CHPTR 2 LR New

Design of flexible pavement for widening : A Case Study of SH-8 stretch from Tarapur 0/000 km to Vasad 48/300 km
2. Literature Review
2.1 STUDY OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS FOR DIFFERENT SOIL AND TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
The two most important factors that govern pavement design are soil sub-grade strength and traffic loading. Depending on the strength of sub-grade soil, the layer thickness of flexible are affected. IRC:37-2001 uses soil sub-grade strength in terms of CBR. The accurate determination of axle load spectra is crucial in the effective design as well as damage investigation of pavements. The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 stipulates axle load limits for the different axle configurations (that is single, tandem, and multi axles). However, these limits are seldom followed in actual practice as per the prevailing regulatory system and consequently a large number of commercial vehicles are overloaded.[1]
2.2
PERCENT DESIGN ACTIVITIES [2]
New Pavement: Pavement structure prepared on sub-grade. It applies to new highway construction, to a relocated highway, or to the new part of a widened highway. Pavement Reconstruction: Reconstructed pavement or full depth reconstruction result when an existing pavement structure is completely removed to the sub-grade and replaced with a new pavement structure. This type of work is needed when the existing pavement has deteriorated to such a weakened condition that it cannot be salvaged with corrective
BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University
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action. The type and extent of a pavement distress will determine when pavement reconstruction is necessary.[2] Pavement Reclamation: Reclaimed pavement reuses an existing pavement structure through the pulverizing and mixing of the existing pavement and granular sub-base into a gravel base material to be overlaid with new HMA[22] layers. The reclamation method is usually performed on site. Pavement Resurfacing: Pavement resurfacing consists of placing the needed thickness of hot mix asphalt on existing pavement. The resurfacing will return the pavement to a high level of serviceability and provide the necessary structural strength for the pavement design period. Pavement Preservation: Pavement Preservation involves the application of properly timed surface treatments to ensure that pavements in good condition will remain in good condition. Preservation treatments extend the pavement service life, but generally provide no structural strength.[2]
2.3 PREAMBLE
The Government Roads comprise of National Highways (NH), State Highways (SH), Major District Road (MDR), Other District Roads (ODR), and Cross Drainage Works like bridges, Causeways, Culverts, Road Over Bridge (ROB) and Road Under Bridge (RUB).[10]
NH:
Main highways running through the length and breadth of the Country connecting major ports, State Capitals, large industrial and tourist center.
SH:
Arterial routes of a State linking District Headquarters and important cities within the State and connecting them with NH or
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Highways of the neighboring States. MDR: Important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets and connecting those with each other or with main highways ODR: Roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market centers, taluka headquarters, Block Development headquarters or other main roads. Table 2.1 Category wise Road Length[10] Road Classification Total Road Length (Km)
National Highways
70,934 + 40,000 Km under implementation
State Highways Major and other District Roads Rural and other Roads Total Road Length
1,54,522 25,77,396 14,33,577 42,36,429 Km
Source: Annual Report 2010-11, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India
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Road Network in India

Expressways 0.02% National Highways 1.67%
Rural and other Roads 33.83%
State Highways 3.65%
Major and other District Roads 60.82%
Fig. 2.1 Road Network in India
The roads are again grouped as Single lane (3.5 m), intermediate lane (5.5 m), Double lane (7m with kerb or 7.5 m without kerb) and multiple lanes (addl. 3.5 m for each lane) depending upon the width of Carriageway. On village roads, the width may be restricted to 3 m. Roads are broadly classified as Rural Roads and Urban Roads.
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Table 2.2 Rural Road Network in India, tends over 10 years* Kilometers Kilometers in 2001 Kilometers as of May 2011 under construction in 2011 Total Rural Roads Paved, not maintained Rural Roads Unpaved Rural Roads Paved, maintained Rural Roads New Rural Roads 2.7 million 0.5 million 2.2 million 1.9 million 7,28,871 3,22,900 53,634 82,734 3.1 million 0.1 million
*Source: Annual Report 2010-11, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India
2.4 PARAMETER OF DESIGN FRAMEWORK

2.4.1 TRAFFIC PARAMETER[15] The traffic in terms of the cumulative number of Standard axles (8160 Kg) to be carried by the pavement during the design life. The following information is needed: i) Initial traffic after construction in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD) ii) Traffic growth rate during the design life in percentage
iii) Design life in number of years iv) Vehicle damage factor (VDF) v) Distribution of Commercial traffic over the carriageway.
a) Initial Traffic : Estimate of initial daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on at least 7 days, 24 hour classified traffic counts.
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In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made on the basis of potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area. b) Traffic growth rate: Traffic growth rates should be estimated by study. If adequate data is not available, average annual growth rate of 7.5% may be adopted. The factor is reduced to 6% for roads designed adopting IRC:SP 20-2002 c) Design life : The Design life is defined in terms of cumulative number of Standard axles that can be carried before strengthening of the pavement. Normally the pavement for NH & SH is the designed for life of 15 years, Expressways and Urban roads for 20 years and other roads for 10 to 15 years. When it is not possible to provide the full thickness of pavement at the time of initial construction, stage construction technique should be resorted to. Roads in Rural areas should be designed for a design life of 10 years.[11] d) Vehicle damage factory(VDF):VDF is arrived at from axle load surveys. The indicative value of VDF factor is given below:
Use Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) in estimation of cumulative msa for thickness design of pavements. The Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) is a multiplier to convert the number of commercial vehicles of different axle loads and axle configuration into the number of repetitions of standard axle load of magnitude 80 kN. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with the vehicle axle configuration and axle loading.
The equations for computing equivalency factors for single, tandem and tridem axles given below should be used for converting different axle load repetitions into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. Since the VDF values in AASHO Road Test for Flexible and Rigid pavement are not much different, for heavy duty pavements, the computed VDF values are assumed to be same for bituminous pavements with cemented and granular base.[5] VDF should be arrived at carefully by carrying out specific axle load surveys on the existing roads. Minimum sample size for survey is given in Table 2.3.
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Table 2.3 Sample size for Axle Load Survey[15] Total number of Commercial Vehicles per day <3000 3000 to 6000 >6000 Minimum percentage of Commercial Traffic to be surveyed 20 per cent 15 per cent 10 per cent
Axle load survey should be carried out without any bias for loaded or unloaded vehicles. On some sections, there may be significant difference in axle loading in two directions of traffic. In such situations, the VDF should be evaluated direction wise. Each direction can have different pavement thickness for divided highways depending upon the loading pattern.[15]
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Table 2.4 Indicative Vehicle Damage Factor values[15]

Terrain Initial Traffic in terms of commercial vehicle per day 0-150 150-1500 More than 1500 Rolling/Plain 1.5 3.5 4.5 Hilly 0.5 1.5 2.5
Distribution of Commercial traffic over the carriage way:[15]
i) Single lane : Design should be based on total number of commercial vehicle in both directions multiplied by two ii) Two lane (single Carriageway): 75% of the total number of commercial vehicle in both the direction. iii) Four lane (single Carriage way) : 40% of the total number of commercial vehicle in both the direction. iv) Dual Carriageway: 75% of the number of commercial vehicle in each direction. For dual 3 lane and dual 4 lane carriageway, the distribution factor will be 60% and 45% respectively.[15]
Computation of design traffic under IRC 37: 2012
The design traffic is considered in terms of Cumulative number of standard axles to be carried during the design life of the road. Computed by the equation
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Where,
N: The cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the design in terms of MSA A: Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day D: Lane distribution factor F: Vehicle Damage Factor n: Design life in years r: Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles (for 7.5% annual growth rate r=0.075)
The traffic in the year of completion is estimated using the following formula:
A= P
Where P = Number of Commercial vehicle as per last count X = Number of years between the last count and the year of completion of construction
2.4.2 SOIL PARAMETER: One of the main parameter designing pavement is the quality of soil in the roadway. For design purpose, top 500 mm portion of the roadway/embankment if formed with filling materials, immediately supporting the pavement, termed as sub grade, is considered for design purposes. Whereas in rural road the top 30 cum of cutting or embankment at the formation level is considered as sub grade. Embankment construction[14]: 1) The stability of an embankment depends upon the foundation, the use of suitable materials, proper placing and compacting of the materials and strict adherence to quality control measures. The suitability of embankment material is shown in Table 2.5 and Table 2.6 indicates the compaction requirements.
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2) After cleaning and grubbing, the sub grade level should be compacted at least 97 % Proctor Density of determined laboratory Proctor Density as per IS-2720 (Part VIII).
3) Clods or hard lumps of earth should be broke down and embankment and sub grade material should be spread in layer of uniform thickness not exceeding 200 mm compacted thickness over entire width. Table 2.5 Suitability of embankment materials[14]
S. No. 1. 2. 3. Type of Work Maximum laboratory dry unit weight when tested as per IS: 2720 (Part VIII)
Embankment upto 3 mts. height, not Not less than 15.2 kN/cu.m subjected to extensive flooding Embankment exceeding 3 mts. height or Not less than 17.5 kN/cu.m embankment of any height subject to long periods of inundations Sub grade and earthen shoulders /verges Not less than 17.5 kN/cu.m /backfill
Table 2.6 Compaction requirement for embankment and sub grade[14]

Relative compaction as percentage of maximum laboratory dry density as per IS:2720 (Part VIII) Not less than 97 Not less than 95
S. No. 1. 2. 3.
Type of Work Sub grade and earthen shoulders Embankment Expansive Clays
a) Sub grade and 500 mm portion just below the sub grade b) Remaining portion of embankment
Not allowed Not less than 90
Embankment under special conditions:[21] Widening existing embankment or construction against sloping ground 1) End dumping of materials from trucks on widened portions should be avoided as far as possible.
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2)
3)
If existing side slopes are steeper than 4: 1, cut horizontal benches 0.3 m wide to ensure bond. If the slopes are 4:1 or flatter, the surface may be roughened by ploughing or scarifying. For wet conditions benches with slightly inward fall and sub-soil drains at the lowest point shall be provided before the fill is placed against slopping ground.
Earthwork over existing road surface: If within 1m of the new sub grade level, scarify to a depth of 50 mm or more if specified, if the road surface is BT, and completely removed, if of cement concrete. If the level difference is more than one m, allow the existing road surface to stay. Embankment around structures: Suspend filling around structures upto a distance of twice the height of the embankment. Permit filling only after the concrete/masonry has been in position for at least 14 days. Bring up the embankment in equal horizontal layers simultaneously on each side to avoid undue thrust and unequal pressure. The material used for backfill should not be an organic soil or highly plastic clay, plasticity index and liquid limit should not be greater than 20 and 40 respectively. Embankment construction under water: Only acceptable granular material or rock should be used for filing-under water. The material should consist of graded hard durable particles of size not exceeding 75 mm. This material should be non-plastic having uniformity co-efficient of not less than 10. Earthwork high embankment: Earthwork for high embankment should be carried out by stage construction of fills at controlled rates of filling. The embankment should be surcharged for the specified period. At the stage of formation level, surcharge where used material should be removed. High embankment should remain in place for the required settlement period before excavating footings for structures, like, abutment wing wall, etc.
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A. Sub grade: Sub grade is normally formed with natural earth Compacted to 97% of dry density IS 2720 (Part 8) Materials used for sub grade construction should have the dry density of not less than 1.75 gm/cc Wherever necessary, the original ground shall be leveled to
facilitate placement of first layer of embankment, scarified, mixed with water and then compacted by rolling so as to achieve minimum dry density. In case where the difference between the subgrade level and the ground level is less than 0.5m (0.3 m for Rural Roads) below the subgrade level watered and compacted in layers to achieve not less than 97% dry density (clause 305.3.3 of MORTH) When the soil does not fulfill the requirements of normal subgrade soil, a stabilization technique can be used to modify and improve the same. Stabilization is of different type viz., stabilization with lime, sand,
cement, coal ash, soft aggregates, gravel/moorum and mechanical stabilization etc., As far as possible a non expansive soil should not be used for the sub grade The sub grade strength is assessed in terms of the CBR (California Bearing Ratio) The design should be based on the CBR value of the weakest soil type proposed to be used for subgrade construction or encountered extensively at subgrade level over a given section of the road. Pavement thickness on new road may be modified at intervals (say 1 Km) based on the CBR values. Where the variation in CBR test is + or 1 and + or 2 for soil sample having CBR value less than 5% and 5-10% respectively then the CBR value should be the average of test from at least 6 samples. Where CBR value of sub grade is less than 2% a capping layer of 150 mm thickness of materials with a minimum CBR of 10% shall be provided in addition to the sub base. (normally sand would be used) Where embankment was formed, the CBR value of sub grade has to be tested and pavement design modified, if necessary.
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B. Sub base: Material comprise natural sand, moorum, gravel, metal, laterite crushed stone etc. Should have liquid limit and plasticity index of not more than 25 and 6 respectively Should have CBR value minimum of 20% for cumulative traffic upto 2 msa and 30% exceeding 2 msa. Where stage construction is adopted for pavements, the thickness of subbase shall be provided for ultimate pavement section for the full design life. for drainage consideration the granular sub base should be extended over entire formation width in case of the sub grade soil is of relatively low permeability. The thickness of sub base in the extended portion should not be less than 150 mm for traffic less than 10 msa and 200 mm for design traffic of 10 msa & above.[21]
C. Base course: Granular base comprises water bound macadam (WBM), wet mix macadam (WMM) or other equivalent granular construction[17] minimum 225 mm thickness for traffic upto 2 msa and 250 mm for traffic exceeding 2 msa where road carrying traffic more than 10 msa, the thickness of WBM base shall be increased from 250 mm to 300 mm (i.e. 4 layers of WBM grade II and III each of 75 mm compacted thickness) with corresponding reduction in the sub base thickness keeping the over pavement thickness unchanged for heavy traffic road use WMM WBM in layers of 75 mm thick of grade II & III used[13] Built up spray grout (BUSG) shall also be used for base in a single course in pavement.
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D. Bituminous Surfacing: Comprise of either a wearing course or a binder course with wearing course depending on traffic intensity and structural requirements Wearing courseopen grade premix carpet, surface dressing, semi dense bituminous carpet (SDBC), Bituminous Concrete (BC) Binder course Bituminous Macadam (BM), Dense Bituminous
Macadam(DBM) DBM is recommended for road designed to carry more than 5 msa DBM binder course may be preceded by a 75 mm thick BM layer. when this is done, the thickness of DBM layer will be suitably reduced. 10mm BM can be taken as equivalent to 7 mm DBM[22] DBM shall be constructed in two layers when it is more than 100 mm Mastic asphalt maybe used at bus-stops and intersections. Where Wearing course of open graded premix carpet of thickness upto 25mm, should not be counted towards the total thickness of the pavement.
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2.4 SEQUENCE OF ACTIVITIES AT SITE :
Survey of site and soil investigation
Prime Coat
Tack Coat
Design of elements (Road structure)
Kerb
DBM
Clearing and Grubbing
WMM
Traffic diversion
BC
Excavation
Granular subbase
ECW
Tack Coat
Soil Embankment
Sub grade
Traffic diversion
Cleaning
Fig. 2.2 Chronology of Activities at site
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Design of flexible pavement for widening : A Case Study of SH-8 stretch from Tarapur 0/000 km to Vasad 48/300 km

PERCENT DESIGN ACTIVITIES [2]

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

70,934 + 40,000 Km under implementation

1,54,522 25,77,396 14,33,577 42,36,429 Km

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

Road Network in India

Rural and other Roads 33.83%

State Highways 3.65%

Major and other District Roads 60.82%

Fig. 2.1 Road Network in India

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

2.4 PARAMETER OF DESIGN FRAMEWORK

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

Table 2.4 Indicative Vehicle Damage Factor values[15]

Distribution of Commercial traffic over the carriage way:[15]

Computation of design traffic under IRC 37: 2012

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

Table 2.6 Compaction requirement for embankment and sub grade[14]

Not allowed Not less than 90

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

2.4 SEQUENCE OF ACTIVITIES AT SITE :

Survey of site and soil investigation

Design of elements (Road structure)

Clearing and Grubbing

Fig. 2.2 Chronology of Activities at site

BVM Engineering College Gujarat Technological University

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