PV Cell Technology

41

Chapter 05

PV CELL TECHNOLOGY

05.1 Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) are clean alternative to conventional energy generation technologies. It is the cheapest method to generate electricity. This part aims at creating an understanding of the mechanism involved in the electricity generation and describing the standard technologies.

Solar cells are large semiconductor devices, which convert solar irradiation directly into electricity. In order to understand how a solar cell works, it is necessary to go back to some basic physical concepts, which are reviewed in this section. Semiconductor

In the simplest model of the atom, electrons orbit a central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons. Each atom is electrically neutral, that is there is one electron for each proton. Each atom has specific, discrete energy levels in which the electrons can be found. When bringing a large number of electrons closely together, these discrete levels become blurred and they form so-called bands [14]. These bands are quasi-continuous regions where electrons can move. These bands are separated by forbidden zones, socalled band gaps, [14] where electrons cannot be. The electrons fill this energy level from the lowest upwards. These principles apply for all solid materials. The difference between the insulator and conductor is the position of the highest energy level which is filled by electrons. If this Fermi level is in the middle of a band, the materials are metal. If it is in forbidden region, the highest band is completely filled and next highest energy level is forbidden, the material is an insulator or a semiconductor[14].The difference between insulator and semiconductor is the width of the band gap. The band with the highest energy level containing electrons is called valence band, the first empty band is called the conduction band, because electrons in this band can move relatively easily and conduction generally happens in this band.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

ot C

05.2 Physics of Solar Cell

op y

Photovoltaic are relatively recent technology introduced for power generation, despite being known for quite some time. The name was introduced at late as 1948, and rapid development followed.

PV Cell Technology

42

At room temperature and low illumination, pure so-called intrinsic semiconductors have a high resistivity. But the resistivity can be greatly reduced by doping. Doping

Doping means introducing a very small amount of impurity, of the order of one in a million atoms [14].One can either introduce donors, i.e. atoms with excess electrons, or acceptors, i.e. an atom with a lack of electrons. Silicon generally prefers to share its four valance electrons with four other patterns as shown as figure.

D
Figure 19: Effects of Doping Boron is a material with three valance electrons. Doping with its results as shown as figure, in an acceptor, i.e. it can trap free electrons. It leaves so-called holes in the lattice. These holes are unsatisfied valence electrons. They act like positive charges. These charges can move through the material in exactly the same way as an electron.
Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

ot C

op y

Figure 18: Difference between Metal, Semiconductor and Insulator

PV Cell Technology This P-type silicon has holes as majority carriers, i.e. a current is normally carried though hole transport [14]. On other hand Phosphorus has five valance electrons. It is a donor because it donates the unsatisfied electrons. Silicon so doped is called n-type. The majority carriers are electrons [14].Holes, like electrons, will move under the influence of an applied voltage but, as the mechanism of their movement is valence electron substitution from atom to atom, they are less mobile than free conduction electrons. Direct and Indirect Band Gap There are two kinds of semiconductors. Some have a direct band gap, while others have an indirect one. Fig illustrates these two types of band gaps. The band boundaries of materials are normally not constant across the material. They vary spatially as well as energetically. The band gap is assumed to be the minimum distance between valence band and conduction band. A direct band gap semiconductor has the minimum energy level of the conduction band in the same position as the maximum of the valance band [15].An indirect band gap material has a spatial difference between these two energy levels [15].

43

D
Figure 20: Direct and Indirect Band Gaps This has an influence on the absorption of light which can be observed for photon energies similar to the band gap, as explained in the following section.
Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

ot C

op y

PV Cell Technology Light absorption in a semiconductor When light is absorbed in a semiconductor it interferes with the material, i.e. the photon hits the electron or nucleus. In this collision it transfers its energy. If the photon hits an electron and has sufficient energy, it promoted to the conduction band, as in figure. The energy transferred is normally larger than the band gap. The minimum energy transferred is normally larger than the band gap. If this is not possible, the material is invisible for the photon and hardly any absorption will occur. If the energy is larger than the band gap and electron is promoted to higher energy level within the conduction band, it will lose some of its energy almost immediately, passing on the excess energy as heat. This process is called thermalisation. It will then exist for a while on the lower edge of the band gap. Finally, after a certain life time, it will recombine with the hole. The highly energetic photons in the ultraviolet and blue parts of the spectrum are absorbed very near the surface, while the less energetic longer wavelength photons in the red and infrared are absorbed deeper the crystal. It also depends on the type of semiconductor. p-n Junctions

44

A p-n junction is formed by bringing p- and n- doped material into conduct. Where these two meet, i.e. at the junction, areas with high electron densities are next to areas with high hole densities. This is obviously not a stable state and the electrons and the holes will defuse to areas with lower concentration. By diffusing they leave a net charge and thus create an electric field. This field opposes the diffusion. At some stage there will be a balance between the electric field and the diffusion, and the system is in equilibrium [15]. The equilibrium then explains the alignment of the bands. Any physical system in thermal equilibrium can only have one Fermi level. Hence the system aligns as figure.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

ot C

op y

PV Cell Technology

45

Figure 21: Making of p-n Junction Light Absorption in a p-n Junction

A photon being incident on a p-n junction may carry enough energy to generate an electron hole pair. A hole created in a p-n area will not cause a large difference to the overall space charge, while an electron certainly will. Thus only the minority carriers are important for the overall current. The electron and the holes diffuse through the crystal in an effort to produce an even distribution. This process is similar to gas always trying to occupy the largest possible space and by doing so creating an even pressure across this space. Some electron-hole pairs recombine after a life time of the order of 1 s, neutralizing their charges and giving up energy in the form of heat. Others will reach the junction, where they are separated by the reverse field. The electrons are being accelerated towards the negative contact and the holes towards the positive. A different method of charge separation occurs if the electron-hole pair is generated in the presence of an electric field. This leads to an immediate separation of the charge carriers and the material can be significantly less pure than it needs to be if the device relies on diffusion for the initial transport of charge carriers. The separation of charge carriers by means of an electric field is called drift current.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

ot C

op y

PV Cell Technology If the cell is connected to load, electron will be pushed from the negative contact through the load to the positive contacts, where they will recombine with holes. This constitutes an electric current.

46

05.3 Operation of Solar Cell

The efficiencies reported to date (2000) are well below the thermodynamic limits; as shown in the table. The best efficiencies were achieved with GaAs, which has nearly ideal properties for a photovoltaic device. It is however, prohibitively expensive and is thus used nearly exclusively in space application. It is followed by e-silicon which can be expected as it was used exclusively in the past and all other technologies were introduced later. It is also the only other single- crystalline material, which causes the superior efficiencies. Dye sensitized cells, show a very low efficiencies. Table 5 Efficiencies of Non-Concentrating Devices

ot C
24.7 19.8 12.7 13.5 16 18.2 25.1 6.5

Material

Best efficiency

Research cell

c-Si p-Si

a-Si (single j.)

N
CdTe CIGS GaAs

a-Si (multi j.)

Dye Sensitized

It is interesting to look at the reasons for the relatively low value given in table.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

op y
Module 22.7 15.3 _ 10.4 10.7 12.1 _ 4.7

PV Cell Technology General Losses Losses divide into three categories. There are short circuit, open circuit, fill factor losses. The losses are briefly discussed here. Short Circuit Losses It is directly linked to the band gap and the spectrum used. The band gap defines the minimum energy needed for the generation of an electron-hole pair, because the photon must carry enough energy to overcome the band gap. The maximum number of electron-hole pairs can be generated for a band gap zero, when every photon has enough energy to produce an electron-hole pair.

47

Open Circuit Losses

Voc kt/e ln(Iph/I01 +1)

The fill factor is influenced by recombination within the bulk and the SCR of the device. Hence both need to be good quality in order to minimize the recombination within them. It is also influenced by parallel and series resistance. They determine the slope at Iac and Voc respectively. Thus the series resistances need to be as low and the parallel resistance as high as possible. Energy Loss Visible light is only part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation is not monochromatic - it is made up of a range of different wavelengths, and therefore energy levels. Light can be separated into different wavelengths, and we can see them in the form of a rainbow. Since the light that hits our cell has photons of a wide range of energies, it turns out that some of them won't have enough energy to form an electron-hole pair.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

Fill Factor Losses

This neglects some of the correction factors introduced in section Diode Model and thus is an approximation. It is apparent that the recombination within the bulk needs to be as low as possible. Obviously a large photocurrent is beneficial as well. This statement contradicts the simple idea that a low band gap is beneficial.

ot C

Assuming a minimum influence of the second diode and a high shunt resistor allows one to estimate the open circuit voltages:

op y

A low quality material will cause shorter life times of electron-hole pairs. This will result in less charge carrier making it across the junction and thus the short circuit current will be reduced.

PV Cell Technology They'll simply pass through the cell as if it were transparent. Still other photons have too much energy. Only a certain amount of energy, measured in electron volts (eV) and defined by our cell material (about 1.1 eV for crystalline silicon), is required to knock an electron loose. We call this the band gap energy of a material. If a photon has more energy than the required amount, then the extra energy is lost (unless a photon has twice the required energy, and can create more than one electron-hole pair, but this effect is not significant). These two effects alone account for the loss of around 70 percent of the radiation energy incident on our cell. The band gap also determines the strength (voltage) of our electric field, and if it's too low, then what we make up in extra current (by absorbing more photons), we lose by having a small voltage. Remember that power is voltage times current. The optimal band gap, balancing these two effects, is around 1.4 eV for a cell made from a single material. We have other losses as well. Our electrons have to flow from one side of the cell to the other through an external circuit. We can cover the bottom with a metal, allowing for good conduction, but if we completely cover the top, then photons can't get through the opaque conductor and we lose all of our current (in some cells, transparent conductors are used on the top surface, but not in all). If we put our contacts only at the sides of our cell, then the electrons have to travel an extremely long distance (for an electron) to reach the contacts. Remember, silicon is a semiconductor -- it's not nearly as good as a metal for transporting current. Its internal resistance (called series resistance) is fairly high, and high resistance means high losses. To minimize these losses, our cell is covered by a metallic contact grid that shortens the distance that electrons have to travel while covering only a small part of the cell surface. Even so, some photons are blocked by the grid, which can't be too small or else its own resistance will be too high. Now that we know how a solar cell operates, let's see what it takes to power a house with the technology. Influence of Temperature The influence of temperature is mainly on the band gap and on the recombination. The band gap effectively shrinks with increasing temperature. Thus the short circuit current increasing with temperature and open circuit voltage decreases. Recombination increase, as diode saturation currents are proportional to the band gap.
[

48

I01, 02 ~ exp [ eEgap / kT] Thus the recombination increases with decreasing band gap, resulting in a further decrease in the open circuit voltage. The result is a net loss of efficiency, as the change in open circuit voltages much more pronounced than the change in short circuit current.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

ot C

op y

PV Cell Technology Influence of Irradiation An increase in radiation will result in a linear increase in a short circuit current. This will, according to equation, result in an increase of open circuit voltage. An empirical relationship of the theoretical efficiency with an idealized fill factor FFi as t
~ VF . FFi

49

The voltage factor VF depends on the band gap and the open circuit voltage. It is given as FF = eVoc/ Egap

Figure 22: Influence of Irradiation on the Device Performance

05.4 Silicon Cells

Cell Manufacturing Silicon is the second most abundant element in Earths crust, it is essentially sand, the form used for cell production is quartzite, the crystalline form of silicon dioxide. In an arc furnace, carbon is added, resulting in silicon and carbon dioxide. The resulting Si is about 98% pure, it is called metallurgical grade silicon. This silicon is finely ground and dissolved in HCl. This solution is distilled several times. The boiling temperature of the SiHCL3, which results from dissolving Si in HCl, as is as low as 310C. The liquid is then reduced by hydrogen and electrically heated. Semiconductor grade silicon is then collected is on silicon rod. The problems with the last step are that the yield is low ( ~37% ) and that the temperatures needed are 1000-12000C.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

ot C

op y

Thus increase in irradiation will result in an increase in efficiency.

PV Cell Technology Mono crystals are then produced, if crystalline Silicon cells (c-Si) are to be produced. The main industrial process for doing this is called the Czochralski process. The semi conductor grade silicon is melted in a crucible, using an inert gas atmosphere. Trace level of the desired dopant are added.

50

05.5 Thin Film Cells

The production of crystalline silicon devices is quite labor and energy intensive and thus expensive. A further cost reduction of photovoltaic energy production is only
Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

D
Figure 23: Manufacturing Steps of PV Modules

ot C

op y

PV Cell Technology possible if the manufacturing costs per Wp can be reduced. The way forward seems to be at the moment the introduction of thin film solar cells. They typically are direct band gap materials, which need a material thickness in the range of 1m only. This reduces the amount of semiconductor material significantly, and thus reduces the energy cost with producing the devices. The cost of the semiconductor material is, in fact, not the main concern any more. The cost of glass and TCO (transparent conducing oxide) used for the top contacts tends to dominate the device prices. This device has an area ratio nearly 100%. The device covers the whole module and no noticeable gaps exist between single cells. This gives the typical uniform look.

51

D
Figure 25: Thin Film PV Modules General Structure The huge advantages of thin film devices is that production can be nearly completely automated. The materials are directly deposited on glass substrate, as illustrated in the figure. Interconnect and all deposition steps can be done automatically and hardly any
Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

Figure 24: Sectional Structure of Typical Thin Film

ot C

op y

PV Cell Technology human interaction is needed. This is main reason why thin film devices are supposedly cheaper than c-Si devices.

52

Figure 26: General Structure of a Thin Device Module Manufacturing

The window is typically a low iron tempered glass. Glass is used because it is a relatively cheap and weather proof material. Tempered glass is also quite a tough

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

D
Figure 27: Schematic Diagram of PV Module

ot C

Solar cells are fragile objects, which must be shielded from the environment. They also have to be supported mechanically. This is done typically in photovoltaic modules, which are typically around 30-40 cells mounted in one single unit. This number of cells stems from the fact that so far the majority of modules are used for charging batteries. The cells are largely connected in series, because of the voltage generated by single cells (~0.5-0.6 volts) is rarely sufficient for any application. A typically arrangement for packaging solar cells into modules is shown in figure.

op y

PV Cell Technology material. The low iron content normally results in high transparency. The backing can be glass, plastic or metal. The single cells within a module are normally contacted manually. They must be encapsulated in a potting compound which allows for thermal expansion, is transparent and UV resistant and allows low cost production.Ethy1 Viny1 Acetate (EVA) is used in the majority of todays modules. A glass fiber separator is normally introduced between the cells and the back protection in order to avoid any puncturing of the plastic by high spots of solder and any other soil trapped in the encapsulate. The cells are laminated. A laminate of glass/EVA/fiberglass/plastic foil is placed in a laminator. Firstly a vacuum is generated in order to remove the air between the different sheets. Then the laminate is subjected to a temperature of around 200C, where the EVA softens. Applying the mechanical pressure forces the EVA between the cells and into the weave of the fiber glass. It also wets the glass and the foil, giving them good mechanical bond. Finally the EVA is back to cure and then allowed to cool down. After cleaning and sealing the edge the laminate is placed in a frame, which adds mechanical strength. One of the danger spots is the point of where the electrical connection from the laminated cells feeds out through the back protective cover. Often an additional protection in the form of terminal box is included. Moisture penetration is responsible for the majority of long term module failures, with condensation on the cells and circuitry censing short circuiting or corrosion. Hence the encapsulation system must be highly resistant to the permeation or ingress of gases, vapors and liquid. It should be carefully chosen to be able to maintain adhesion under extreme operating condition. Contrary to c-Si production, there are no separate steps for producing a cell and then a module. The materials are directly deposited on the glass substrate. The different cells are then formed using laser scribing before each deposition step. Figure illustrates the production using the example of an amorphous Si device

53

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

ot C

op y

PV Cell Technology Glass substrate Deposit TCO Laser Scribe TCO Deposit Active Materials

54

Deposit back contact

Form cells in back contacts Attach Al Contact Strip Laminate + Frame Finished

The process does not need any manual soldering as for c-Si devices. The thermal expansion cannot cause the module connectors to come loose. It is important to keep moisture out because other-wise it can happen that the thin semiconductor layer literally dissolves.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

Figure 28: Steps to Produce Thin Film Devices

ot C

op y

Laser Scribe Active Materials

PV Cell Technology Materials Amorphous Silicon Amorphous silicon was initially seen as an ideal candidate for thin film devices and significant investments where under taken. It is an abundant material, environment benign and potentially very cheap to produce. Early p-n devices suffered from a degradation of about 40%. Device structures were changed to p-i-n structures, as shown in figure. This structure generates an electrical field that stretches nearly completely across the whole device, especially as it is a good assumption that the thickness of the p and the n layer is negligible compared to the thickness of the i layer. This has the advantages that the lower materials quality, which would normally cause increased recombination, is acceptable. As the materials ages, and thus recombination increase, the electrical field helps to reduce the impact on the reduction on the overall efficiency.

55

Amorphous silicon devices are very promising because of their low thermal energy losses. It is the only material for which a positive temperature co-efficient was reported. Cadmium Telluride It is ideal material for photovoltaic application. A typical structure is shown in figure. The active junction is formed by a CdS-CdTe hetero junction, which is by small grain polycrystalline materials.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

o
Figure 29: Typical Single Junction Structure

ot C

op y

PV Cell Technology

56

Figure 30: Cd-Te Device Structure It is not possible to n-dope CdTe, thus a thin CdS layer is introduced to form the junction with the p-CdTe. This layer must be thin enough to ensure a high transmission of photon to the CdTe materials. Dye Sensitized Cells

It is relatively a new device. This new technology is developing very quickly and many different device structures are discussed at the moment. One possible device structure is shown in Figure-31. The actual cell is enclosed between two sheets of TCO coated glass. The active material, dye-sensitized TiO2 is surrounded by an electrolyte which allows an electron transport.

Here we explain the basic mechanism involved in electricity generation by photovoltaic. This starts with the absorption of a photon in a materials, the generation of electron hole

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

D
Figure 31: Structure of Dye Sensitized Solar Cell

ot C

op y

PV Cell Technology pair. This pair is separated by diffusion and across a barrier introduced by the p-n junction. A certain % reaches the node with a voltage defined by the band gap and engineering factors. A suitable model for common device is described with the two diode model. The limits to the efficiency are discussed on the basis of the performance indicators they affect. This helps in understanding the good engineering can have on the device performance. Todays structure and production methodology of the commonly available c-Si and p-Si cells is discussed. The strengths and the problems in the expansion of this technology to much higher volumes are highlighted. In contrast to this, newer thin film device are discussed and their production is investigated. Thus all technologies available to date are discussed and an overview of cell technology is given.
[

57

Professional Applications

Cathodic Protection This system provide essential corrosion control for pipe lines, well heads, bridge and other metallic structures. A small direct is impressed on the structure at regular intervals to inhabit electro chemical corrosion. Distributed PV sources have proved to be an ideal way of providing this current, as they eliminate the problems of transmission loss, fuel supply and maintenance with diesel generators. Navigational Aids Marine beacons and navigation light on buoys were traditionally powered by acetylene, pressurized kerosene or batteries. Maintenance was difficult and costly. In many countries simple PV generator are providing cheaper and more reliable for this application. Remote Air Craft Beacons PV can be used to advantage to power radio and light beacons near air ports, where the cost of running cables or maintaining batteries would be prohibitive. Alarm System and Traffic Warning Lights Independence from main supplies and saving battery charging make PV attractive for railway signals, alarm systems, fog, fire and flood hazard warnings, traffic control warning, lights and highway breakdown telephones.

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

ot C

Telecommunications solid state microwave techniques over the past twenty years have considerably reduced the power consumption of telecommunication equipment. In this circumstance, PV has proved to be the cheapest and most reliable source of power and many systems have been installed all over the world.

op y

05.6 Applications

PV Cell Technology

58

Automatic Weather Stations Solar powered automatic weather stations enable networks to be expanded at relatively low cost, with a consequent improvement in forecasting accuracy. Social Applications Rural Electrification About 80% of population of developing countries live in small villages and scattered houses without electricity. Electric power is necessary to improve the health and education of this people to provide opportunities for the development of local industries, which would help to arrest the damaging drift of populations to the towns. As cost continues to fall PV is becoming increasingly accessible for rural electrification, in the industrialized as well as in the developing countries. Water pumping

Vaccine Refrigeration

Study of Solar Module & Its Efficient Use in Bangladesh

To remain effective, vaccines used in programs to improve health standards and reduce infant mortality have to be kept refrigerated during transportation. Special pv powered portable refrigerators have been developed to help maintain cold chain from the factory to user.

ot C

The lack of ready supply of clean water is a major problem in many developing countries. Sources are often contaminated and some distance from the dwellings. PV pumps are playing an important role in the efforts to overcome this problem. They have proved to be reliable and there are thousands in use around the world.

op y