INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,NIRMA UNIVERSITY ,AHMEDABAD B.TECH.

IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SEMESTER I, JULY 2012 3EE2104: EHV AC AND HVDC TRANSMISSION Handouts 1 INTRODUCTION TO EHV AC TRANSMISSION WHAT IS EHV TRANSMISSION ? Two factors considered in the classification of a "high voltage" are the possibility of causing a spark in air, and the danger of electric shock by contact or proximity. In electric power transmission engineering, high voltage is usually considered any voltage over approximately 35,000 volts. In digital electronics, a high voltage is the one that represents a logic 1; this may be only several hundred millivolts for some logic families. In electric power transmission engineering this refers to equipment designed for more than 345,000 volts between conductors. In electronics systems, a power supply that provides greater than 275,000 volts is known as an "EHV Power Supply". It is often used in experiments in physics. Transmission line only and not dealt with transient and dymamics stability ,load flow and circuit breaking . overvoltages and characteristics of long airgaps to withstand them have been discussed at length which can be classified as transient problems. This unit gives overview of steady state problems in transmission line and line must be designed to stay within specified limits for interference problem ,corona loss ,electrostatic field and voltage at the sending end and receiving end buses through proper reactive power compensation.Following points have to be covered in this unit Extra High Voltage (EHV) ac transmission can be assumed to have seen its development since the end of the Second World War, with the installation of 345 kV in North America and 400 kV in Europe. The distance between generating stations and load centres as well as the amount of power to be handled increased to such an extent that 220 kV was inadequate to handle the problem. In these nearly 50 years, the highest commercial voltage has increased to 1150 kV (1200 kV maximum) and research is under way at 1500 kV by the AEP-ASEA group. In India, the highest voltage used is 400 kV ac, but will be increased after 1990 to higher levels. The problems posed in using such high voltages are different from those encountered at lower voltages. These are: (a) Increased Current Density because of increase in line loading by using series capacitors. (b) Use of bundled conductors. (c) High surface voltage gradient on conductors. (d) Corona problems: Audible Noise, Radio Interference, Corona Energy Loss, Carrier Interference, and TV Interference. (e) High electrostatic field under the line. (f) Switching Surge Overvoltages which cause more havoc to air-gap insulation than lightning or power frequency voltages. (g) Increased Short-Circuit currents and possibility of ferro resonance conditions. (h) Use of gapless metal-oxide arresters replacing the conventional gap-type Silicon Carbiden arresters, for both lightning and switching-surge duty. (i) Shunt reactor compensation and use of series capcitors, resulting in possible subsynchronous resonance conditions and high shortcircuit currents. (j) Insulation coordination based upon switching impulse levels. (k) Single-pole reclosing to improve stability, but causing problems with arcing.

Necessity for EHV transmission With the increase in transmission voltage, for same amount of power to be transmitted current in the line decreases which reduces I2R losses. This will lead to increase in transmission efficiency.

With decrease in transmission current, size of conductor required reduces which decreases the volume of conductor. The transmission capacity is proportional to square of operating voltages. Thus the transmission capacity of line increases with increase in voltage. With increase in level of transmission voltage, the installation cost of the transmission line per km decreases. It is economical with EHV transmission to interconnect the power systems on a large scale. The no. of circuits and the land requirement for transmission decreases with the use of higher transmission voltages.
Advantage of EHV transmission The major advantages are:

Redution in the current. Reduction in the losses. Reduction in volume of conductor material required. Decrease in voltage drop & improvement of voltage regulation. Increase in Transmission Efficiency. Increased power handling capacity. The no. of circuits & the land requirement reduces as transmission voltage increases. The total line cost per MW per km decreases considerably with the increase in line voltage.
Disadvantage of EHV transmission DISADVANTAGES OF EHV TRANSMISSION The major disadvantages are:

Corona loss & radio interference Line supports Erection difficulties Insulation needs The cost of transformers, switchgear equipments & protective equipments increases with increase in transmission line voltage. The EHV lines generates electrostatic effects which are harmful to human beings & animals.
Technology in EHV AC transmission

FACTS technologies have a small footprint and minimal impact on the environment. Project implementation times are considerably faster and investment costs substantially lower than the alternative of building more transmission lines or new power generation facilities.
Series compensation:

Series compensation was invented by ABB in 1950. It made possible the world's first 400 kV transmission in the 1950s by resolving the issue of how to transmit power over long distances. The benefits of series compensation - improved system stability, increased transmission capacity, and reduced overall power losses.As transmission capacities rose, so did the need for higher series compensation voltages. Controllable series compensation (TCSC) was installed by ABB in the late 1990s and is also part of the FACTS family.In 1998, ABB launched a new generation of dynamic shunt compensation technology for transmission, steel and rail applications - SVC Light (often referred to in the United States by the generic name STATCOM). SVC Light with Energy Storage:

 The integration of dynamic energy storage into transmission and distribution systems has the potential. The new technology is based on SVC Light, combined with Li-ion battery storage. Future of EHV AC transmission Support is growing for a national EHV interstate transmission grid . Above figure illustrates one often referenced concept for such an interstate system, superimposed on a map of the existing EHV transmission system and wind resources in the US. The above figure indicates an overlay of predominantly 765 kV lines. Other voltages can be chosen and applied. For UHV, fewer lines would be needed, and for voltages below 765 kV more lines would be needed. It is understood, however, that the completion of this grid requires collaboration among stakeholders, especially transmission owners and operators. Choice of voltage for EHV AC transmission lines The line voltage greatly affect the performance of line and its cost .for getting the optimum operating transmission voltage ,we may use following empirical formula

V= operating voltage in kv D = distance of transmission in km P = power handled in kW a standrad voltage nearer to that obtained with above formula is selected for the given line The farmula gives the basic estimsate . By considering various technical and ecomomic aspect it is possible to obtain the most ecomomical voltage the detailed analysis can then be made based on result obtainted in which tells whether the voltage lies in EHV (Extra high voltage 300 to 765 kv ) range or UHV (ultra high voltage >765 ) Configuration of an EHV AC transmission link EHV AC Transmission line requires minimum two parallel three phase transmission circuits to ensure reliability and stability during a fault on any one phase of the three phase lines . similarly EHV line also requires one or more intermediate substation for installing series capaitor ,shunt reactor ,switching and protection equipment . Generally an intermidiate substation is require at an interval of 250 to 300km

Special features and technical consideration for EHV AC lines 2 TRANSMISSION LINE TRENDS AND PRELIMINARIES This chepter deals with EHV problem such as choice of voltage for transmission ,line losses and power handling capacity for a given line length between source and load and bulk power required to be transmitted. The problem of vibration of bundled conductors is touched upon since this is the main mechanical problem in EHV line Standard transmission voltage ,average value of line parameters Power handling capacity and line loss Cost of transmission line and equipment Mechanical consideration in line performance 3 CALCULATION OF LINE AND GROUND PARAMETERS this chepter deal with calculation of line resistance,inductance, capacitance, and ground-return parameters, modes of propagation, electrostatics to understand charge distribution and the resulting surface voltage gradients. All these aredirected towards an N-conductor bundle. The power transmission line is one of the major components of an electric power system. Its majorfunction is to transport electric energy, with minimal losses, from the power sources to the load centers, usually separated by long distances. The design of a transmission line depends on four electrical parameters: 1. Series resistance 2. Series inductance 3. Shunt capacitance 4. Shunt conductance The series resistance relies basically on the physical composition of the conductor at a given temperature. The series inductance and shunt capacitance are produced by the presence of magnetic and electric fields around the conductors, and depend on their geometrical arrangement. The shunt conductance is due to leakage currents flowing across insulators and air. As leakage current is considerably small compared to nominal current, it is usually neglected, and therefore, shunt conductance is normally not considered for the transmission line modeling. Equivalent Circuit Once evaluated, the line parameters are used to model the transmission line and to perform design calculations. The arrangement of the parameters (equivalent circuit model) representing the line depends upon the length of the line. A transmission line is defined as a short-length line if its length is less than 80 km (50 miles). In this case, the shut capacitance effect is negligible and only the resistance and inductive reactance are considered. Assuming balanced conditions, the line can be represented by the equivalent circuit of a single phase with resistance R, and inductive reactance XL in series (series impedance), as shown in Fig. 13.1. If the transmission line has a length between 80 km (50 miles) and 240 km (150 miles), the line is considered a medium-length line and its single-phase equivalent circuit can be represented in a nominal pai circuit configuration. The shunt capacitance of the line is divided into two equal parts, each placed at the sending and receiving ends of the line. Figure 13.2 shows the equivalent circuit for a medium-length line. Both short- and medium-length transmission lines use approximated lumped-parameter models. However, if the line is larger than 240 km, the model must consider parameters uniformly distributed along the line. The appropriate series impedance and shunt capacitance are found by solving the corresponding differential equations, where voltages and currents are described as a function of distanceand time. Figure shows the equivalent circuit for a long line.

Resistance The AC resistance of a conductor in a transmission line is based on the calculation of its DC resistance.If DC current is flowing along a round cylindrical conductor, the current is uniformly distributed over its cross-section area and its DC resistance is evaluated by

where p =Conductor resistivity at a given temperature (V-m) l =conductor length (m) A=conductor cross-section area (m2)

Equivalent circuit of a long-length transmission line. If AC current is flowing, rather than DC current, the conductor effective resistance is higher due to frequency or skin effect. Frequency Effect The frequency of the AC voltage produces a second effect on the conductor resistance due to the nonuniform distribution of the current. This phenomenon is known as skin effect. As frequency increases, the current tends to go toward the surface of the conductor and the current density decreases at the center. Skin effect reduces the effective cross-section area used by the current, and thus, the effective resistance increases. Also, although in small amount, a further resistance increase occurs when other current-carrying conductors are present in the immediate vicinity. A skin correction factor k, obtained by differential equations and Bessel functions, is considered to reevaluate the AC resistance. For 60 Hz, k is estimated around 1.02

Other variations in resistance are caused by Temperature Spiraling of stranded conductors Bundle conductors arrangement
Temperature Effect
The resistivity of any conductive material varies linearly over an operating temperature, and therefore, the resistance of any conductor suffers the same variations. As temperature rises, the conductor resistance increases linearly, over normal operating temperatures, according to the following equation:

R2=resistance at second temperature t2 R1=resistance at initial temperature t1 T =ntemperature coefficient for the particular material (8C) Resistivity (r) and temperature coefficient (T) constants depend upon the particular conductor material. Table 13.1 lists resistivity and temperature coefficients of some typical conductor materials
Spiraling and Bundle Conductor Effect

There are two types of transmission line conductors: overhead and underground. Overhead conductors, made of naked metal and suspended on insulators, are preferred over underground conductors because of the lower cost and easy maintenance. Also, overhead transmission lines use aluminum conductors, because of the lower cost and lighter weight compared to copper conductors, although more cross-section area is needed to conduct the same amount of current. There are different types of commercially available aluminum conductors: aluminum-conductor-steelreinforced (ACSR), aluminum-conductor-alloy-reinforced (ACAR), all-aluminum-conductor (AAC), and all-aluminumalloy- conductor (AAAC).

ACSR is one of the most used conductors in transmission lines. It consists of alternate layers of stranded conductors, spiraled in opposite directions to hold the strands together, surrounding a core of steel strands. Figure 13.4 shows an example of aluminum and steel strands combination. The purpose of introducing a steel core inside the stranded aluminum conductors is to obtain a high strength-to-weight ratio. A stranded conductor offers more flexibility and easier to manufacture than a solid large conductor. However, the total resistance is increased because the outside strands are larger than the inside strands on account of the spiraling . The resistance of each wound conductor at any layer, per unit length, is based on its total length as follows:

The parallel combination of n conductors, with same diameter per layer, gives the resistance per layer as follows:

Similarly, the total resistance of the stranded conductor is evaluated by the parallel combination of resistances per layer. In high-voltage transmission lines, there may be more than one conductor per phase (bundle configuration) to increase the current capability and to reduce corona effect discharge. Corona effect occurs when the surface potential gradient of a conductor exceeds the dielectric strength of the surrounding air (30 kV=cm during fair weather), producing ionization in the area close to the conductor, with consequent corona losses, audible noise, and radio interference. As corona effect is a function of conductor diameter, line configuration, and conductor surface condition, then meteorological conditions play a key role in its evaluation. Corona losses under rain or snow, for instance, are much higher than in dry weather. Corona, however, can be reduced by increasing the total conductor surface. Although corona losses rely on meteorological conditions, their evaluation takes into account the conductance between conductors and between conductors and ground. By increasing the number of conductors per phase, the total cross-section area increases, the current capacity increases, and the total AC resistance decreases proportionally to the number of conductors per bundle. Conductor bundles may be applied to any

voltage but are always used at 345 kV and above to limit corona. To maintain the distance between bundle conductors along the line, spacers made of steel or aluminum bars are used. Figure 13.5 shows, some typical arrangement of stranded bundle configurations.

Current-Carrying Capacity (Ampacity)

In overhead transmission lines, the current-carrying capacity is determined mostly by the conductor resistance and the heat dissipated from its surface [8]. The heat generated in a conductor (Joules effect) is dissipated from its surface area by convection and radiation given by

we can obtain the conductor ampacity at given temperatures

Inductance and Inductive Reactance

A current-carrying conductor produces concentric magnetic flux lines around the conductor. If the current varies with the time, the magnetic flux changes and a voltage is induced. Therefore, an inductance is present, defined as the ratio of the magnetic flux linkage and the current. The magnetic flux produced by the current in transmission line conductors produces a total inductance whose magnitude depends on the line configuration. To determine the inductance of the line, it is necessary to calculate, as in any magnetic circuit with permeability m, the following factors: 1. Magnetic field intensity H 2. Magnetic field density B 3. Flux linkage Inductance of a Solid, Round, Infinitely Long Conductor Consider an infinitely long, solid cylindrical conductor with radius r, carrying current I as shown in Fig. If the conductor is made of a nonmagnetic material, and the current is assumed uniformly distributed (no skin effect), then the generated internal and external magnetic field lines are concentric circles around the conductor with direction defined by the right-hand rule. Internal Inductance Due to Internal Magnetic Flux To obtain the internal inductance, a magnetic field with radius x inside the conductor of length l is chosen, as shown in The fraction of the current Ix enclosed in the area of the circle chosen is determined by

External and internal concentric magnetic flux lines around the conductor.

Internal magnetic flux.

Amperes law determines the magnetic field intensity Hx , constant at any point along the circle contour as

The magnetic flux density Bx is obtained by

where for a nonmagnetic material. The differential flux df enclosed in a ring of thickness dx for a 1-m length of conductor and the differential flux linkage dl in the respective area are

The internal flux linkage is obtained by integrating the differential flux linkage from x 0 to x r

Therefore, the conductor inductance due to internal flux linkage, per unit length, becomes

External Inductance The external inductance is evaluated assuming that the total current I is concentrated at the conductor surface (maximum skin effect). At any point on an external magnetic field circle of radius y , the magnetic field intensity Hy and the magnetic field density By , per unit length, are

Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance

Capacitance exists among transmission line conductors due to their potential difference. To evaluate the capacitance between conductors in a surrounding medium with permittivity , it is necessary to determine the voltage between the conductors, and the electric field strength of the surrounding.

Capacitance of a Single-Solid Conductor Consider a solid, cylindrical, long conductor with radius r, in a free space with permittivity , and with a charge of q coulombs per meter, uniformly distributed on the surface. There is a constanelectric field strength on the surface of cylinder The resistivity of the conductor is assumed to be zero (perfect conductor), which results in zero internal electric field due to the charge on the conductor. The charge q produces an electric field radial to the conductor with equipotential surfaces concentric to the conductor. According to Gausss law, the total electric flux leaving a closed surface is equal to the total charge inside the volume enclosed by the surface. Therefore, at an outside point P separated x meters from the center of the conductor, the electric field flux density and the electric field intensity are

If point P1 is located at the conductor surface (x1=r1, and point P2 is located at ground surface below the conductor (x2=h, then the voltage of the conductor and the capacitance between the conductor and ground are

Capacitance of Stranded Bundle Conductors The calculation of the capacitance in the equation above is based on 1. Solid conductors with zero resistivity (zero internal electric field) 2. Charge uniformly distributed 3. Equilateral spacing of phase conductors

In actual transmission lines, the resistivity of the conductors produces a small internal electric field and therefore, the electric field at the conductor surface is smaller than the estimated. However, the difference is negligible for practical purposes. Because of the presence of other charged conductors, the charge distribution is nonuniform, and therefore the estimated capacitance is different. However, this effect is negligible for most practical calculations. In a line with stranded conductors, the capacitance is evaluated assuming a solid conductor with the same radius as the outside radius of the stranded conductor. This produces a negligible difference. Most transmission lines do not have equilateral spacing of phase conductors. This causes differences between the line-to-neutral capacitances of the three phases. However, transposing the phase conductors balances the system resulting in equal line-to-neutral capacitance for each phase and is developed in the following manner. Consider a transposed three-phase line with conductors having the same radius r, and with space between conductors DAB, DBC, and DAC , where DAB, DBC, and DAC > r. Assuming abc positive sequence, the expressions for VAB on the first, second, and third section of the transposed line are

Similarly, the expressions for VAC on the first, second, and third section of the transposed line are

Taking the average value of the three sections, we have the final expressions of VAB and VAC in the transposed line

Capacitance Due to Earths Surface Considering a single-overhead conductor with a return path through the earth, separated a distance H from earths surface, the charge of the earth would be equal in magnitude to that on the conductor but of opposite sign. If the earth is assumed as a perfectly conductive horizontal plane with infinite length, then the electric field lines will go from the conductor to the earth, perpendicular to the earths surface To calculate the capacitance, the negative charge of the earth can be replaced by an equivalent charge of an image conductor with the same radius as the overhead conductor, lying just below the overhead conductor The same principle can be extended to calculate the capacitance per phase of a three-phase system. shows an equilateral arrangement of identical single conductors for phases A, B, and C carrying the charges qA, qB, and qC and their respective image conductors A0, B0, and C0. DA, DB, and DC are perpendicular distances from phases A, B, and C to earths surface. DAA0, DBB0, and DCC0 are the perpendicular distances from phases A, B, and C to the image conductors A0, B0, and C0. Voltage VAB can be obtained as

Distribution of electric field lines from an overhead conductor to earths surface

Equivalent image conductor representing the charge of the earth

Arrangement of image conductors in a three-phase transmission line.

surge impedance loading

The surge impedance loading or SIL of a transmission line is the MW loading of a transmission line at which a natural reactive power balance occurs. The following brief article will explain the concept of SIL. Transmission lines produce reactive power (Mvar) due to their natural capacitance. The amount of Mvar produced is dependent on the transmission line's capacitive reactance (XC) and the voltage (kV) at which the line is energized. In equation form the Mvar produced is:

Transmission lines also utilize reactive power to support their magnetic fields. The magnetic field strength is dependent on the magnitude of the current flow in the line and the line's natural inductive reactance (XL). It follows then that the amount of Mvar used by a transmission line is a function of the current flow and inductive reactance. In equation form the Mvar used by a transmission line is:

A transmission line's surge impedance loading or SIL is simply the MW loading (at a unity power factor) at which the line's Mvar usage is equal to the line's Mvar production. In equation form we can state that the SIL occurs when:

If we take the square root of both sides of the above equation and then substitute in the formulas for XL (=2pfL) and XC (=1/2pfC) we arrive at:

The term in the above equation is by definition the "surge impedance. The theoretical significance of the surge impedance is that if a purely resistive load that is equal to the surge impedance were connected to the end of a transmission line with no resistance, a voltage surge introduced to the sending end of the line would be absorbed completely at the receiving end. The voltage at the receiving end would have the same magnitude as the sending end voltage and would have a phase angle that is lagging with respect to the sending end by an amount equal to the time required to travel across the line from sending to receiving end. The concept of a surge impedance is more readily applied to telecommunication systems than to power systems. However, we can extend the concept to the power transferred across a transmission line. The surge impedance loading or SIL (in MW) is equal to the voltage squared (in kV) divided by the surge impedance (in ohms). In equation form:

. Note in this formula that the SIL is dependent only on the kV the line is energized at and the line's surge impedance. The line length is not a factor in the SIL or surge impedance calculations. Therefore the SIL is not a measure of a transmission line's power transfer capability as it does not take into account the line's length nor does it consider the strength of the local power system. The value of the SIL to a system operator is realizing that when a line is loaded above its SIL it acts like a shunt reactor - absorbing Mvar from the system - and when a line is loaded below its SIL it acts like a shunt capacitor - supplying Mvar to the system. Figure 1 is a graphic illustration of the concept of SIL. This particular line has a SIL of 450 MW. Therefore is the line is loaded to 450 MW (with no Mvar) flow, the Mvar produced by the line will exactly balance the Mvar used by the line.

Figure 1 Surge Impedance Loading of a Transmission Loading

Main points of this chepter Conductor used for EHV Transmission lines ,resistance of conductors. Resistance calculation , effect of resistance of conductor Temperature rise of conductors and current carrying capacity Properties of bundled conductors ,advantages of using bundled conductors Conductor configuration used for bundles in EHV lines GMR of bundles conductors Inductance calculation of EHV line configuration line capacitance calculation of EHV line configuration Surge impedance 4.CORONA EFFECTS INCLUDING POWER LOSS AND AUDIBLE NOISE, RADIO INTERFERENCE This chepter dealwith Corona loss and Audible Noise from e.h.v. lines are consequences of high surface voltage gradient on conductors. In several cases of line design, the audible noise has become a controlling factor with its attendantpollution of the environment of the line causing psycho-acoustics problems. This chepter also deal with Radio Interference and audiable noise . Commencing with corona pulses, their frequency spectrum, and the lateral profile of RI from lines, the reader is led into the modern concept of 'Excitation Function' and its utility in pre-determining the RI level of a line yet to be designed. For lines up to 750 kV, the C.I.G.R.E. formula applies. Its use in design is also discussed, and a relation between the excitation function and RI level calculated by theC.I.G.R.E. formula is given. CORONA AND INDUCED CURRENT EFFECTS 1 INTRODUCTION This chapter provides a discussion of corona and induced current effects associated with operation of high-voltage electric transmission lines. These effects include audible noise, radio, television and computer monitor interference, gaseous effluents, shock potential, and fuel ignition. Because these effects are common to all transmission lines, they are discussed as generally applicable; however, they have been determined to be negligible or non-existent for the proposed project. Therefore, no significant impacts would result and mitigation measures are not required. 2 CORONA Corona is a phenomenon associated with all energized transmission lines. Under certain conditions, the localized electric field near an energized conductor can be sufficiently concentrated to produce a tiny electric discharge that can ionize air close to the conductors

(Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 1982). This partial discharge of electrical energy is called corona discharge, or corona. Several factors, including conductor voltage, shape and diameter, and surface irregularities such as scratches, nicks, dust, or water drops can affect a conductors electrical surface gradient and its corona performance. Corona is the physical manifestation of energy loss, and can transform discharge energy into very small amounts of sound, radio noise, heat, and chemical reactions of the air components. Because power loss is uneconomical and noise is undesirable, corona on transmission lines has been studied by engineers since the early part of this century. Many excellent references exist on the subject of transmission line corona (e.g., EPRI, 1982). Consequently, corona is well understood by engineers and steps to minimize it are one of the major factors in transmission line design for extra high voltage transmission lines (345 to 765 kilovolts (kV)). Corona is usually not a design issue for power lines rated at 230 kV and lower. The conductor size selected for the projects transmission line is of sufficient diameter to lower the localized electrical stress on the air at the conductor surface and would further reduce already low conductor surface gradients so that little or no corona activity would exist under most operating conditions. 16.2.1 Audible Noise Transmission lines can generate a small amount of sound energy during corona activity. This audible noise from the line can barely be heard in fair weather conditions on higher voltage lines. During wet weather conditions, water drops collect on the conductor and increase corona activity so that a crackling or humming sound may be heard near the line. This noise is caused by small electrical discharges from the water drops. Radio and Television Interference Overhead transmission lines do not, as a general rule, interfere with normal radio or TV reception. There are two potential sources for interference: corona and gap discharges. Corona discharges cause short pulses of voltage and current to be propagated along the transmission line, resulting in radio frequency noise in the vicinity of the line. Gap discharges are different from corona and can occur on low voltage distribution lines. Gap discharges can take place at ,locations where tiny electrical separations (gaps) develop between mechanically connected metal parts (for example, on broken or poorly fitting line hardware, such as insulators, clamps, or brackets). A small electric spark discharge across the gap can create unwanted electrical noise. Typically, corona interference to radio and television reception is not a design problem. Interference levels both in fair weather and in rain are extremely low at the right-of-way edge for 230 kV and lower transmission lines, and will usually meet or exceed reception guidelines of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Generally, interference due to gap discharges is less frequent for high voltage transmission lines than lower voltage lines. Moreover, gap discharge noise sources can be located and repaired. Thus, impacts due to corona or gap interference with radio and television reception would be less than significant. The large majority of interference complaints have been found to be attributable to sources other than power lines. Gaseous Effluents Corona activity on electrical conductors surrounded by air can produce very tiny amounts of gaseous effluents: ozone and nitrogen oxide (NOx). Ozone is the primary photochemical oxidant, representing 90-95 percent of the total. Ozone is a naturally occurring part of the air, with typical rural ambient levels around 10 to 30 parts per billion (ppb) at night and peaks of 100 ppb and higher (EPRI, 1982). In urban areas, concentrations greater than 100 ppb are common. After a thunderstorm the air may contain 50 to 150 ppb of ozone, and levels of several hundred ppb have been recorded in large cities and in commercial airliners. Ozone is also given off by welding equipment, copy machines, air fresheners, and many household appliances. The National Ambient Air Quality Standard foroxidants is 120 ppb, not to be exceeded as a peak one-hour concentration on more than one day a year. The standard for NO x is 140 ppb. Gaseous effluents can be produced by corona activity on high voltage transmission line electrical

conductors during rain or fog conditions, and can occur for any configuration or location. Typically, concentrations of ozone at ground level for 230 kV and lower voltage transmission lines during heavy rain are significantly less than the most sensitive instruments can measure (which is about one ppb), and thousands of times less than ambient levels. Nitrogen oxides are even less. Thus, the project would not create any significant adverse impact on the ambient air quality of the project area. INDUCED CURRENTS Electric currents can be induced by electric and magnetic fields in conductive objects near transmission lines. For magnetic fields, the concern is for very long objects parallel and close to the line. However, the majority of concern is related to the potential for small electric currents to be induced by electric fields in metallic objects close to transmission lines. Metallic roofs, vehicles, vineyard trellises, and fences are examples of objects that can develop a small electric charge in proximity to high voltage transmission lines. Object characteristics, degree of grounding, and electric field strength affect the amount of induced charge. An electric current can flow when an object has an induced charge and a path to ground is presented. The amount of current flow is determined by the impedance of the object to ground and the voltage induced between the object and ground. The amount of induced current that can flow is important to evaluate because of the potential for nuisance shocks to people andthe possibility of accidental ignition of fuel. Induced current is commonly measured in units of milliamperes (mA) (i.e., one mA is 0.001 amperes of electric current). The National Electric Safety Code (NESC) has set an induced current limit of five mA for objects under transmission lines (American National Standards Institute, 2002). Shock Potential The proposed transmission line loop will have the highest electric field within the right-of-way of approximately 3.93 kilovolt per meter (kV/m) calculated in the region under the conductors at the lowest point of sag. Other locations on the right-of-way will be less. The calculated electric field will be approximately 0.09 kV/m at the right-of-way edge. Induced currents can be calculated for common objects for a set of theoretical (worst-case) assumptions: the object is perfectly insulated from ground, located in the highest field, and touched by a perfectly grounded person. Calculations can be made using experimentally determined induction coefficients and the calculated electric field (EPRI, 1982). Table summarizes the calculated induced current forcommon objects placed on the right-of-way for the theoretical conditions previously stated.

The maximum electric field only occurs on a small portion of the right-of-way, and perfect insulation and grounding states are not common, but even using these worst-case measurements, the calculated induced current values for the pickup truck, farm tractor pulling crop wagon, school bus, and tractor-trailer are below hazardous levels where a person could not let go of an object (nine mA for men and six mA for women). Therefore, this transmission line loop will comply with the National Electrical Safety Code requirements limiting induced currents on objects to five mA or less, and impacts due to shock would be less than significant. Main points which have to be covered 1. theory of corona formation 2. factors affecting corona 3. terms used in the analysis of Corona effects, 4. Methods of reducing corona effects 5. Power loss due to corona 6. corona loss calculation Voltage gradients of conductors, 1. corona loss calculation formulas based on Voltage gradients Radio interference: 1. Generation and properties 2. Calculation of RI level 3. Minimizing RI and TV interference 4. Audible Noise: Generation and characteristics 5. limits for AN, calculation of AN Level 5 SHUNT AND SERIES COMPENSATIONS VAR compensation involves the management of reactive power for the improvement of electric power system performance. Adequate reactive power control solves power quality problems like flat voltage profile maintenance at all power transmission levels, and improvement of power factor, transmission efficiency and system stability. Series and Shunt VAR compensation techniques are used to modify the natural electrical characteristics of electric power system. Series compensation modifies the reactance parameter of the transmission or distribution system, while shunt compensation changes the equivalent load impedance. In both cases, the line reactive power can be effectively controlled therebyimproving the performance of the overall electric power system.
General Introduction During the past two decades, the increase in electrical energy demand has presented higher requirements from the power industry. More power plants, substations, and transmission lines need to be constructed. However, the most commonly used devices in present power grid are the mechanically-controlled circuit breakers. The long switching periods and discrete operation make them difficult to handle the frequently changed loads smoothly and damp out the transient oscillations quickly. In order to compensate these drawbacks, large operational margins and redundancies are maintained to protect the system from dynamic variation and recover from faults. This not only increases the cost and lowers the efficiency, but also increases the complexity of the system and augments the difficulty of operation and control. Severe black-outs happened recently in power grids worldwide and these have revealed that conventional transmission systems are unable to manage the control requirements of the complicated interconnections and variable power flow. Therefore, investment is necessary for the studies into the security and stability of the power grid, as well as the improved control schemes of the transmission system. Different approaches such as reactive power compensation and phase shifting have been applied to increase the stability and the security of the power systems. The demands of lower power losses, faster response to system parameter change, and higher stability of system have stimulated the development of the Flexible AC Transmission systems (FACTS) . Based on the success of research in power electronics switching devices

and advanced control technology, FACTS has become the technology of choice in voltage control, reactive/active power flow control, transient and steady-state stabilization that improves the operation and functionality of existing power transmission and distribution system [2], [3]. The achievement of these studies enlarge the efficiency of the existing generator units, reduce the overall generation capacity and fuel consumption, and minimize the operation cost. 1.2 Basic principal of power compensation in transmission system. Figure 1.1(a) shows the simplified model of a power transmission system. Two power grids are connected by a transmission line which is assumed lossless and represented by the reactance X . 11V L and 22V represent the voltage phasors of the two power grid buses with angle = - between the 1 2 two. The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Figure 1

The magnitude of the current in the transmission line is given by

The active and reactive components of the current flow at bus 1 are given by:

The active power and reactive power at bus 1 are given by:

Similarly, the active and reactive components of the current flow at bus 2 can be given by:

The active power and reactive power at bus 2 are given by:

Equations (1-1) through (1-5) indicate that the active and reactive power/current flow can be regulated by controlling the voltages, phase angles and line impedance of the transmission system. From the power angle curve shown in Figure 1.1(c), the active power flow will reach the maximum when the phase angle is 90. In practice, a small angle is used to keep the system stable from the transient and dynamic oscillations [4]. Generally, the compensation of transmission systems can be divided into two main groups: shunt and series compensation 1.2.1 Shunt compensation Shunt compensation, especially shunt reactive compensation has been widely used in transmission system to regulate the voltage magnitude, improve the voltage quality, and enhance the system stability . Shunt-connected reactors are used to reduce the line over-voltages by consuming the reactive power, while shunt-connected capacitors are used to maintain the voltage levels by compensating the reactive power to transmission line. A simplified model of a transmission system with shunt compensation is shown in Figure 1.2(a). The voltage magnitudes of the two buses are assumed equal as V, and the phase angle between them is . The transmission line is assumed lossless and represented by the reactance XL. At the midpoint of the transmission line, a controlled capacitor C is shunt-connected. The voltage magnitude at the connection point is maintained as V.

Transmission system with series compensation: (a) simplified model; (b) phase diagram; (c) powerangle curve

As discussed previously, the active powers at bus 1 and bus 2 are equal

The injected reactive power by the capacitor to regulate the voltage at the mid-point of the transmission line is calculated as:

From the power angle curve shown in Figure 1.2(c), the transmitted power can be significantly increased, and the peak point shifts from =90 to =180. The operation margin and the system stability are increased by the shunt compensation. The voltage support function of the midpoint compensation can easily be extended to the voltage support at the end of the radial transmission, which will be proven by the system simplification analysis in a later section. The reactive power compensation at the end of the radial line is especially effective in enhancing voltage stability. Series compensation Series compensation aims to directly control the overall series line impedance of the transmission line. Tracking back to Equations (1-1) through (1-5), the AC power transmission is primarily limited by the series reactive impedance of the transmission line. A series-connected can add a voltage in opposition to the transmission line voltage drop, therefore reducing the series line impedance. A simplified model of a transmission system with series compensation is shown in Figure 1.3(a). The voltage magnitudes of the two buses are assumed equal as V, and the phase angle between them is . The transmission line is assumed lossless and represented by the reactance XL. A controlled capacitor is series-connected in the transmission line with voltage addition Vinj. The phase diagram is shown in Figure 1.3

Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) The history of FACTS controllers can be traced back to 1970s when Hingorani presented the idea of power electronic applications in power system compensation. From then on, various researches were conducted on the application of high power semiconductors in transmission systems. The shunt-connected Static VAR compensator (SVC) using solid-state switches and the series-connected controllers were proposed in AC transmission system application. In 1988, Hingorani defined the FACTS concept and described the wide prospects of the application in . Nowadays, FACTS technology has shown strong potential. Many examples of FACTS devices and controllers are in operation As presented in [7], FACTS and FACTS controllers are defined in IEEE Terms and Definitions as: Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS): Alternating current transmission systems incorporating power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability.

 FACTS Controller: A power electronic-based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more AC transmission system parameters. As new technology for power transmission system, FACTS and FACTS controllers not only provide the same benefits as conventional compensators with mechanically-controlled switches in steady state but also improve the dynamic and transient performance of the power system. The power electronics-based switches in the functional blocks of FACTS can usually be operated repeatedly and the switching time is a portion of a periodic cycle, which is much shorter than the conventional mechanical switches. The advance of semiconductors increases the switching frequency and voltage-ampere ratings of the solid switches and facilitates the applications. For example, the switching frequencies of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) are from 3 kHz to 10 kHz which is several hundred times the utility frequency of power system (50~60Hz). Gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) have a switching frequency lower than 1 kHz, but the voltage and current rating can reach 5-8 kV and 6 kA respectively . FACTS controllers have many configurations. In general, they can be categorized into shuntconnected controllers, series-connected controllers and their combinations. 1.3.1 Shunt-connected controllers FACTS controllers can be impedance type, based on thyristors without gate turn-off capability, which are called Static Var Compensator (SVC) for shunt-connected application. Another type of FACTS controllers is converter-based which is usually in the form of a Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM). 1.3.1.1 Static Var Compensator (SVC) Static Var Compensator is a shunt-connected static Var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage) SVC is based on thyristors without gate turn-off capability. The operating principal and characteristics of thyristors realize SVC variable reactive impedance. SVC includes two main components and their combination: (1) Thyristor-controlled and Thyristor-switched Reactor (TCR and TSR); and 2) Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC). In Figure 1.4 shows the diagram of SVC

Static VAR Compensators (SVC): TCR/TSR, TSC, FC and Mechanically Switched Resistor TCR and TSR are both composed of a shunt-connected reactor controlled by two parallel, reverseconnected thyristors. TCR is controlled with proper firing angle input to operate in a continuous manner, while TSR is controlled without firing angle control which results in a step change in reactance. TSC shares similar composition and same operational mode as TSR, but the reactor is replaced by a capacitor. The reactance can only be either fully connected or fully disconnected zero due to the characteristic of capacitor. Converter-based Compensator Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is one of the key Converter-based Compensators which are usually based on the voltage source inverter (VSI) or current source inverter (CSI), as shown in Figure 1.5(a). Unlike SVC, STATCOM controls the output current independently of the AC system voltage, while the DC side voltage is automatically maintained to serve as a voltage source. Mostly, STATCOM is designed based on the VSI. Compared with SVC, the topology of a STATCOM is more complicated. The switching device of a VSI is usually a gate turn-off device paralleled by a reverse diode; this function endows the VSI advanced controllability. Various combinations of the switching devices and appropriate topology make it possible for a STATCOM to vary the AC output voltage in both magnitude and phase. Also, the combination of STATCOM with a different storage device or power source (as shown in Figure the STATCOM the ability to control the real power output. STATCOM has much better dynamic performance than conventional reactive power compensators like SVC. The gate turn-off ability shortens the dynamic response time from several utility period cycles to a portion of a period cycle. STATCOM is also much faster in improving the transient response than a SVC. This advantage also brings higher reliability and larger operating range. Figure 1.6 shows the V-I characteristics of STATCOM and SVC

STATCOM topologies: (a) STATCOM based on VSI and CSI (b) STATCOM with storage

V-I characteristics of SVC and STATCOM: (a) SVC; (b) STATCOM Series-connected controllers As shunt-connected controllers, series-connected FACTS controllers can also be divided into either impedance type or converter type. The former includes Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC), Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Thyristor-Switched Series Reactor, and Thyristor-Controlled Series Reactor. The latter, based on VSI, is usually in the form of a Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC). The composition and operation of different types are similar to the operation of the shunt-connected peers.

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) As discussed in the previous section, STATCOM is a very popular FACTS controller application effective in transmission system voltage control. Since 1980 when the first STATCOM (rated at 20 Mvar) using force-commutated thyristor inverters was put into operation in Japan , many examples have been installed and the ratings have been increased considerably. In 1991, KEPCO and Mitsubish Motors installed a 80MVar STATCOM at Inuyama Switching Station . In 1996, TVA, EPRI and Westinghouse installed a 100MVar STATCOM at Sullivan 500 kV Substation In 2001, EPRI and Siemens developed a 200MVar STATCOM at Marcy 345kV substation . It is expected that more STATCOMs will be installed due to the advances in technology and commercial success. STATCOM could have many topologies, but in most practical applications it employs the DC to AC converter, which can also be called a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) in 3-phase configuration as the primary block. The basic theory of VSI is to produce a set of controllable 3-phase output voltages/ currents at the fundamental frequency of the AC bus voltage from a DC input voltage source such as a charged capacitor or a DC energy supply device. By varying the magnitude and phase angle of the output voltage and current, the system can exchange active/reactive power between the DC and AC buses, and regulate the AC bus voltage. Effect of reactive power flow on voltages at sending and receiving end, Shunt compensation by shunt capacitors and reactors Series compensation by series capacitors Static VAR system (SVS) and various SVS schemes FACTs and basic types of FACTs controllers 6.DESIGN OF EHV-AC LINES BASED ON STEADY STATES LIMITS This chepter deal with the general design criteria for AC and DC transmission lines that can be divided into electrical and mechanical aspects, both having considerable effects on the investment and operation costs. The power transmission capacity determines the voltage level and the number of parallel circuits, which has a great influence on the investment costs. Other aspects are emergency loading capability and reactive power compensation of AC lines. The power losses affects mainly the operating costs and should therefore be optimized with regard to investment cost of the line conductors at the given voltage level. The insulation performance is determined by the overvoltage levels, the air clearances, the environmental conditions and the selection of insulators. Design factors under steady state Design of EHV-AC transmission lines based on steady state limits TEXT: Extra high voltage AC transmission Engineering: Rakosh Das Begamudre, New age International (P) Ltd. New Delhi Extra high voltage AC transmission and distribution by S.Rao
REFERENCE BOOKS Flexible Power Transmission-HVDC option : J Arrillaga, Y. H. Liu, N. R. Watson Electric Power Transmission And Distribution :Sivanagaraju S. Electrical Power Transmission And Distribution:M.V.Bakshi U.A.Bakshi