history of the Universe (ii) Probing the growth of structure in the Universe (iii) High precision tests of general relativity (iv) Measurements of time evolution in fundamental constants of nature.