Gourd and squash artifacts yield starch grains of feasting foods from preceramic Peru

Neil A. Duncan1, Deborah M. Pearsall, and Robert A. Benfer, Jr.

Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211 Edited by Michael E. Moseley, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, and approved June 8, 2009 (received for review March 26, 2009)

In a study of residues from gourd and squash artifacts, we recovered starch grains from manioc (Manihot esculenta), potato (Solanum sp.), chili pepper (Capsicum spp.), arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), and algarrobo (Prosopis sp.) from feasting contexts at the Buena Vista site, a central Peruvian preceramic site dating to 2200 calendar years B.C. This study has implications for the study of plant food use wherever gourds or squashes are preserved, documents the earliest evidence for the consumption of algarrobo and arrowroot in Peru, and provides insights into foods consumed at feasts.

n enhanced understanding of the use of bottle gourds in aceramic cultures through the examination of starch residues on the gourds interior surfaces provides us with a potential pathway to understanding behavioral, economic, symbolic, and ritual contexts in which these artifacts are found. The myriad uses for the shells of bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) and squash (Cucurbita sp.) in the archaeological record for both tools and, for squash, food complicates determination of the precise use of these materials without direct contextual information, such as gourd fishing floats attached to nets (1), or encountering whole or partial gourd artifacts from which one can infer their use through ethnographic analogy (2). In this study, we extracted starch from the residues of fragmented squash (Cucurbita) and gourd (L. siceraria) serving vessels deposited in a ritual context at the Buena Vista site in central Peru, located 35 km inland (114351.72S, 76585.45W) from the mouth of the Chillo n River (Fig. 1). Overlooking the valley floor, Buena Vista contains monumental late preceramic architecture. Its large, elaborate, isolated space with uniquely patterned astronomical alignments (3) suggest that it served as a small ceremonial center in the central Chillo n Valley. The starch residues of edible plants found on the artifacts and the special archaeological context from which these artifacts were recovered suggest that the artifacts were used in a ritual setting for the serving and production of food. Among archaeologists, there is tremendous interest in the examination of feasting, defined loosely as the sharing of food or drink in a special context or for a special purpose (4), in understanding the social relationships between emergent elites and commoners. The use of food, particularly chicha (maize beer), in traditional Andean systems in the materialization of public labor is well documented (5, 6); however, the prehistoric use of food in religious, social, or economic rituals in the Andes is less understood (7, 8). Gourd and squash artifacts for this study were recovered from a central feature in the Fox Temple at Buena Vista, named after an incised stylized drawing of a fox in the doorway. At the top of the temple mound, a large room (15 7 m) contained an elevated platform within which there was a sunken niche-walled pit (Fig. 2 A and B) from which the materials in this study were recovered. The temple was intentionally interred, as is consistent with the ritual entombment of monumental architecture at other Andean sites, particularly at Kotosh (911), which shares similar architectural features with Buena Vista. The room itself was found clean of refuse, save for a single tree trunk lying adjacent to the platform in the center. Within the platform, the sunken pit contained well-stratified and abundant food and other plant
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remains, a few mussel shells, and some small fish remains. Abundant food remains, including seeds of chili peppers (Capsicum sp.), guava (Psidium guayaba), lucuma (Pouteria lucuma), and squashes (Cucurbita maxima, C. moschata, and C. ficifolia) and rind fragments of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), manioc (Manihot esculenta), and potato (Solanum sp.), were recovered with the remains of nonfood plants such as cotton (Gossypium barbadense), grass, fragments of agave leaves (Furcraea andina), and partially burnt twigs and charcoal. Faunal remains are much less abundant and limited primarily to mussel shells and small fish vertebrae. Charcoal from separate stratigraphic levels within the pit provided two radiocarbon dates, both 2200 calendar years B.C. (Table 1), suggesting that the pit was filled in a short period. The sequence of burial began with what might be described as an organic protective layer similar to that described in the temple entombment at Huaca Soledad (12), a 5to 10-cm-deep layer of grass and fine silt that covered the bottom of the pit, atop which commingled organics, grass, leaves, and food remains were placed. Small round cobbles and gravel topped this layer, followed by more mixed organic material, then capped with small angular gravel. The surrounding room was then filled with large rocks, some as large as 60 cm in diameter, to the level of the top of the platform. Last, the entire room was filled with shicra, cane bags filled with rock. Archaeological starch grain research has contributed greatly to the study of plant use and consumption by humans (1315). However, this is the first study to analyze residue from bottle gourd or squash artifacts. One cannot underestimate the significance of squash and bottle gourds to humans. Utilitarian bottle gourds and edible squashes are among the first cultivars in the Americas (16, 17). On the Peruvian coast, bottle gourds are common in preceramic contexts and closely associated with maritime subsistence as net floats (1). However, their use also enters the realm of the sacred as symbolic containers (18) and for serving ritual libations. As demonstrated here, residue analysis can help to determine use. Results Starch grains were recovered from squash and gourd artifacts by employing a method similar to that used to recover microfossils from stone tools and ceramics (see SI Materials and Methods). First, the artifact is placed in a sonicating water bath to loosen and remove adhering residue, which is collected as Sediment 1. Then, the artifacts interior surface is lightly brushed to remove any remaining residue, collected as Sediment 2. Starch grains are then isolated from each of these sediments (Tables 2 and 3). The artifacts in this study are well-preserved, desiccated specimens recovered under conditions of exceptional preservaAuthor contributions: N.A.D. and D.M.P. designed research; N.A.D. and R.A.B. performed research; D.M.P. contributed new reagents/analytic tools; N.A.D. analyzed data; and N.A.D. wrote the paper. The authors declare no conict of interest. This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.
1To

whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: neilduncan@mizzou.edu.

This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/ 0903322106/DCSupplemental.

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Fig. 2. The sunken pit and platform in the Fox Temple. (A) Photograph of sunken pit facing east. (B) Stratigraphic prole of the pit contents from which artifacts were studied. Fig. 1. Location of Buena Vista on the central coast of Peru. (Inset) Location of Buena Vista in the Chillo n Valley.

tion (Fig. S1). Squash and gourd fragments can be distinguished easily by cross-section (19). One Cucurbita sp. fragment was studied and yielded several noncucurbit starch grains, indicating that Cucurbita fruits also were used as food containers or serving vessels (Table 2). Seven of the 10 artifacts yielded starch. As expected, we identified starch from the mesocarp of the artifact itself. There is no significant difference in the number of Cucurbitaceae starch grains between Sediment 1 (sonicated) and Sediment 2 (brushed) samples. However, non-Cucurbitaceae starch grains occurred in a higher number in the Sediment 1 samples. Thus, the non-Cucurbitaceae starch grains appear to occur in greater concentration in the food residue adhering to the outermost interior surface of the artifacts surviving mesocarp. A strong case can be made that non-Cucurbitaceae economic starch grains in both Sediment 1 and Sediment 2 represent residues from artifact use and not transfer of starch from soils adjacent to the artifacts (20). Analysis of soils in the sunken pit
Table 1. Artifacts and radiocarbon dated contexts
Artifact nos. 02, 05, 07 01, 03, 04, 08 09, 10 Context Sunken Pit: Unit 10, Feature 1, Level 300 Sunken Pit: Unit 10, Feature 1, Level 400 Sunken Pit: Unit 10, Feature 1, Level 425 Unit 10, Cuad 3, level 100

produced only three transient starch grains, all from Level 200, above the levels containing the starch-bearing gourd and squash fragments (Table 1). Starch identifications were aided by a collection of 250 comparative neotropical starch specimens and regional starch reports and keys (13, 2123). Given the potential for variation within a taxon, multiple criteria must be used to identify an individual grain (24). Our identifications are conservative. We securely identified five taxa: M. esculenta (manioc), Solanum (potato), Maranta arundinacea (arrowroot), Prosopis (algarrobo), and Capsicum (chili pepper). Manioc starch occurs on three artifacts. One grain (Fig. 3B) is a relatively large (28 m in diameter) sphere with two basal facets and a large stellate-shaped fissure. Grain size is in the upper range of domesticated manioc starch and likely too large to be wild (25). Other hemisphere-shaped grains with two basal facets are consistent with manioc but not diagnostic on their own. Facet morphology is distinct from similar grains in Cucurbitaceae and I. batatas (sweet potato); thus, they were identified as M. esculenta. Another grain identified as M. esculenta is spherical with a depressed linear fissure and a regular extinction

Radiocarbon years B.P. 3,770 80 B.P. (GX-31276) No date 3,790 80 BP (GX-32177) No date

Date in calendar years B.C. 24601980 calibrated 24702020 calibrated

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Standard radiocarbon date from associated charcoal, 2 calibrated result.

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Table 2. Starch grain data from squash and gourd artifacts per sediment sample
Artifact no. Sediment no. Lagenaria siceraria Cucurbita sp. Capsicum sp. Manihot esculenta cf. Manihot esculenta Solanum sp. Maranta arundinacea Prosopis sp. Unidentied Unidentied root/tuber Total starch 1 1 2 1 4 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 8 1 1 3 2 3 1 4 1 3 1 3 0 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2* 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 4 2 1 1 2 5 2 1 1 6 2 1 1 7 2 1 1 8 2 1 9 2 1 10 2

Sediment 1 was removed from the artifact by sonicating water bath. Sediment 2 was removed by brushing the artifacts interior surface. *Cucurbita sp. artifact. All others identied as Lagenaria siceraria.

cross. This grain lacks basal facets; however, the type appears with diagnostic grains and faceted hemispheres in comparative manioc samples. Manioc macroremains are widespread in coastal preceramic contexts; however, manioc is believed to have been domesticated in the southern Amazon (2627). In Perrys study (22), starch grains from initial period and late precontact manioc specimens from coastal Peru lacked the distinguishing stellate fissure (13) characteristic of lowland Amazonian manioc starch. However, the large stellate fissure consistent with the lowland morphotype is present in the Buena Vista assemblage. This grain possibly represents an earlier imported Amazonian manioc variety that was subject to selection over time, eventually resulting in the morphotypes seen in later coastal assemblages. Alternatively, this starch grain represents an early lowland variety that ceased to be cultivated or is not related to later coastal forms. Additional manioc starch from early coastal contexts would help to clarify these issues. A starch grain from Solanum (potato) tuber was identified (Fig. 3C). Potato has great significance to modern and ancient Andean populations. Potato macroremains and microfossils are reported from a number of contemporaneous sites throughout Peru (2830). Several potato species and many varieties are and have been cultivated, and many wild forms exist (31). At this time, we cannot identify this starch grain to a species. Capsicum (chili pepper) is represented by a single flattened lenticular starch grain with an indented base and a linear feature visible in side view (Fig. 3D). The central linear feature is diagnostic of starches in this genus (15). Capsicum is reported widely from late preceramic sites on the coast of Peru (32) and in the highlands (15) and present in macroremains at Buena Vista. Two grains identified as M. arundinacea (arrowroot) occur on two gourd fragments (Fig. 3E). Despite its widespread and long record of use in the neotropics (26), arrowroot is underrepresented in Peruvian contexts. The only other evidence for arrowroot in the central Andes comes from microfossils at Waynuna in the southern highlands in contexts dating to 20501650 B.C. (28). At several
Table 3. Summary of starch grain data from squash and gourd artifacts
Number of samples Sample type Sediment 1 Sediment 2 Total Cucurbitaceae starch 9 (27.3%) 8 (24.2%) 17 (51.2%) Other starch 11 (33.3%) 5 (15.2%) 16 (48.5%) Total 20 13 33

thousand meters above its natural range, the Waynuna arrowroot represents an imported cultivar. Likewise, wild Maranta is not known from the coast of Peru, making the starch grains identified in this study highly unlikely to represent a wild form. With floodplain irrigation, arrowroot could have been cultivated easily. Thus, the most parsimonious explanation for arrowroot starch on these gourd artifacts is that it was grown near Buena Vista. Starch identified as Prosopis (algarrobo) also occurs in the artifact residue (Fig. 3F). Algarrobo starch has a unique appearance, unlike anything else in our reference collection. The unusual lobed shape with protuberances and a deeply depressed area at the hilum, along with a very irregular extinction cross, correspond closely with starch produced in Prosopis. This type may be a genus-level indicator of starch produced in Prosopis pods. Prosopis consists of several closely related and morphologically similar species with high hybridization potential; thus, there is considerable confusion in the botanical (33) and archaeological (34) literature regarding its identification. Currently, the dominant Prosopis on the Peruvian coast is P. pallida, with P. chilensis in higher elevations of the south and P. juliflora in the northwest (33). Each species produces similar sweet edible pods. Species similarities are reflected in the pod starch grains. For example, a systematic study showed that there are no differences in starch between P. chilensis and P. flexuosa (35). Algarrobo is ubiquitous in pre-Colombian Peru, most often as wood for fuel or construction (30, 36) or more rarely for seeds and edible pods (34). A long history of algarrobo use occurs in Argentina, beginning 10,000 years ago (35). In Peru, less is understood regarding prehistoric consumption of algarrobo pods, which are today ground into flour to make a syrup, algarrobina, or for drinks, such as fermented chicha de algarrobo. To our knowledge, this study presents the first microfossil evidence and earliest evidence of algarrobo consumption in Peru. Discussion Four of the 10 artifacts sampled yielded starch from multiple taxa other than Cucurbitaceae and provide clues to preceramic cuisine. Our sample size is small; however, in future research, patterns of cooccurrence of taxa on gourd artifacts will help us to better understand preferences for certain food combinations or certain combinations limited to ritual use. Alternatively, the multiple taxa on the artifacts may represent repeated use of the containers in both ritual and secular contexts. Also, that the containers provide evidence of manioc and algarrobo, both of which can be fermented into alcoholic beverages, may be significant (33, 37). The possibility that these plants could have been used in the production of alcohol during the preceramic should not be overlooked. The presence of these artifacts along with plant foods in a special context is highly consistent with an interpretation of feasting (4).
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Fig. 3. Archaeological starch granules recovered from gourd and squash artifacts from Buena Vista. (A) Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) starch hemisphere from Artifact 3. (B) Manioc (Manihot esculenta) from Artifact 7. Note the central stellate ssure. (C) Potato (Solanum sp.) from Artifact 4. (D) Chili pepper (Capsicum sp.) from Artifact 6. Note the central linear feature. (E) Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) from Artifact 6. (F) Algarrobo (Prosopis sp.) from Artifact 3.

Macroremain analysis is ongoing; however, the fragmentary remains of the plant material, including charred and uncharred wood, grass, and cotton seeds and fiber, particularly the preponderance of nonedible parts of food plants and broken gourd and squash serving vessels found in the pit, are counterindicative of offerings but consistent with the refuse of consumption. Common Andean offerings of coca leaves are conspicuously absent. Therefore, the vegetal contents of the pit likely do not represent the original intended function or symbolism of the pit, for astronomical observation or for ritual offerings of liquid libations such as later ushnu (39). Rather, the remains are more likely to be the refuse from feasting associated with the ritual entombment of the temple. Ritual entombment of monumental architecture was practiced commonly in the preceramic and later; however, its association with feasting as a ritual component or to organize and motivate labor, although ancient, has been investigated only recently. For example, at the contemporary site of Cerro Lampay (7) on the north central coast, multiple small scale construction events were preceded by feasting rituals hosted by informal leaders who lacked the social power to organize large amounts of labor for more massive building events. Despite their large size and complexity, many monumental sites constructed in the preceramic could have been built by a small local population organized by emergent leaders who used feasts as ritual and political tools in materializing labor. At Buena Vista, feasting event(s) before the entombment of the Fox Temple likely served both political and ritual functions. Politically, leaders could have used feasting as a means to cultivate and maintain social relationships, whereby labor would be mobilized toward a communal goal, not unlike in later periods, where feasting involving maize beer helped to mobilize labor to maintain canals in the Andes (6). Ritually, feasting before the temples entombment may have served also as a symbolic act toward canceling the original function of the temple, and the concentration of refuse in the pit suggests a deliberate sequestration of these remains, perhaps as a final symbolic act of cancellation of the pit before the rooms interment. The concentration of feasting remains in the sunken pit may reflect the concentration of symbolic power before its burial. The potential for understanding plant food consumption and production in aceramic contexts is greatly enhanced through an analysis of residues on gourd and squash artifacts. This kind of
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research should apply to other areas and time periods in which gourds and squash rinds are preserved. Gourd and squash artifacts containing starch residues provide direct evidence of the production and consumption of cultivated or managed plants used for food or drink. In addition to manioc, potato, and chili pepper, this study documents the earliest evidence of both algarrobo and arrowroot in Peru. Also, the unique architectural feature from which the artifacts were recovered suggests a special ritual use of food in a feasting context. The social and ritual use of food in emergent complex society is not well understood, especially in Peru, and this research enhances our potential for understanding these issues. Methods
Comparative Squash and Gourd Starch. In studying comparative gourd and squash specimens, we found abundant starch in the dried mesocarp tissue but relatively fewer starch granules in the exocarp. In the archaeological samples, only the outer exocarp layers survive. This may explain the relatively few Cucurbitaceae starch granules in the residues. To differentiate gourd and squash starch grains from those of other producers, we studied modern dried gourds collected in Chiclayo, Peru, and domestically purchased or grown squashes (Fig. S2 and Fig. S3). Although there is some overlap in starch morphotypes in Cucurbitaceae, squashes and gourds can be distinguished to genus and species based on the diagnostic morphology of starch grains (38). Starch grains of Cucurbitaceae are also discernable from nonrelated taxa. Starch Grain Sampling of Squash and Gourd Artifacts. We adapted procedures for extracting microfossil residues from stone tools and ceramics (see SI Materials and Methods), producing two sediment extractions from each tool, Sediments 1 and 2. To obtain Sediment 1, each artifact was submerged in distilled water within a high-quality, resealable plastic bag, then placed in a sonicating water bath to release loose residue. To obtain Sediment 2, the interior surface of each artifact was gently brushed to further dislodge loose residue. The sediments obtained were then chemically dispersed using a disodium salt solution, then lightly oxidized with hydrogen peroxide. Finally, the starch was oated out from sediment using a heavy liquid solution of cesium chloride. Slides were mounted using distilled water and glycerol and scanned on a Zeiss standard transmitted light microscope equipped with polarizing light lters at 25 and 40. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Excavation in the Fox Temple in 2005 was carried out by students in the University of Missouri Field School at Buena Vista and the University of Frederico Villareal of Lima. We thank the Peruvian National Institute of Culture for providing the permits to excavate and export archaeoPNAS August 11, 2009 vol. 106 no. 32 13205

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botanical samples to the United States. We are grateful to Dolores Piperno, who provided insightful comments and suggestions regarding comparative

cucurbit materials. We also thank Jason Fenton and Eliana Duncan, who provided helpful criticisms on the manuscript.

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