Control and Instrumentation

The typical Control and Instrument Engineer will be expected to be fluent in electronics, fluid dynamics, material selection, control engineering, and systems engineering amongst all the usual competencies expected of today's professional engineer. In any one day the C&I engineer could be expected to size an orifice plate, hook up a differential pressure transmitter across the plate, wire it via a hazardous area barrier into a control system (obviously complete with graphical interface and alarm points they have specified), configure the control loop, wire the controlled output to a control valve that they have sized and selected to be suitable for the fluid conditions, and of course ensure there is instrument air available to actuate the valve. And for good measure they will have to ensure the emergency shut down system has an appropriately high integrity level to drive the valve closed when required. With all these demands it is no surprise then that Control and Instrumentation is often regarded as the "black art" of many an engineering house. However, we all know that to be good at their job the instruments man must be able to put their hands on the right information, quickly. This site aims to help you maintain the mystique.

ATEX
What is Atex?

ATEX is the common name given to the EU directive 94/9/EC, Equipment and Protective Systems intended for use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres. The word ATEX is derived from the French "ATmospheres EXplosibles".
What is the intent of the ATEX Directive?

To enable the free trading of ATEX products within the European Economic Area by removing the need for separate documentation and testing for each individual European market. Manufacturers may use a single CE mark on their products to show

compliance with this (and any other relevant) Directive.

What does ATEX apply to?

The ATEX directive applies to both electrical and mechanical equipment intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres. These include: - equipment and protective systems for use within potentially explosive atmospheres; - devices for use outside potentially explosive atmospheres, but which are required for, or contribute to the safe functioning of equipment and protective systems located inside such atmospheres; and - components relating to the above.
To what industries does ATEX apply?

ATEX applies to any industrial location where there is a potential for an explosive atmosphere to exist, e.g. mines, factories, agricultural silos, oil and gas platforms, water and other chemical processing environments.
To whom does ATEX apply?

If you design, manufacture or sell any equipment or protective system intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres within the EU, then you will need to comply with the ATEX Directive 94/9/EC.
How do I know if a product complies with ATEX?

The ATEX Directive sets a number of technical and quality objectives that must be complied with to the satisfaction of a notified body, but once these have been met, a manufacturer can mark his product with a CE Mark and is entitled to display the distinctive ex mark.
What other marking can be shown?

The following marking should be shown on all ATEX compliant equipment. - CE Mark - Ex-marking symbol followed by ATEX data - Name and address of manufacturer - Series or type, serial number - Year of construction - All further information essential to the safe use Marking, especially on small components can be an issue.

Show me an example of the CE, EX and Atex data marking

9876

II 2 G

What does the ATEX data mean?

The ATEX Directive identifies two groups of equipment. - Group 1 equipment is intended for use in mining applications. Divided into categories M1 and M2. M1 identifies equipment that must continue to operate when a potentially explosive atmosphere is present. M2 identifies equipment that does not operate when a potentially explosive atmosphere is present. - Group 2 is intended for all other situations. Divided into categories 1,2 and 3. Category 1 equipment is intended for use in Zone O situations. Category 2 equipment is intended for use in Zone 1 situations. Category 3 equipment is intended for use in Zone 2 situations.
What are Zones?

Zoned areas are areas where there is a risk of flammable material being released to atmosphere. The subscripts 0, 1 and 2 describe the probability of a flammable material being released to atmosphere in explosive concentrations.
And the G?

G means the item has been tested for potentially explosive atmospheres due to the presence of gas D means the item has been tested for potentially explosive atmospheres due to the presence of dust.

Armoured Cable Glands

Why Do We Use Cable Glands?

- To firmly secure cable entering a piece of equipment - To maintain the ingress protection of the piece of equipment (minimum of IP54 for 'e' and 'n' type enclosures. Where the enclosure wall thickness is less than 6mm a sealing washer or thread sealant will be required to maintain IP54 protection) - To maintain earth continuity between a piece of equipment and any armouring in the cable - To ensure containment of an internal explosion in flameproof equipment
Is There a British Standard for Cable Glands?

The Code of Practice for selection, installation and inspection of cable glands used in electrical installations is covered in BS 6121-5 1989 Mechanical cable glands.
Selecting Cable Glands

Items to consider when selecting a cable gland for a particular installation include: - Possibility of electrolytic action between the gland and the enclosure. Shortened lifetime for the glands and the cable entries can result if incompatible materials selected. The most common materials used are brass, stainless steel and plastic. Material choice will influence cost. - Degree of Ingress Protection required. See our page on IP ratings. - Certification of gland for use in Hazardous areas - Normal or barrier gland required - Size of cable being terminated - Size of cable entry on piece of equipment
What is a Barrier Gland?

Barrier glands are similar to normal glands, except a compound sealant material is used to ensure the inside of the cable is gas tight as well as the outside.
When Should a Barrier Gland be Used?

BS EN60079-14 Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas Atmospheres Part 14 Electrical Installations in Hazardous Areas (other than Mines) provides a selection process for deciding if a barrier gland is required. There are various options to consider, however if the hazardous gas require IIC apparatus, or if the volume of the enclosure is greater than 2 litres then it is likely you will need to use a barrier gland. IIC apparatus is generally associated with Hydrogen.
Gable Gland Sizing

A rough gland sizing table is provided below, however reference should be made to the British Standard referenced above.

Nominal Conductor 2 Area (mm )

Number of cores

1 --------20 25 25 25 32 32 40 40 50

2 20S 20S 20S 20 20 25 25 25 32 32 40 40 50 50 50 63 63

3 20S 20S 20S 20 25 25 25 32 32 40 40 50 50 50 63 63 75

4 20S 20S 20 20 25 25 32 32 40 40 50 50 63 63 63 75 --

5 20S 20 20

7 20S 20 20

10 20 25 25

12 25 25 25

19 25 25 32

27 25 32 40

37 32 41 --

48 32 40 --

1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300 400

This chart is for guidance only. Consult relevant British Standards before making final selection.

CE Marking
What is CE marking?

CE marking identifies a product as conforming to European Directives. When a manufacturer affixes a CE mark to their product they are declaring compliance with ALL RELEVANT European Directives.
When did the CE mark start to be used?

CE marking for instruments began on the 1st of January 1996. From then a CE mark must be carried by all electronic equipment sold within the European Economic Area. The regulations do not apply retrospectively.
What does a CE mark look like?

The mark is shown in the top left hand corner of this page. This is usually stamped on to the manufacturers name plate.
What European Directives are relevant to Instrumentation?

- 89/336/EEC (modified by 92/31/EEC, and 93/68/EEC), The Electromagnetic

Compatibility Directive (from Jan 96) - 72/23/EEC (modified by 93/68/EEC), The Low Voltage Directive (from Jan 97) - 97/23/EC, The Pressure Equipment Directive, known as PED (from May 2002) - 94/9/EC, Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres, known as ATEX (from 1/7/2003)
Which countries demand a CE mark?

All 27 member countries of the European Union (EU), and the 3 member countries of EFTA (European Free Trade Association) consider it to be mandatory. It is estimated that around 70% of all products sold in these countries require to be marked. CE Marking obtained from one EU country is valid in all other EU count ires, and in the EFTA countries. It permits free movement of the product within all 28 countries.
Who belongs to the European Union?

Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom
Who belongs to EFTA ?

As of February 2005; Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland

Who Ensures Compliance?

The law applies to the manufacturer, importer, supplier and the customer. It is an offence to supply a product, which is not CE marked, regardless of where it is made. Therefore the manufacturer, importer and supplier must ensure products are CE marked. It is also an offence to use unmarked products. Therefore the purchaser must ensure products are CE marked. The relevant regulatory body in the country concerned is charged with enforcing the law. In the UK this falls to the trading standards department of local authorities.
What about spare parts?

Components with no intrinsic function e.g. a circuit board do not require a CE mark. However, an instrument that is a spare part for a compressor package would require to be marked (assuming that one or more of the directives mentioned above apply).

ANSI Flange Dimensions

Flange Standards

The most common flange standard in the oil and gas industry is arguably American National Standards Institute (ANSI) B16.5. Other standards are used, e.g. - British Imperial flanges BS 10, - Metric flanges SABS 1123, BS 4504, DIN 2501, - Japanese and Korean flanges JIS-B-2212, JIS-B-2214 & KS-B-1503
ANSI B16.5. Flange Dimensions

The following tables provide flange dimensions, diameters and drillings for the most common sizes and ratings.
ANSI 150# Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD 1/2" 1" 2" 4" 6" 8" 10" 12" 14" 2 3/8" 3 1/8" 4 3/4" 7 1/2" 9 1/2" 11 3/4" 14 1/4" 17 " 18 3/4" 4 4 4 8 8 8 12 12 12 ANSI 300# Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD 1/2" 1" 2" 4" 6" 8" 10" 2 5/8" 3 1/2" 5" 7 7/8" 10 5/8" 13" 15 1/4" 4 4 8 8 12 12 16 1/2" 5/8" 5/8" 3/4" 3/4" 7/8" 1" 3 3/4" 4 7/8" 6 1/2" 10" 12 1/2" 15" 17 1/2" 1/2" 1/2" 5/8" 5/8" 3/4" 3/4" 7/8" 7/8" 1" 3 1/2" 4 1/4" 6" 9" 11" 13 1/2" 16" 19" 21"

12" 14"

17 3/4" 20 1/4"

16 20 ANSI 600#

1 1/8" 1 1/8"

20 1/2" 23"

Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD 1/2" 1" 2" 4" 6" 8" 10" 12" 14" 2 5/8" 3 1/2" 5" 8 1/2" 11 1/2" 13 3/4" 17" 19 1/4" 20 3/4" 4 4 8 8 12 12 16 20 20 ANSI 900# Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD 2" * 4" 6" 8" 10" 12" 14" 6 1/2" 9 1/4" 12 1/2" 15 1/2" 18 1/2" 21" 22" 8 8 12 12 16 20 20 7/8" 1 1/8" 1 1/8" 1 3/8" 1 3/8" 1 3/8" 1 1/2" 8 1/2" 11 1/2" 15" 18 1/2" 21 1/2" 24" 25 1/4" 1/2" 5/8" 5/8" 7/8" 1" 1 1/8" 1 1/4" 1 1/4" 1 3/8" 3 3/4" 4 7/8" 6 1/2" 10 3/4" 14" 16 1/2" 20" 22" 23 3/4"

* 2" Class 1500 is used for 2" Class 900 ANSI 1500# Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD 2" 4" 6" 8" 6 1/2" 9 1/2" 12 1/2" 15 1/2" 8 8 12 12 7/8" 1 1/4" 1 3/8" 1 5/8" 8 1/2" 12 1/4" 15 1/2" 19"

Flange Class Equivalents

The above tables reveal the following equivalences: - Classes 300 & 600 for sizes 1/2", 3/4" and 1" - Classes 900 to 1500 for sizes 1/2" to 2 1/2"

Ingress Protection
What does IP stand for?

IP is an acronym for Ingress Protection

Why is Ingress Protection Important?

Liquid and/or solid particle ingress into electrical equipment may not only be harmful to the equipment, it may also be dangerous to the operator. Therefore when buying electrical equipment whether it be an electric motor, a light fiiting or an enclosure, it is essential to know what degree of ingress protection the item offers.
So how is Ingress Protection quoted?

An "IP" number, or as it is commonly known, an IP rating is used to specify the environmental protection offered. The IP rating is composed of two numbers, the first referring to the protection against solid object ingress and the second against liquid ingress. The higher the number the better the protection.
Are there standards covering these ratings?

The applicable European standards for ingress protection are: - BS EN 60529 Specification of Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures - IEC 529 Specification of Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures
What are the numerical codes? Ingress Protection Classification First Number IP Protection Provided 0 No Protection Protected against solid 1 objects up to 50mm e.g. accidental touch by hands Protected against solid 2 objects up to 12mm e.g. fingers Second Number IP Protection Provided 0 No Protection Protected against vertically 1 falling drops of water e.g. condensation Protected against direct 2 sprays of water up to 15 deg from the vertical

Protected against solid 3 objects over 2.5mm e.g. tools 4

Protected against direct 3 sprays of water up to 60 deg from the vertical

Protected against water Protected against solid 4 sprayed from all directions objects over 1mm e.g. wires limited ingress permitted Protected against low pressure jets of water from 5 all directions - limited ingress permitted Protected against strong jets of water e.g. for use on 6 shipdecks - limited ingress permitted Protected against the affects 7 of immersion between 15cm and 1m Protected against long 8 periods of immersion under pressure

Protected against dust 5 limited ingress (no harmful deposit) Totally protected against dust

What do they use outside Europe?

In North America, the NEMA classification is used. NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) is a US trade association representing the interests of electroindustry manufacturers of products used in the generation, transmission and distribution, control, and end-use of electricity.
How does the IP and NEMA systems compare?

The IEC and NEMA degrees of protection can not be fully compared as equivalent ratings. The NEMA Standard includes tests for environmental conditions such as mechanical damage, corrosion, rusting, ice formation, etc. However the follwoing table can be used as a guide:
NEMA Enclosure IEC Type Number Classification 1 2 3 3R 3S IP 10 IP 11 IP 54 IP 14 IP 54

4 and 4X 5 6 and 6P Does NEMA produce standards?

IP 56 IP 52 IP 67

NEMA Standard Publication 250 and UL 40 Standard Publication both provide further information on ingress protection ratings used in the US.

Pipe Schedules
What is a pipe schedule?

Pipes are designed to carry fluid, therefore their internal diameter is their critical dimension. This critical dimension is referred to as the nominal bore, commonly appreviated as NB. Obviously, for pipes containing pressurised fluids the wall thickness, and by implication the pipe's strength, is important. Wall thickness is expressed in "schedules", refered to as pipe schedules.
What Standards Govern Pipe Sizes?

In the oil and gas and related down stream industries the the most common standards are - ASME/ANSI B 36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe, and - ASME/ANSI B36.19 Stainless Steel Pipe
Does Pipe Schedule Change With Pipe Size?

For all pipe sizes the outside diameter remains relatively constant. Therefore any variation schedule i.e. wall thickness, affects only the inside diameter. As the schedule number increases, the wall thickness increases, and the actual bore is reduced.
Pipe Schedule Charts

The wall thickness associated with a particular schedule depends on the pipe size as can be seen from the charts below for some of the more common sized carbon steel pipes encountered. Abbreviations used: NB - nominal bore, STD - Standard, EH - Extra Heavy, DBL EH - Double Extra Heavy.
OD = 2.375 inch (60.32 mm) 40 80 Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 STD EH ID (ins) 2.245 2.157 ----- 2.067 --- 1.939 --ID (mm) 57.02 54.79 ----- 52.5 --- 49.25 --2"NB

120 -----

140

DBL EH --- 1.689 1.503 --- 42.9 38.18 160

OD = 3.5 inch (88.9 mm) 40 80 Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 STD EH ID (ins) 3.334 3.260 ----- 3.068 --- 2.900 --ID (mm) 84.68 82.8 ----- 77.93 --- 73.66 ---

3" NB

120 -----

140

DBL EH --- 2.624 2.300 --- 66.65 58.42 160

OD = 4.5 inch (114.3 mm) 40 80 DBL Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 STD EH EH ID (ins) 4.334 4.260 ----- 4.026 --- 3.826 --- 3.624 --- 3.438 3.152 ID (mm) 110.08 108.2 ----- 102.26 --- 97.18 --- 92.05 --- 87.33 80.06

4" NB

OD = 6.625 inch (168.275 mm) 40 80 DBL Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 STD EH EH ID (ins) 6.407 6.357 ----- 6.065 --- 5.761 --- 5.501 --- 5.189 4.897 ID (mm) 162.74 161.47 ----- 154.05 --- 146.33 --- 139.73 --- 131.8 124.38

6" NB

OD = 8.625 inch (219.1 mm) 40 80 DBL Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 STD EH EH ID (ins) 8.407 8.329 8.125 8.071 7.981 7.813 7.625 7.439 7.189 7.001 6.813 6.375 ID (mm) 213.54 211.56 206.38 205 202.72 198.45 193.67 188.95 182.6 177.83 173.05 161.93

8" NB

OD = 10.750 inch (273 mm) 40 80 Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 STD EH ID (ins) 10.482 10.42 10.25 10.136 10.02 9.750 9.564 9.314 9.064 8.750 8.500 ID (mm) 266.24 264.67 260.35 257.45 254.5 247.65 242.93 236.58 230.23 222.25 215.9

10" NB

DBL EH -----

OD = 12.750 inch (323.85 mm) 40 80 DBL Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 STD EH EH ID (ins) 11.938 11.376 12.42 12.39 12.25 12.09 11.626 11.064 10.75 10.50 10.126 --12.000 11.750

12" NB

ID (mm)

315.47 314.7 311.15 307.1

303.22 288.95 295.3 281.03 273.05 266.7 257.2 304.8 298.45

---

Relief Valve Orifice Sizes

What is a Relief Valve?

Relief Valves are mechanical devices designed to operate if an over-pressure situation occurs - they are used to safeguard the plant. Generally, they are the last line of defence; following on from ESD and operator intervention.
So what is a Relief Valve orifice?

The American Petroleum Institute has developed a series of inlet size, orifice, outlet size combinations for various pressure classes of flanged relief valves. These combinations have been widely adopted by engineers throughout the oil and gas and allied industries. Central to these combinations are a series of fourteen standard orifice sizes each denoted by a letter ranging from D through to T. Each letter refers to a specific effective orifice area.
What do the orifices denote?

The valve sizing engineer (usually a process or instrument engineer) determines the controlling relieving rate from all possible scenarios, then the required relief valve orifice size is determined using the appropriate equation given in API. Knowing the required relief valve orifice size, an actual orifice size equal to or greater than the calculated orifice size is chosen from a the standard range. The maximum flow through this actual orifice will be the valves capacity.
What are the standard orifice sizes?

The full list of letters and corresponding effective area is shown below:
Relief Valve Orifice Sizes Letter Bore Dimensions in2 cm2 D 0.110 0.71 E 0.196 1.26 F 0.307 1.98 G 0.503 3.24 H 0.785 5.06 J 1.287 8.30

K L M N P Q R T

1.838 2.853 3.600 4.340 6.380 11.050 16.000 26.000

11.85 18.40 23.23 28.00 41.16 71.29 103.22 167.74

Tempearature Classification
What is Temperature Classification?

Temperature classification (also known as temperature class, or T class) defines the maximum surface temperature that a product destined for use in a potentially hazardous atmosphere is allowed to operate at, relative to an ambient temperature of 20C to +40C. According to the type of protection used on the product e.g. Exd, Exe etc, the temperature corresponds either to the maximum temperature of the external surface of the product, or to the maximum temperature of the internal surface of the product. Generally, Temp-class is based on fault conditions or, at the very least, worst case normal operating conditions.
Why is Temperature Class Important?

All flammable gases have an auto-ignition temperature. If a flammable mixture of the gas is exposed to a component above the auto-ignition temperature then the mixture will ignite. Therefore, when selecting equipment, the Temperature class must be below the auto-ignition temperature of the potentially explosive atmosphere where it will be installed. If several different flammable materials may be present within a particular area, the material that gives the lowest auto ignition temperature dictates the overall area classification.
T-Class and Equipment Marking

The ATEX directives typically require all products certified suitable for use in a hazardous area, e.g. instruments, enclosures, luminaries etc to be marked with their temperature class. Look out for a T number at the end of the protection concept marking on the products label e.g. EEx de IIB T3 indicates that this explosion proof apparatus has a temperature classification of T3 which corresponds to a maximum surface temperature of 200C.

Temperature Class for Group I Applications

"T" classes do not apply to group I applications. Equipment for use in the mining industry has either a rigid 150C or 450C limit.
Temperature Class for Group II Applications Temperature Classification Max. Surface North American European Temp C 450 300 280 260 230 215 200 180 165 160 135 120 100 85 T1 T2 T2A T2B T2C T2D T3 T3A T3B T3C T4 T4A T5 T6 T1 T2 --------T3 ------T4 --T5 T6

The Atlantic Divide

North American and Canadian standards differ from European standards with smaller temperature ranges allowed in Europe. See table above.

Temperature Conversion
Kelvin (K)

The Kelvin scale, called after the Scot - Lord Kelvin (William Thompson 1824-1907), is the fundamental temperature scale. It is physically

impossible to have anything colder than zero Kelvin, even although the conversion calculator below allows you to enter negative values of K. Enter your value of K and press convert. The equivalent in Celsius, Fahrenheit and Rankine are displayed.
Kelvin to Celsius =(K+273.15) to Fahrenheit =(K+273.15)*1.8+32 to Rankine =(K*9/5)

Rankine ( R)

Enter your value of R and press convert. The equivalent in Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin are displayed.
Rankine to Celsius =(R*5/9)-273.15 to Fahrenheit =R-459.67 to Kelvin =R*5/9

Fahrenheit ( F)

Gabriel Fahrenheit, an instrument maker in Amsterdam, used mercury as the fluid in a thermometer. He calibrated the thermometer to read 212 for the boiling temperature of water and to read 32 for the freezing point of water. This has become known as the Fahrenheit scale. Enter your value of F and press convert. The equivalent in Celsius, Kelvin and Rankine are displayed.
Fahrenheit to Celsius =(F-32)/1.8 to Kelvin =(F-32)/1.8-273.15 to Rankine =F+459.67

Celsius ( C)

Enter your value of C and press convert. The equivalent in Fahrenheit, Kelvin and Rankine are displayed.
Celsius to Fahrenheit =(C*1.8)+32 to Kelvin =C+273.15 to Rankine =(C*1.8)+491.67

Thermocouple Types
What is a Thermocouple?

A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, which produce a small voltage when heated (or cooled). This voltage is measured and used to determine the temperature of the heated metals. The voltage for any one temperature is unique to the combination of metals used.
Are There Standards Governing Types of Thermocouple?

British Standards Specification, BS 1041, Temperature Measurement provides guidance for the selection and use of devices for measuring temperature. ASTM Standard E230 provides specifications for the common industrial grades, including letter designations.
Why are there different types?

Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals, usually refered to by a letter, e.g. J, K etc. Each combination has a different temperature range and is therefore more suited to certain applications than others. Although it is worth noting that the maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the thermocouple.
Summary of Thermocouple Types
Conductor Combination Platinum 30% Rhodium / Platinum 6% Rhodium Temperature Range F C 2500 to 3100 1370 to 1700 0 to 870 0 to 760 0 to 1260

Type

Nickel-chromium / Constantan 32 to 1600 E Iron / Constantan 32 to 1400 J K Nickel-chromium / Nickel-aluminum 32 to 2300

N R S T

Nicrosil / Nisil Platinum 13% Rhodium / Platinum Platinum 10% Rhodium / Platinum Copper / Constantan

32 to 2300

0 to 1260

1600 to 2640 870 to 1450 1800 to 2640 980 to 1450 -75 to +700 -59 to +370

Type B

Type B thermocouples can be used up to 1600C with short term excursions up to 1800C. They have a low electrical output, therefore are rarely used below 600C. In fact the output is virtually negligible up to 50C, therefore cold junction compensation is not usually required with this type.
Type E

Type E thermocouples are often referred to as Chromel-Constantan thermocouples. They are regarded as more stable than Type K, therefore often used where a higher degree of accuracy is required. Note - Constantan is Copper-Nickel.
Type J

Type J thermocouples degrade rapidly in oxidising atmospheres above 550C. Their maximum continuous operating temperature is around 750C though they can with stand short duration excursions to 1000C. They are generally not used below ambient temperature due to condensation forming on the wires leading to rusting of the iron. Note - Constantan is Copper-Nickel.
Type K

Type K are the most widely used thermocouples in the Oil & Gas, and refining industries due to their wide range and low cost. They are occasionally referred to as Chromel-Alumel thermocouples. Note that above about 750C oxidation leads to drift and the need for recalibration.
Type N

Type N thermocouples can handle higher temperatures than type K, and offer better repeatability in the 300 to 500C range. They offers many advantages over Type R & S at a tenth of the cost, therefore prove to be popular alternatives.
Type R

Type R thermocouples cover similar applications as Type S but offers improved stability and a marginal increase in range. Consequently, Type R tend to be used in preference to Type S.

Type S

Type S thermocouples can be continually at temperatures up to 1450C. They can with stand short duration excursions up to 1650C. They need protection from high temperature atmospheres to prevent metallic vapour ingress to the tip resulting in reduction of emf generated. Protection commonly offered is high purity recrystallised alumina sheath. For most industrial applications, thermocouples are housed in a thermowell.
Type T

Type T thermocouples are rarely used in industrial applications, and lend themselves more to use in laboratory situations.

Valve Leakage
Types of Leakage

There are two types of leakage from a valve, namely; fugitive emissions from the valve to atmosphere, and leakage through the valve but contained within the piping system. Fugitive emissions can both be detrimental to the environment and a potential safety hazard. Valves are considered to be the major contributors to fugitive emission losses. Leakage through the valve can also be a safety hazard, and can be detrimental to the process.
Reasons that Valves Leak

Common causes of valve leakage include: - Valve is not fully closed. This can be due to various reasons, including; - Valve seat is prevented from closing fully due to dirt, rust, or line debris - Insufficient actuator travel - The seat is damaged, e.g. scored - The seal is damaged
Standards for Acceptable Rates of Valve Leakage

There are many standards for leakage rates e.g. DIN EN 917 covers Thermoplastics valves, BS 6364 covers cryogenic valves, however the three standards used most in the oil and gas, and petrochemical industry are API 598, ANSI FCI 70-2 and MSSSP-61. Seee below for further details.
American Petroleum Institute

The Americam Petroleum Institute standard 598 covers the testing and inspection requirements for gate, globe, check, ball, plug & butterfly valves. It has acceptable

leakage rates for liquid as well as gas testing. All valves built to the various API standards are required to meet API-598 leakage criteria prior to shipment from the manufacturer or supplier. API598 states for shell and backseat tests, no visible leakage is permitted. If the fluid is a liquid, there shall be no visible evidence of drops or wetting of the external surfaces (no visible leakage through the body, body liner, if any, and body-to-bonnet joint and no structural damage). If the test fluid is air or gas, no leakage shall be revealed by the established detection method. For both the low-pressure closure test and the high-pressure closure test, visual evidence of leakage through the disk, behind the seat rings, or past the shaft seals (of valves that have this feature) is not permitted (Plastic deformation of resilient seats and seals is not considered structural damage). The allowable rate for leakage of test fluid past the seats, for the duration of the tests, is listed in the following table:
Valve Size <= 2" 2.5" 6"" 8" 12"" All Resilient Seated Valves 0 0 0 All Metal-Seated Valves (except Check Valves) Liquid Test (drops/min.) 0 (b) 12 20 28 Gas Test (bubbles/min.) 0 (b) 24 40 56 Metal-Seated Check Valves Liquid Test Gas Test (drops/min.) (bubbles/min.) (c) (c) (c) (c) (d) (d) (d) (d)

>= 14"" 0

where (a) 1 milliliter is considered equivalent to 16 drops (b) There shall be no leakage for the minimum specified test duration. For liquid test, 0 drop means no visible leakage per minimum specified test duration. For gas test, 0 bubble means less then 1 bubble per minimum specified test duration. (c) The maximum permissible leakage rate shall be 0.18 cubic inch (3 cubic centimeters) per minute per inch of nominal pipe size. (d) The maximum permissible leakage rates shall be 1.5 standard cubic feet (0.042 cubic meter) of gas per hour per inch of nominal pipe size. (e) For check valves larger than NPS 24, the allowable leakage rate shall be per agreement between purchaser and manufacturer.
Manufacturers Standardisation Society

The US based Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS) of the Valve and Fittings Industry is a non-profit technical association organised for development and improvement of industry, national and international codes and standards for, amongst other things, valves.

Section 5 of their Pressure Testing of Steel Valves, MSS-SP-61 1999 relates to seat closure tests, and defines the following leakage rates: - GATE, GLOBE, BALL VALVES: 10 cc/hr per inch of nominal pipe diameter. (Example: A 6" globe valve is allowed to leak 60 cc/hr in a test) - CHECK VALVES: 40 cc/hr per inch of nominal pipe diameter All shutoff or isolation valves specified to MSS-SP-61 must pass the above standards. The seat closure test must be performed at a fluid (liquid or gas) pressure no less than 1.1 times the 1000F (380C) rating rounded to the next 5 psi (0.5 bar).
American National Standards Institute

ANSI FCI 70-2 supercedes ANSI B16.104 and specifies six different seat leakage classifications; class 1 to class VI. Class I is also know as dust tight and can refer to metal or resilient seated valves. Class IV is also known as metal to metal. It is the kind of leakage rate you can expect from a valve with a metal shut-off disc and metal seat. Class Vl is known as a soft seat classification. Soft Seat Valves are those where the seat or shut-off disc or both are made from some kind of resilient material such as Teflon.
Leakage Class Maximum Leakage Allowable Test Medium Test Pressure Test Procedure No test required, as long as purchaser and vendor both agree. Pressure applied to valve inlet with outlet open to atmosphere or connected to a low head loss measuring device full normal closing thrust provided by

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II

0.5% of rated capacity

45-60 psig Air or or max. water at operating 50-125F differential (10-52) whichever is lower

actuator. III IV 0.1% of rated capacity 0.01% of rated capacity As above As above As above As above As above As above

0.0005 ml per minute of water per inch of port diameter per psi differential

Pressure applied to valve inlet after filling entire body cavity and connected Max piping with service water and pressure stroking drop valve plug Water at across closed. Use 50 to valve plug, net 125F (10 not to specified to 52C) exceed max ANSI actuator body thrust, but rating. no more, even if available during test. Allow time for leakage flow to stabilize. Actuator should be adjusted to operating conditions specified with full normal closing thrust applied to valve plug seat. Allow time for leakage flow to stabilize

VI

Not to exceed amounts shown in following table based on port diameter.

50 psig or max rated Air or differential nitrogen pressure at 50 to across 125 F valve plug (10to52C) whichever is lower.

and use suitable measuring device.

CONTROL VALVE SEAT LEAKAGE CLASSIFICATIONS Nominal Port Diameter Nominal Port Diameter Leak Rate Leak Rate Inches mm ml/min bubbles/min 3 4 6 8 10 12 76 102 152 203 254 305 0.9 1.7 4 6.75 9 11.5 6 11 27 45 63 81

Bubbles per minute as tabulated are a suggested alternative based on a suitable calibrated measuring device, in this case a 0.25-inch OD X 0.032-inch wall tube submerged in water to a depth of from 1/8 to 1/4 inch. The tube end shall be cut square and smooth with no chamfers or burrs. The tube axis shall be perpendicular to the surface of the water. Other measuring devices may be constructed and the number of bubbles per minute may differ from those shown as long as they correctly indicate the flow in milliliters per minute.

Straight Length Requirements for Vortex Meters

Why are straight lenghts important?

Like most flow devices, a Vortex flow meter requires a well developed and symmetrical flow velocity profile, free from any distortions or swirls if it is to give good accuracy and repeatability. To achieve good accuracy and repeatability it is standard practice to place the meter some distance from sources of turbulence. Common sources of turbulence include pumps, valves, changes in line direction (i.e. bends), changes in line size etc.
How are straight lenghts defined?

Most manufacturers provide the user with minimum distances for their particular products. These distances, refered to as straight lenghts, are indicated in Pipe Diameters (D). For example, 10 D means place the flow meter ten times the pipe's

inside diameter away from the source of turbulence. Because turbulence both upstream and downstream can reduce accuracy, manufacturesrs provide straight length requirements for up and downstream of the meter.
Installing a Vortex Meter

Different manufacturers claim differing requirements, with fewer straight lengths being marketed as an advantage for the end user. Ideally the flow transmitter should be sited with as many upstream and downstream straight pipe lengths as possible, preferably more than recommended by the manufacturer, but definately not less. Obtaining the necessary straight lengths can be difficult, especially in compact plants. Therefore it is worth remembering that Vortex meters can be installed vertically, horizontally, or at any angle, as long as they are kept flooded. If you are compensating for pressure and temperature then allow 3 to 4 pipe diameters between the meter and downstream pressure taps, and thermowells should be small and located 5 to 6 D downstream of the meter. As a general rule of thumb straight lengths should be about the same as that required for an orifice installation with a beta ratio of 0.7 - see the table below
Source of Turbulence Upstream Diameters Downstream Diameters Line reduces in size Line increases in size Single 90? bend Two 90 bends in same plane Two 90 bends in different planes Fully open valve 15 D 35 D 30 D 30 D 40 D 35 D 5D 5D 5D 5D 5D 5D

Wire Sizes
Cables Wires and Conductors

A wire is a single rod of metal with a small ratio of diameter to length. A conductor is a wire suitable for carrying an electric current. A stranded conductor is a conductor made up of a group of wires. These wires are usually twisted together. A cable is either a single stranded conductor or a combination of conductors insulated from one another (a mutlti-core cable). Cables in the oil and gas and petrochem industries are generally always insulated and often protected with an armoured sheath. In general, stranded conductors are more flexible and less susceptible to fatigue-

failure than solid wires.

Cable Sizing

Wires can carry only a limited amount of current safely. If the current flowing through a wire exceeds the current-carrying capacity of the wire, excess heat is generated. This heat may be great enough to burn off the insulation around the wire and start a fire. An increase in the diameter, or cross section, of a wire conductor decreases its resistance and increases its capacity to carry current. Other reasons for choosing an increased cross sectional area of wire is to limit volt drop along its length.
Limitations

Wires and cables are made in standard diameters. When selecting cables it is common select the next standard size up from that calculated. The terminals (e.g. Weidmuller, Phoenix etc) into which the cable or wire will terminate are made to accomadate a range of sizes. Be aware of any limitations this may place on your selection.
Dimensions

Wire diameters are often specified in American Wire Gausge (AWG) rather than in mm or inches. The charts below give dimensions of common diameters and the corresponding AWG.
Solid Bare Copper Wire AWG Nominal Cross Diam Section (mm) (mm2) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 2.6 2.3 2.05 1.83 1.63 1.45 1.29 1.15 1.02 0.912 0.813 0.724 5.23 4.155 3.29 2.63 2.07 1.651 1.3 1.039 0.816 0.653 0.514 0.412 Stranded Tinned Copper Wire AWG Stranding Nominal Cross Diam Section No/AWG (mm) (mm2) 12 12 12 14 14 14 16 16 16 18 18 18 7/20 19/25 65/30 7/22 19/26 42/30 7/24 19/29 65/34 7/26 19/30 42/34 2.44 2.36 2.41 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.52 1.47 1.5 1.22 1.24 1.2 3.61 3.07 3.27 2.26 1.93 2.06 1.42 1.216 1.3 0.891 0.957 0.819

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

0.643 0.574 0.511 0.455 0.404 0.361 0.32 0.287 0.254 0.226 0.203 0.18 0.16 0.142 0.127 0.114 0.102 0.089 0.079

0.322 0.259 0.203 0.163 0.127 0.102 0.08 0.064 0.051 0.04 0.032 0.025 0.02 0.016 0.013 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.005

18 20 20 20 22 22 24 24 24 26 26 28 28 30

65/36 7/28 19/32 42/36 7/30 19/34 7/32 19/36 42/40 7/34 19/38 7/36 19/40 7/38

1.2 0.89 0.94 0.914 0.762 0.787 0.61 0.61 0.584 0.483 0.508 0.381 0.406 0.305

0.845 0.504 0.612 0.533 0.352 0.38 0.226 0.239 0.201 0.14 0.153 0.071 0.093 0.056