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Chapter 09

SOLAR TRACKER

09.1 Introduction
A solar tracker [19] is a generic term used to describe devices that orient various payloads toward the sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices. In standard photovoltaic (PV) applications trackers are used to minimize the angle of incidence between the incoming light and a photovoltaic panel. This increases the amount of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power generating capacity. In standard photovoltaic applications, it is estimated that trackers are used in at least 85% of commercial installations greater than 1MW from 2009 to 2012.[1][2]

09.2 Photovoltaic Tracker Classification

Photovoltaic trackers can be classified into two types: Standard Photovoltaic (PV) Trackers and Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) Trackers. Each of these tracker types can be further categorized by the number and orientation of their axes, their actuation architecture and drive type, their intended applications, their vertical supports and foundation type. Standard Photovoltaic (PV) Trackers Photovoltaic panels accept both direct and diffuse light from the sky. The panels on a Standard Photovoltaic Trackers always gather the available diffuse light. The tracking functionality in Standard Photovoltaic Trackers is used to minimize the angle of incidence between incoming light and the photovoltaic panel. This increases the amount of energy gathered from the direct component of the incoming light.

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In concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrated solar thermal (CSP) applications trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and CSP systems. The optics in concentrated solar applications accepts the direct component of sunlight light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to collect energy. Tracking systems are found in all concentrator applications because systems do not produce energy unless oriented toward the sun.

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Solar Tracker Accuracy Requirements In standard photovoltaic systems, the energy contributed by the direct beam drops off with the cosine of the angle between the incoming light and the panel. Thus trackers that have accuracies of 5 can deliver greater than 99.6% of the energy delivered by the direct beam and 100% of the diffuse light. As a result, high accuracy tracking is not typically used. Technologies Supported The physics behind Standard Photovoltaic (PV) Trackers works with all standard photovoltaic module technologies. These include all types of crystalline silicon panels (monocrystalline, multicrystalline, polycrystalline) and all types of thin film panels (amorphous silicon, CdTe, CIGS, microcrystalline). Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) Module Trackers

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Accuracy Requirements

The physics behind CPV optics requires that tracking accuracy increase as the systems concentration ratio increases. In typical high concentration systems tracking accuracy must be in the 0.1 range to deliver approximately 90% of the rated power output.[3][4] In low concentration systems, tracking accuracy must be in the 2.0 range to deliver 90% of the rated power output. As a result, high accuracy tracking systems are typically used. Technologies Supported Concentrated Photovoltaic Trackers are used with refractive and reflective based concentrator systems. There is a range of emerging photovoltaic cell technologies used in these systems. These range from crystalline silicon based photovoltaic receivers to germanium based triple junction receivers.

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The optics in CPV modules accept the direct component of the incoming light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to maximize the energy collected. In low concentration applications a portion of the diffuse light from the sky can also be captured. The tracking functionality in CPV modules is used to orient the optics such that the incoming light is focused to a photovoltaic collector. CPV modules that concentrate in one dimension must be tracked normal to the sun in one axis. CPV modules that concentrate in two dimensions must be tracked normal to the sun in two axes.

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Solar Tracker There could be another type of tracker classification [17]: Panel tracking This is where the panels are on a mount that follows the sun. The most common is the Zomeworks. These optimize output by keeping the panels very close to 90 degrees angle for maximum sunlight. These typically give one about a 15% increase in winter and up to a 40%. Increase in summer. Maximum power Point Tracking This is electronic tracking, and has nothing to do with moving the panels. Instead, the controller looks at the output of the panel and compares it to the battery voltage. It then figures out what is the absolute best power that the panel can put out. It takes this and converts it to best voltage to get maximum AMPS into the battery. Most important MPPTs are around 95-97% efficient in the conversion. One can get typically 30-40% power gain in winter and 10-20% in summer.

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09.3 Tracker Types

Single Axis Trackers

There are several common implementations of single axis trackers. These include Horizontal Single Axis Trackers, Vertical Single Axis Trackers, and Tilted Single Axis Trackers. The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance.

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Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation. The axis of rotation of single axis trackers is typically aligned along a true North meridian. It is possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms.

Photovoltaic trackers can be grouped into classes by the number and orientation of the trackers axes. Compared to a fixed mount, a single axis tracker increases annual output by approximately 30%, and a dual axis tracker an additional 6%.[5][6][7]

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Solar Tracker Horizontal Single Axis Tracker (HSAT)

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The axis of rotation for Horizontal Single Axis Tracker is horizontal with respect to the ground. The posts at either end of the axis of rotation of a Horizontal Single Axis Tracker can be shared between trackers to lower the installation cost. Field layouts with Horizontal Single Axis Trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means that keeping the entire axis of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. In addition, with backtracking, they can be packed at any density without shading. Horizontal Trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.

Fig 46: Wattsun HZ-Series Linear Axis Tracker in South Korea. These trackers use a horizontal axis.

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Fig 45: Ray Tracker GC200 Horizontal Single Axis Tracker in California

Solar Tracker Several manufacturers can deliver single axis horizontal trackers. In these, a long horizontal tube is supported on bearings mounted upon pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on a North-South line. Panels are mounted upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of the sun through the day. Vertical Single Axis Tracker (VSAT) The axis of rotation for Vertical Single Axis Trackers is vertical with respect to the ground. These trackers rotate from East to West over the course of the day. Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to optimize land utilization. Also optimization for dense packing is limited due to the nature of the shading over the course of a year.

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Tilted Single Axis Tracker (TSAT)

All trackers with axes of rotation between horizontal and vertical are considered Tilted Single Axis Trackers. Tracker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind profile and decrease the elevated ends height off the ground. Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary losses and to optimize land utilization. With backtracking, they can be packed without shading perpendicular to their axis of rotation at any density. However, the packing parallel to their axis of rotation is limited by the tilt angle and the latitude.

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Fig 47: Single axis Sun Power T20 trackers, with roughly 20 degree tilt, at Nellis Air Force Base, in Nevada, USA. The arrays form part of the Nellis Solar Power Plant and was designed and built by Sun Power Corporation. Credit: U.S. Air Force photo by Senior Airman Larry E. Reid Jr.

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Vertical Single Axis Trackers typically have the face of the module oriented at an angle with respect to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cone that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotate.

Solar Tracker Tilted Single Axis Trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation. Dual Axis Trackers Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These axes are typically normal to one another. The axis that is fixed with respect to the ground can be considered a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary axis can be considered a secondary axis. There are several common implementations of dual axis trackers. They are classified by the orientation of their primary axes with respect to the ground. Two common implementations are Tip - Tilt trackers and Azimuth-Altitude trackers. The orientation of the module with respect to the tracker axis is important when modeling performance. Dual Axis Trackers typically have modules oriented parallel to the secondary axis of rotation. Tip Tilt Dual Axis Tracker (TTDAT)

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A Tip Tilt Dual Axis Tracker has its primary axis horizontal to the ground. The secondary axis is then typically normal to the primary axis. The posts at either end of the primary axis of rotation of a Tip Tilt Dual Axis Tracker can be shared between trackers to lower installation costs. Field layouts with Tip Tilt Dual Axis Trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means that keeping the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. In addition, with backtracking, they can be packed without shading at any density. The axes of rotation of Tip Tilt Dual Axis Trackers are typically aligned either along a true North meridian or an east west line of latitude. It is possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms.

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Solar Tracker

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Fig 48: Point focus parabolic dish with Stirling system. The horizontally rotating azimuth table mounts the vertical frames on each side which hold the elevation trunnions for the dish and its integral engine/generator mount Azimuth-Altitude Dual Axis Tracker (AADAT) An Azimuth Altitude Dual Axis Tracker has its primary axis vertical to the ground. The secondary axis is then typically normal to the primary axis. Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and to optimize land utilization. Also optimization for dense packing is limited due to the nature of the shading over the course of a year.

Fig 49: Azimuth-Altitude Dual Axis Tracker 2 axis solar tracker, Toledo, Spain This mount is used as a large telescope mount owing to its structure and dimensions. One axis is a vertical pivot shaft or horizontal ring mount that allows the device to be swung to a compass point. The second axis is a horizontal elevation pivot mounted upon the azimuth platform. By using combinations of the two axis, any location in the upward hemisphere may be pointed. Such systems may be operated under computer control according to the expected solar orientation, or may use a tracking sensor to control motor drives that orient the panels toward the sun. This type of mount is also used to orient parabolic reflectors that mount a Stirling engine to produce electricity at the device. [8]

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09.4 Drive types

Active tracker Active trackers use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as commanded by a controller responding to the solar direction. Active two-axis trackers are also used to orient heliostats - movable mirrors that reflect sunlight toward the absorber of a central power station. As each mirror in a large field will have an individual orientation these are controlled programmatically through a central computer system, which also allows the system to be shut down when necessary. Light-sensing trackers typically have two photo sensors, such as photodiodes, configured differentially so that they output a null when receiving the same light flux. Mechanically, they should be Omni directional (i.e. flat) and are aimed 90 degrees apart. This will cause the steepest part of their cosine transfer functions to balance at the steepest part, which translates into maximum sensitivity. Since the motors consume energy, one wants to use them only as necessary. So instead of a continuous motion, the heliostat is moved in discrete steps. Also, if the light is below some threshold there would not be enough power generated to warrant reorientation. This is also true when there is not enough difference in light level from one direction to another, such as when clouds are passing overhead. Consideration must be made to keep the tracker from wasting energy during cloudy periods.

Fig 50: Zomeworks passive tracker head in Spring/Summer tilt position with panels on light blue rack pivoted to morning position against stop. Dark blue objects are hydraulic dampers.

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Passive tracker

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Solar Tracker

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Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that is driven to one side or the other (by solar heat creating gas pressure) to cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. As this is a non-precision orientation it is unsuitable for certain types of concentrating photovoltaic collectors but works fine for common PV panel types. These will have viscous dampers to prevent excessive motion in response to wind gusts. Shader/reflectors are used to reflect early morning sunlight to "wake up" the panel and tilt it toward the sun, which can take nearly an hour. The time to do this can be greatly reduced by adding a self-releasing tie down that positions the panel slightly past the zenith (so that the fluid does not have to overcome gravity) and using the tie down in the evening. (A slack-pulling spring will prevent release in windy overnight conditions.) The term "passive tracker" is also used for photovoltaic modules that include a hologram behind stripes of photovoltaic cells. That way, sunlight passes through the transparent part of the module and reflects on the hologram. This allows sunlight to hit the cell from behind, thereby increasing the module's efficiency. Also, the module does not have to move since the hologram always reflects sunlight from the correct angle towards the cells. Chronological tracker

A chronological tracker counteracts the Earth's rotation by turning at an equal rate as the earth, but in the opposite direction. Actually the rates aren't quite equal, because as the earth goes around the sun, the position of the sun changes with respect to the earth by 360 every year or 365.24 days. A chronological tracker is a very simple yet potentially a very accurate solar tracker specifically for use with a polar mount.The drive method may be as simple as a gear motor that rotates at a very slow average rate of one revolution per day (15 degrees per hour). In theory the tracker may rotate completely, assuming there is enough clearance for a complete rotation, and assuming that twisting wires are not an issue, such as with a solar concentrator or the tracker may be reset each day to avoid these issues. Alternatively, an electronic controller may be used, with a real time clock that is used to infer the "solar time" (hour angle). Tracking adjustments can be made periodically or continuously.

09.5 Maintenance
Some solar trackers may operate most effectively with seasonal position adjustment and most will need inspection and lubrication on an annual basis. As most trackers are made from mild steel, maintenance of paint is typically required, and may be critical in

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Solar Tracker highly corrosive environments, such as near saltwater or in polluted industrial localities. In regions with extended summer dry seasons the periodic washing of the panels may significantly increase performance at a critical demand time, particularly for grid-tied systems.

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