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5 Lectures

Vector Algebra

Vector Algebra in 2-space and 3-space Scalar Product (Dot Product) Vector Product (Cross Product) Scalar & Vector Triple Products Differentiation of Vectors Vector Geometry

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Vectors

Definition: scalar quantity determined only by its magnitude, e.g. speed; vector quantity determined by its magnitude and direction, a directed line segment (arrow), e.g. velocity, force Magnitude: length (Euclidean norm) of vector has length 1 unit vector a Equality of vectors: vectors a and b are equal, a same magnitude and direction.

denoted

a
b

= b , if they have the

a
z

Components of a vector: Right-handed Cartesian co-ordinate system, xyz Start point, P: (x1, y1, z1) and end point Q: (x2, y2, z2) Vector a = PQ = [a1, a2, a3] = [x2-x1, y2-y1, z2-z1]

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Vector coordinates
z a = PQ = OQ - OP = [x2 - x1, y2 - y1, z2 - z1] = [a1, a2, a3]

y z1 a3 z2 y1 a2 Q (x2, y2, z2) P (x1, y1, z1) y2

x1 a1

x2

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Vector Addition
y 4
32 + 4 2 = 5

Length in terms of components:

(5,8)

a = a +a +a
2 1 2 2

2 3

Position vector, r , of point A: (x, y, z), w.r.t origin (0, 0, 0)

(2,4) 3 x

r = [ x, y, z ]
G

Theorem Vectors as ordered triples of real numbers Uniqueness of representation Zero vector 0 = [0, 0, 0] has length 0 and no direction Vector Addition: Sum of two vectors,

a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ], and b = [b1 , b2 , b3 ]

a + b = [a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ]
c.f. Resultant for forces parallelogram law

b a
a+b

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Vector Addition & Scalar Mult.

G Properties of vector addition: a + b = b + a (commutativity) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w ) = u + v + w ( associativity) a + 0 = 0 + a = a (identity) a + ( a) = 0 (inverse) G Scalar Multiplication: For scalar (real number), c, and vector, Product c a = [ca1, ca2, ca3] G Properties: c( a + b) = ca + cb (c + k )a = ca + ka c( ka) = (ck )a = cka 1a = a

a = [a1, a2, a3]

y z2 z1 x z1- z2 -z2 vector addition & subtraction z1+ z2

With these & properties for addition, we can prove:

0 a = 0, ( 1)a = a

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Commutative & Associative

Vector addition is commutative Vector addition is associative

a a+b+c b b+a a+b b a a+b b+c c b

a+b=b+a

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

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Vector inverse & Scalar Mult.

Scalar multiplication

Inverse for addition

a a -a a a a a

a + (- a) = 0 the zero vector

a + a + a + a + a = 5a

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Vector Space
i = [1, 0, 0], j = [0,1, 0], k = [0, 0,1] a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ] = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k

G Unit vectors, i, j, k mutually perpendicular (orthogonal) of length 1

G Vector space: R3 set of all vectors form the real 3-D vector space + algebraic operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication G Linear combination:

c1 a(1) + c2 a( 2 ) + ... + cn a( n )
set of vectors B = {a (1) , a ( 2 ) , ... , a ( m )} are a linearly independent set iff (if and only if) the only solution of c1 a (1) + c2 a ( 2 ) + ... + cm a ( m ) = 0 (c1 , c2 , ... , cm any scalars) is c1 = c2 = ... = cm = 0; otherwise linearly dependent

G Linear independence:

G Dimension and basis: Dimension of 3-D R is 3, any such set B is a basis

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k j

Linear Independence
z y a b c i

Mutually perpendicular, orthogonal unit vectors, {i, j, k} These are linearly independent.

x Any three non-zero vectors {a, b, c} where two (say a, b) are coplanar but NOT colinear, and the third, c, which is not in the same plane, are linearly independent.

e g

f Three vectors {e, f, g} in the same plane are linearly dependent.

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Scalar Product (Dot Product)

a b = a b cos , a b = 0, if a 0, b 0 if a = 0 or b = 0.

G Definition:

G Dot product in components:

a b = a1b1 + a 2 b 2 + a 3 b 3 , where a = [a1 , a 2 , a 3 ], b = [ b1 , b 2 , b 3 ]

angle , 0 a

ab>0
G Orthogonal vectors: G Theorem (orthogonality):

b ab = 0

ab<0

a is orthogonal to b if a b = 0

scalar product of two non-zero vectors is zero iff vectors are perpendicular

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Properties of Scalar Product

a = a a ; cos = ab = ab ab , for non zero vectors a, b aa bb

Length and angle:

General Properties:

[q1 a + q2 b] c = q1 a c + q2 b c,

(Linearity)

(Symmetry) a b = b a, a a 0, and a a = 0 iff a = 0, (Positive definiteness) ( a + b) c = a c + b c, (Distributivity) a b a b, a + b a + b,

2 2

(Schwarz inequality) (Triangle inequality)

2 2

a + b + a b = 2( a + b ),

(Parallelogram equality)

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G Definition:

Dot Product by components

a b = a b cos , a b = 0, if a 0, b 0 if a = 0 or b = 0.

G Dot product in components:

a b = a1b1 + a2 b2 + a3b3 , where a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ], b = [b1 , b2 , b3 ]

G Linear combination of orthogonal unit vectors:

i = [1, 0, 0], j = [0,1, 0], k = [0, 0,1] a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ] = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k; b = [b1 , b2 , b3 ] = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k a b = ( a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ) (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k ) = a1b1 i i + a1b2 i j + a1b3 i k + a2 b1 j i + a2 b2 j j + a2 b3 j k + a3b1 k i + a3b2 k j + a3b3 k k = a1b1 + a2 b2 + a3b3

i i = 1, etc. i j = 0, i j, etc.

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Angle between vectors

2 2 a a = a . a .cos 0 = a = a12 + a2 + a3 , 2 2 2 so that a = a12 + a2 + a3

where a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ]

Scalar product example: Find the angle between two vectors

a = 2i + 2 j k = [2, 2, 1] and

b = 6i 3 j + 2 k = [6, 3, 2]

a b = a . b .cos , so that cos =

a b 2 6 + 2 ( 3) + ( 1) 2 4 = = a.b 3 7 21

Hence, = arccos(4 21) = arccos(0.1905) = 1.379 radians (79o )

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Distance between points

Scalar Product example: Find the distance between the points (1, 1, 1) and (7, 3, 4)

P: (1, 1, 1) PQ Q: (7, 3, 4)

origin O (0, 0, 0) The vector joining points P and Q is PQ = OQ - OP = (7, 3, 4) - (1, 1, 1) = (6, 2, 3)

The length of PQ = (6, 2, 3) is PQ = PQ PQ = 6 2 + 2 2 + 32 = 7

See later (Vector geometry) for application to distance of a plane from the origin.

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Applications of Scalar Product

force,

G Work done by a force as scalar product:

Work done, W = ( p cos ) d = p d cos = p d

displacement,

G Component of a force in a given direction:

Weight, a = [0, 5000]

y

Find p, (force in rope holding car) = [sin , cos ] = [0.906, 0.423] u=p p = ( a cos )u p = ( a cos ) u = a u = [0, 5000] [0.906, 0.423] = 2115 [lb]

Slope, = 25 Angle, = 90 = 65
unit vector, u = p
p

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Projection (component) of a vector

projection, p, of vector a in the direction of b ( 0) ab p = a cos = b a a a b b
14 4 24 4 3

Concept of component or projection:

14 4 24 4 3
P>0

P=0

P<0

Orthonormal basis:

, c , b }, set of mutually orthogonal unit vectors Basis, B = {a +l c +l b , For any vector, v, for some l , l , l v=la
1 2 3 1 2

, etc. Note that e.g. l1 = v a Standard basis = {i, j, k}

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Introduction to Vector Geometry

y P:(1, 3) L2: x - 2y + 2=0

G Orthogonal straight lines in the plane: Find line L1 through point P, perpendicular to line L2

Write L1 : a1 x + a2 y = c, as a r = c, with a = [a1 , a2 ] 0, and r = [ x, y]

Now, L : a1 x + a2 y = 0 = a r,
* 1

L*1

L1 x

so that a is perpendicular to r

r
(x, y)

Hence, a is a normal vector to L1

A normal to L2 is b = [1, 2], so that a b = a1 2 a2 = 0 e.g. a = [2,1], then L1 : 2 x + y = c passing through P : (1, 3) so that c = 5, and L1 : 2 x + y = 5

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Vector Geometry - 2
n

Normal vector to a plane:

Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane: 4x + 2y + 4z = -7

For any plane : a r = a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = c, where a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ] 0, and r = [ x, y, z ]

Unit vector in the direction of a is, n =

1 a=a a

Whence, dividing a r = c by a obtains : n r = p, where p = c = r cos = distance of plane from origin a

7 2 1 2 a = [ 4, 2, 4], c = 7, a = 36 = 6, n = 1 6 a = [ 3 , 3 , 3 ], p = 6 .

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Vector Product (Cross Product)

v = a b, with magnitude v = a b sin where a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ], b = [b1 , b2 , b3 ], and angle between a and b

Definition of vector product:

Direction of v = a b, is perpendicular to both a and b, such that a, b, v, in this order, form a right handed triple.
e.g. standard basis vectors i, j, k form a right handed triple in this order
G

Vector product in components:

v = a b = [v1 , v2 , v3 ] i v = a1 b1 j a2 b2 k a3 ; b3

v=ab

v = a b = a b sin = area of parallelogram

b a

so that, v1 = a2 b3 a3b2 , v2 = ( a1b3 a3b1 ), v3 = a1b2 a2 b1 .

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Area of parallelogram

b |b|sin

a |b|cos |a b| = |a|.|b|.sin = area of parallelogram formed by vectors a and b.

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Cross Product Example

Find a b and b a when a = 2i 3 j k = [2, 3, 1] and b = i + 4 j 2 k = [1, 4, 2]

k b3

i 1

j 4

k 2

v = [1 , 2 , 3 ] = a b = a1 a2 a3 = 2 3 1 b1 b2

= i(6 + 4) j ( 4 + 1) + k (8 + 3) = 10i + 3 j + 11k = [10, 3, 11]

where, v1 = a2 b3 a3b2 = 10, v2 = ( a1b3 a3b1 ) = 3, v3 = a1b2 a2 b1 = 11. i j k i j k = i( 4 6) j ( 1 + 4) + k ( 3 8) = [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] = b a = b1 b2 b3 = 1 4 2 = 10i 3 j 11k = [10, 3, 11] a1 a2 a3 2 3 1 where, 1 = b2 a3 b3a2 = 10, 2 = (b1a3 b3a1 ) = 3, 3 = b1a2 b2 a1 = 11.
so that a b = b a

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Properties of Vector Products

(la b) = l( a b) = a (lb), for every scalar l a (b + c) = ( a b) + ( a c), (distributive w.r.t. addition) ( a + b) c) = ( a c) + (b c), (distributive w.r.t. addition) (b a) = ( a b), (anticommutative) a (b c) ( a b) c, (not associative, in general)

Properties:

Proofs (using determinants):

i Note that, a b = a1 b1

j a2 b2

k a2 a3 = i b2 b3

a3 a1 j b3 b1

a3 a1 +k b3 b1

a2 b2

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Cross Product properties applied

Example : simplify ( a + b) ( a b)

Using distributivity laws with respect to (w.r.t.) addition, namely : a (b + c) = ( a b) + ( a c) and ( a + b) c) = ( a c) + (b c) and anticommutativity law : a b = (b a)

( a + b) ( a b) = a ( a b) + b ( a b) =aaab+babb =0abab0 = 2( a b) = 2(b a)

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Cross Product in Trigonometry

B c a A b C

Law of sines for triangles

a + b + c = 0, since clearly, a + b = c Cross product multiply (on the left) by both a and b lhs = a a + a b + a c = a b + a c = rhs = a 0 = 0 lhs = b a + b b + b c = b a + b c = rhs = b 0 = 0 so a b = ( a c) = b c, or a b = b c = c a Hence, a b = b c = c a So that ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B, where a = a , b = b , c = c or sin A sin B sin C = = a b c which is the law of sines for triangles.

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Applications of Vector Products

moment vector m of force p about point Q is m = r p, where r is vector from Q to any point A on line L. If m 0, direction is that of axis of rotation of p about Q.
Q d L

Moment of a force (1):

p
r
A

Moment of a force (2):

Find moment of force about centre of wheel

m = p d = p ( r sin )
p = 1000

i j k m=rp= 0 1.5 0 = 1299k = [0, 0, 1299] 866 500 0 where, r = [0,1.5, 0], p = [1000 cos 30,1000 sin 30, 0]
moment points in the negative-z direction

1.5

r 30

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Velocity of a Rigid Body

w
z d P

Velocity of a rotating body:

Rotating body described by vector w with direction along axis of rotation, such that rotation appears clockwise looking from initial point of w to its terminal point, and magnitude the angular speed, , of rotation.
v = d = w ( r sin ) = w r whence, v = w r

r
O y x

r = [ x, y, z ], w = k direction of v is tangential to rotation

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Scalar Triple Product

For vectors, a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ], b = [b1 , b2 , b3 ], and c = [c1 , c2 , c3 ] Scalar triple product is, ( a b c) = a (b c)

Definition of scalar triple product:

i c1
G

j c2

k c3

a1 c1

a2 b2 c2

a3 b3 c3

( a b c) = a (b c) = a b1 b2

b3 = b1

Properties of scalar triple product:

( ka b c) = k ( a b c), for any scalar k ( a b c ) = a ( b c ) = c ( a b ) = b (c a ) = a (c b ) = c ( b a ) = b ( a c )

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Applications of Scalar Triple Product

bc a
h

Geometric interpretation:
The absolute value of the scalar triple product is the volume of the parallelopiped with a, b, c as edge vectors.

( a b c) = a (b c) = a b c cos = h b c

Test for linear independence of three vectors:

Three vectors form a linearly independent set iff (if and only if) their scalar triple product is not zero. This property arises directly from the interpretation of the scalar triple product as a volume.

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Vector Triple Product

a b = ( a a)(b b) ( a b)2 b (c d ) = (b d )c (b c)d ( a b) (c d ) = ( a b d )c ( a b c)d ( a b) (c d ) = ( a c)(b d ) ( a d )(b c)

Useful formulas for repeated products:

Note that vector v = b (c d ) is perpendicular to c d so that v lies in the plane of c and d , so that v is of the form v = lc + md , similarly for w = ( a b) (c d ), where w is of the form w = l1 c + m1 d = l2 a + m2 b

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Vector Differentiation
A vector function v(t ) is said to be differentiable at a point t if the following limit exists: v ( t + t ) v ( t )

Definition of vector derivative:

v (t ) =

Lim
t 0

In terms of components w.r.t. a Cartesian coordinate system, v(t ) is differentiable at t iff (if and only if) its three components are differentiable at t, and the derivative, v (t ) is obtained by differentiating each component separately.

v (t ) = [v1(t ), v2 (t ), v3 (t )]
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Properties of vector derivative:

(cv) = cv ,

(u + v ) = u + v (note that order must be observed!)

(u v ) = u v + u v (u v ) = u v + u v (u v w ) = (u v w ) + (u v w ) + (u v w )

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Further Vector Geometry

z

Direction Cosines:
e.g. Find the angles made by a = 3i 6 j + 2 k with the standard basis vectors (i.e. the coordinate axes)

a
x
2 7

e.g. a i = 3 = a i cos = a cos = 7 cos , cos = 3 7 Similarly, cos = 6 7 , cos = 2 7 In general, l =

G

Direction cosines of a are (l, m, n) = (cos , cos , cos ) = ( 3 7 , 6 7 ,

a1 a a , m = 2 , n = 3 ; where a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ]; and l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1. a a a

L

Vector equation of a line:

If A is any fixed point on the line L, OA = a = [ a1 , a2 , P is an arbitrary point on line L, OP = r = [ x, y, z ] and n is any vector parallel to the line L, so that AP = n then equation of line is:

a3 ]

P A

a
O

r = a + n, (sin ce OP = OA + AP)

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Algebraic equation equivalent

Vector equation of a line:

r = a + n where a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ] is position vector of a point on line, and n = [n1 , n2 , n3 ] is a vector parallel to the line, and is an arbitrary scalar.
L

[ x, y, z ] = [a1 , a2 , a3 ] + [n1 , n2 , n3 ] whence, x a1 y a2 z a3 = = = n1 n2 n3

O

P A

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Vector Geometry continued

n

Vector equation of a plane:

If A is any fixed point on the plane P, a = [ a1 , a2 , Q is an arbitrary point on plane P, r = [ x, y, z ] and n is a vector perpendicular to the plane P, so that AQ n = 0 then the equation of plane is:

a3 ]
A

a
O

(r a) n = 0
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Equation from three points in the plane:

If A, B, C are any three non-collinear points in the plane P, and Q is an arbitrary point on plane, r = [ x, y, z ] then n = c b is a normal to the plane and the equation of plane is:

n
P A

b c

B Q C

a
O

( r a ) (c b ) = 0 where, a = OA, b = AB, c = AC

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Algebraic equation equivalents

Vector equation of a plane:

(r a) n = 0, where r = [ x, y, z ] and a = [a1 , a2 , a3 ] a is any fixed point in the plane, and n is a vector normal to plane. [ x a1 , y a2 , z a3 ] [n1 , n2 , n3 ] = 0

n1 ( x a1 ) + n2 ( y a2 ) + n3 ( z a3 ) = 0 n1 x + n2 y + n3 z = (n1a1 + n2 a2 + n3a3 ) = n a = constant

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Equation from three points in the plane:

(r a) (c b) = 0, where, a is a fixed point in the plane, and b, c are any two non - parallel vectors in the plane. n1 x + n2 y + n3 z = (n1a1 + n2 a2 + n3a3 ) = n a = constant as above, where n = c b which is a vector normal to the plane.

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Curves and Surfaces

Vector equation of a sphere:

radius, c = constant c, r = c + a, r a = c whence, ( x a1 ) + ( y a2 ) + ( z a3 ) = c

2 2 2 2
A

Curves and surfaces:

A curve is the path traced by a point P, the coordinates of which depend on just one parameter, t, say. So x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t). e.g. Circular helix: x = a.cost, y = a.sint, z = t Straight line: x = a + t.l, y = b + t.m, z = c + t.n A surface is the region explored by a point P if its coordinates depend on two parameters, u and v, say. Then x = x(u, v), y = y(u, v), z = z(u, v). e.g. a sphere with radius c, with its centre at the origin is given by the equations: x = c.cosu.sinv, y = c.sinu.sinv, z = c.cosv
O