Psychology of Men & Masculinity 2013, Vol. 14, No.

3, 314 323

2012 American Psychological Association 1524-9220/13/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0027009

An Examination of Parental Self-Efficacy Among Mothers and Fathers

Kyle W. Murdock
Northern Illinois University
Sevigny and Loutzenhiser, in their 2010 examination of parental self-efficacy (PSE) in fathers, did not identify data supporting the importance of self-efficacy beliefs in the paternal parenting role. However, a task-specific measure of PSE was used, and because the tasks mothers and fathers typically perform differ, task-specific measures may not be applicable to both mothers and fathers. The present study addressed this limitation by using a domain PSE measure (where specific tasks are not identified) in a sample of 49 mothers and 33 fathers of 3- to 5-year-old children. Parents also completed measures of constructs purported to be associated with PSE including: general self-efficacy (GSE), parenting behavior, affect, and child behavior problems. Results indicated that PSE was significantly and positively associated with, and predicted by, GSE for both mothers and fathers, suggesting ones general sense of competence is important for both maternal and paternal PSE beliefs. Findings also indicated that maternal PSE was predicted by hostile or coercive parenting behaviors and child behavior problems, whereas supportive or engaged parenting behaviors emerged as the only other variable to predict paternal PSE. Results also suggested that previously used measurement strategies of paternal self-efficacy may have identified tasks more applicable to mothers than fathers. Keywords: parental self-efficacy, general self-efficacy, affect, parenting behavior, child behavior

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Maternal psychological functioning, cognition, and behavior have been heavily examined in recent decades while research with fathers is both lacking and lagging behind. As an example, paternal depression was only recently identified as a predictor of negative developmental outcomes in children (e.g., Ramchandani, Stein, Evans, & OConnor, 2005), whereas the link between maternal depression and child outcomes has been known for decades (e.g., Billings & Moos, 1983). A variety of reasons have been identified for the focus on mothers in research. For example, many have assumed that fathers are more difficult to recruit and less accurate reporters than mothers (e.g., Phares, 1997). For this reason, among others, research on fathers continues to be underrepresented in research (e.g., Phares, Fields, Kamboukos, & Lopez, 2005) despite the expansion of paternal involvement with children (e.g., Rochlen, McKelley, & Whittaker, 2010; Aldous & Mulligan, 2002). The primary purpose of the present study was to evaluate potential correlates and predictors of maternal and paternal selfefficacy beliefs, which has been widely studied in mothers, to the relative exclusion of fathers. Self-efficacy beliefs are referred to as ones beliefs in his or her abilities to perform a particular behavior effectively and successfully (e.g., Bandura, 1977). The concept of self-efficacy beliefs originated from social cognitive theory (Ban-

dura, 1989), which postulates that self-efficacy beliefs are largely derived through ones personal accomplishment history in a given task (i.e., number of successes and failures). Additionally, selfefficacy beliefs are thought to also be influenced by observations of others engaging in specific behaviors, receipt of verbal feedback from others, and physiological arousal while performing a behavior (e.g., Bandura, 1989). Moreover, self-efficacy beliefs are thought to be associated with how a particular situation is cognitively appraised, such as believing performance is associated with ones skill as opposed to believing performance is associated with external factors (e.g., Bandura, 1989).

Parental Self-Efficacy Beliefs: Definition and Related Findings

When applied to parenting situations, self-efficacy beliefs are referred to as parental self-efficacy (PSE) beliefs. PSE beliefs are described as ones self-referent estimations of his or her abilities to be a competent and successful parent (Coleman & Karraker, 2003). From a social cognitive theory standpoint, PSE beliefs may be largely determined by ones experience in specific parenting tasks. However, observations of others performing parenting tasks, feedback from others, physiological arousal during parenting situations, and how parenting situations are cognitively appraised may also influence PSE beliefs. Therefore, when applying social cognitive theory, accurate measurement of PSE is largely determined by identification of tasks with which one has an adequate amount of experience. As a result, developers of PSE measures have typically identified a variety of traditional maternal tasks, and have evaluated the reliability and validity of their measures among large samples of mothers. Measures identifying specific tasks during PSE measurement are referred to as task314

This article was published Online First February 6, 2012. I gratefully acknowledge M. Christine Lovejoy, Kate B. Oddi, Erin S. Stevens, Lisa A. Murdock, and three anonymous reviewers for their comments on earlier drafts of this article. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kyle W. Murdock, Department of Psychology, Psychology-Computer Science Building, Room 400, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115. E-mail: kmurdock1@niu.edu

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specific and the performance of these measures has not been evaluated among samples of fathers. Using task-specific measures of PSE, researchers have identified a variety of correlates of maternal PSE. For example, among mothers of children ranging in age from infancy to early adolescence, findings suggest that maternal PSE is negatively associated with maternal depression (e.g., Teti & Gelfand, 1991; Gross, Sambrook, & Fogg, 1999), lax discipline (e.g., Gross et al., 1999), hostile or reactive parenting (Pierce et al., 2010), and child difficultness (e.g., Sevigny & Loutzenhiser, 2010). However, associations between task-specific measured PSE, affect, parenting behavior, and child behavior problems are relatively unknown among fathers. Many previous studies of PSE including mothers and fathers did not generate separate analyses by parent gender, contributing to the lack of knowledge of associations with paternal PSE. In one of the few studies generating separate analyses by parent gender, results indicated that parenting stress, depressive symptoms, and relational functioning (both marital and family) were similarly and negatively associated with maternal and paternal PSE (Sevigny & Loutzenhiser, 2010). However, differences between the correlates of maternal and paternal PSE were also identified. For instance, a positive association with general selfefficacy (GSE; ones self-referent estimations of competence across all situations), and a negative association with child difficultness, were identified with maternal PSE only (Sevigny & Loutzenhiser, 2010). Because GSE was associated with maternal, but not paternal PSE, the authors concluded that it may be that being a parent is a more salient aspect of womens personal identity than it is for men (Sevigny & Loutzenhiser, 2010, p. 186). However, social cognitive theory may provide insight into the differences identified by Sevigny and Loutzenhiser (2010). Studies of maternal and paternal engagement in parenting tasks have suggested that mothers may be more likely than fathers to experience situations associated with emotional support (e.g., Craig, 2006), and that fathers may be more likely to experience situations associated with interactive play than mothers (Paquette, 2004). Thus, accomplishment histories, and thereby self-efficacy beliefs, may differ between mothers and fathers according to the specific tasks identified. As mentioned previously, task-specific PSE measures, such as the Toddler Scale of the Self-Efficacy for Parenting Tasks Index (SEPTI; Coleman & Karraker, 2003) used by Sevigny and Loutzenhiser, are designed with traditional maternal tasks in mind (e.g., I am usually willing to stop what Im doing and cuddle my child when he or she seems to need affection). Therefore, the applicability of task-specific measures of PSE to fathers is unknown.

Self-Efficacy Beliefs: Alternative Measurement Strategies

Although measurement of self-efficacy beliefs has largely conformed to social cognitive theory by referencing specific tasks, many have departed from Banduras (1989) perspective and have measured and evaluated self-efficacy beliefs at the domain level. Measurement of self-efficacy beliefs at the domain level is thought to tap a broader construct associated with several conceptually similar experiences (e.g., Woodruff & Cashman, 1993). The applicability of domain level self-efficacy beliefs to life experiences

has been demonstrated among a variety of samples (e.g., Berry & West, 1993). For PSE, measurement at the domain level allows parents to draw on idiographic parenting situations in their response as specific situations are not referenced. Although measurement of PSE at the domain level departs from social cognitive theory as originally conceptualized (e.g., Bandura, 1977), Coleman and Karraker (1998) recommended conducting PSE research at multiple levels of analysis because the superior predictive validity of one level of analysis over another is not known. Domain PSE is hypothesized to predict broad parenting qualities or behavior (e.g., parenting sensitivity and warmth; Coleman & Karraker, 1998), but is thought to be less predictive of more task-oriented behaviors (e.g., ability to soothe child when distressed) than task-specific measures (e.g., Coleman & Karraker, 2000). Therefore, when evaluating PSE in relation to broad parental characteristics or behaviors, the domain PSE measurement strategy may be a more appropriate way of initially examining and making comparisons between PSE for mothers and fathers. Similar to research using task-specific PSE measures, a variety of correlates of domain PSE have been identified in samples of mothers. For example, domain PSE has been found to be negatively associated with maternal stress (e.g., Erdwins, Buffardi, Casper, & OBrien, 2001), depression (e.g., Haslam, Pakenham, & Smith, 2006), and inconsistent discipline (e.g., Dumka, Stoerzinger, Jackson, & Roosa, 1996), and positively associated with maternal warmth and control (Izzo, Weiss, Shanahan, & Rodriguez-Brown, 2000). Two studies were identified in which domain PSE was evaluated separately with fathers, and results indicated that maternal and paternal PSE were similarly and positively associated with parental support and positive affect (Meunier & Roskam, 2009), as well as parental warmth (de Haan, Prinzie, & Dekovic , 2009). Moreover, maternal and paternal PSE were similarly and negatively associated with parental stress and child behavior problems (Meunier & Roskam, 2009), as well as parental overreactivity (de Haan et al., 2009). Although these studies provide an initial indication that domain PSE may operate similarly in mothers and fathers, the generalizability of the findings is unclear because both samples were comprised entirely of Belgians. Furthermore, these studies did not measure both positive and negative parental emotions, which may be a more useful approach than measuring only one dimension of emotions among parents (e.g., Rueger, Katz, Risser, & Lovejoy, 2011). Therefore, further research of PSE among various samples of mothers and fathers is needed to determine whether PSE functions similarly among parents. Identifying associations among paternal PSE, GSE, affect, parenting behavior, and child behavior is important because negative parenting behaviors and a lack of positive parenting behaviors have been associated with a wide range of negative child outcomes. For example, parenting behavior has been found to be associated with impairments in child self-regulation (e.g., Campbell, Pierce, Moore, & Marakovitz, 1996), aggression (e.g., Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1997), conduct (e.g., Deater-Deckard, Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1998), and language development (e.g., Taylor, Donovan, Miles & Leavitt, 2009). Therefore, an evaluation of PSE and its correlates among mothers and fathers may provide useful information for the development of more effective parenting interventions. Further, an understanding of the associations among PSE, GSE, affect, parenting behavior, and child behavior among

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mothers and fathers may provide valuable information pertinent to establishing an empirical basis for the study of both maternal and paternal PSE.

negatively associated with PSE for both mothers and fathers because similar associations have previously been identified (Jones & Prinz, 2005; Meunier & Roskam, 2009).

Current Study
The present study used a measure of domain PSE among a sample of mothers and fathers. It was hypothesized that, with the absence of specific parenting tasks in PSE measurement, GSE would be significantly and positively associated with PSE for both mothers and fathers (see Figure 1 for study hypotheses). The present study also used a measure of both negative and positive affect given previous data identified in the parental behavior literature suggesting that this approach may be more useful than measures of only one affect dimension (e.g., Rueger et al., 2011). Because an association between depression and PSE has been identified in both mothers and fathers (e.g., Sevigny & Loutzenhiser, 2010), and depression is associated with increased negative affect and decreased positive affect (Clark & Watson, 1991), it was hypothesized that negative affect would be negatively associated with PSE and positive affect would be positively associated with PSE for both mothers and fathers. Further, because research has indicated that negative parenting behavior may be similarly and negatively associated with maternal and paternal PSE (e.g., Meunier & Roskam, 2009), it was hypothesized that hostile or coercive parenting behavior would be negatively associated with PSE for both mothers and fathers. Additionally, because data has suggested that positive parenting behaviors may be similarly and positively associated with maternal and paternal PSE (e.g., de Haan et al., 2009), it was hypothesized that supportive or engaged and controlling (i.e., behavioral control) parenting behavior would be positively associated with PSE for both mothers and fathers. Finally, it was hypothesized that child behavior problems would be

Method Participants
Research was conducted in accordance with Northern Illinois Universitys institutional review board standards. Eighty-two parents (49 women, 33 men) of 3- to 5-year-old children (Mage 3.73 years, SD 0.73 for children of mothers; Mage 3.79 years, SD 0.78 for children of fathers) participated in the study. The 3to 5-year-old child age range was chosen because data has suggested that the developmental progression of preschool children may be associated with increased paternal involvement during this time frame (e.g., Fox & Bruce, 1999). Thus, fathers of preschool children were determined to be an appropriate population to target because they may have the appropriate experience needed to complete a broad measure of PSE. For parents who had multiple children between the ages of 3 and 5, the experimenter alternated between assigning parents to respond to items when thinking about their oldest or youngest child within the age range. Participants were recruited through flyers posted at social service agencies, businesses, churches, and schools in a moderately sized Midwest college town. The majority of participants were e-mailed a link and a password to an online survey (n 81); however, one person without Internet access was mailed a paper and pencil version of the questionnaires. To establish informed consent, participants were first given details about the study and were instructed that by clicking next (online) or signing below (paper and pencil), they agreed to participate in the study.

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Figure 1. Hypothesized associations between study variables for both mothers and fathers. Solid lines indicate hypothesized positive associations; dashed lines indicate hypothesized negative associations.

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The majority of participants were White (75%, African American 15%, Hispanic 6%, other 4%) and reported an intact marital relationship status (78%, cohabiting 11%, single 7%, divorced 4%). Mothers ranged in age from 2145 years (M 30.45 years, SD 5.13), and fathers ranged in age from 2052 years (M 33.85 years, SD 6.55). Nearly half of the mothers (44.9%) reported working outside the home for an average of 27.26 hours per week, while 78.8% of fathers reported working outside the home for an average of 44.65 hours per week. Each participant was compensated $20 for his or her time.

Measures
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The Parental Self-Agency Measure (PSAM; Dumka et al., 1996) was used as a measure of domain PSE. The PSAM is a 10-item measure that assesses parents overall perception of their ability to function as successful parents (e.g., I know I am doing a good job as a mother/father). Original psychometric data for the PSAM were obtained using a sample of 184 mothers with 3- to 12-yearold children, and Dumka et al. indicated a reduction to five items significantly improved the reliability and validity of the scale (Dumka et al., 1996). In the current study, internal consistency for the 5-item PSAM was adequate ( .83), and self-reported PSE was similar for mothers (M 28.51, SD 4.20) and fathers (M 27.46, SD 4.52). The General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES; Schwarzer, 1993) was used as a measure of GSE beliefs. The GSES is a 10-item measure assessing an individuals ability to manage difficult problems, to accomplish goals, and to deal efficiently with unexpected events (e.g., I can usually handle whatever comes my way) on a 4-point Likert scale. The GSES has demonstrated adequate reliability and validity across large samples from 23 nations (e.g., Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). Internal consistency for the GSES was adequate in the current study ( .85), and self-reported GSE was similar for mothers (M 31.96, SD 3.51) and fathers (M 32.06, SD 4.58). The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) was used as a measure of parental affect. The PANAS is a bivariate measure of affect in which 10 items assess negative affect and 10 items assess positive affect. Items consist of one-word feelings or emotions (e.g., afraid), and participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they feel this way in general using a 5-point Likert scale. The PANAS is a widely used measure, and excellent reliability and validity have been demonstrated across a variety of samples (e.g., Watson et al., 1988). In the current study, internal consistency was adequate for the negative ( .74) and positive ( .85) affect scales. Moreover, similar levels of negative affect (M 18.16, SD 4.60 for mothers; M 17.40, SD 5.28 for fathers) and positive affect (M 37.59, SD 5.66 for mothers; M 35.77, SD 6.74 for fathers) were self-reported among parents. A modified version of the Parent Behavior Inventory (PBI; Lovejoy, Weis, OHare, & Rubin, 1999), as presented by Weis and Toolis (2008), was used as a measure of parenting behavior. The PBI is a self-report measure that assesses the extent to which parents engage in hostile or coercive (e.g., I lose patience with my child and yell at him/her), supportive or engaged (e.g., I have pleasant talks with my child), and controlling (e.g., I do not allow my child to talk back) parenting behaviors on a 6-point

Likert scale. Ten items assess each dimension and adequate reliability and validity has been demonstrated for each dimension (Weis & Toolis, 2008; Lovejoy et al., 1999). Similarly, internal consistency in the current study was adequate for the PBIs hostile/ coercive ( .84), supportive/engaged ( .93), and control ( .78) dimensions, respectively. Descriptive statistics for each self-reported dimension of parenting behavior were as follows: hostile/coercive (M 10.81, SD 8.01 for mothers; M 10.88, SD 4.52 for fathers), supportive/engaged (M 47.15, SD 4.41 for mothers; M 41.34, SD 9.13 for fathers), and parental control (M 36.87, SD 7.15 for mothers; M 33.83, SD 7.00 for fathers). Child behavior problems were measured using the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI; Robinson, Eyberg, & Ross, 1980). The ECBI is a widely used 36-item measure that assesses parents perceptions of their childs behavior, and adequate reliability and validity has been demonstrated across a variety of samples (e.g., Funderburk, Eyberg, Rich, & Behar, 2003). When completing the ECBI, participants are asked to read a list of negative child behaviors (e.g., has temper tantrums) and indicate how often their child engages in each behavior on a 7-point Likert scale. Similar levels of child behavior problems were reported by mothers (M 118.26, SD 35.74) and fathers (M 127.12, SD 38.38), and internal consistency was adequate for the ECBI ( .95) in the current study.

Results Correlational Findings Among Parents

The identified Pearson correlation coefficients between PSE and GSE for mothers (r .55, p .01) and fathers (r .73, p .01) supported the hypothesis that PSE and GSE may be similarly associated in mothers and fathers (see Table 1). The hypothesis that PSE would be negatively associated with negative affect among mothers and fathers was supported for mothers, but not fathers, because a moderate negative association was identified for mothers (r .33, p .05), while a small negative association was identified with fathers (r .16, p .38). Further, significant positive associations were identified between PSE and positive affect for both mothers (r .42, p .01) and fathers (r .38, p .05), as hypothesized. Results supported the hypothesis that PSE would be associated with a range of parenting behaviors for both mothers and fathers; however, similarities and differences emerged. For mothers, PSE was significantly and negatively associated with hostile or coercive parenting behavior (r .40, p .01) and significantly and positively associated with supportive or engaged parenting behavior (r .37, p .01); however, maternal PSE was not associated with parental control, as hypothesized (r .13, p .37). For fathers, PSE was significantly and positively associated with both supportive or engaged parenting behavior (r .55, p .01) and parental control (r .43, p .05), as hypothesized. However, paternal PSE was not significantly and negatively associated with hostile or coercive parenting behavior (r .22, p .22), as hypothesized. Additionally, the hypothesis that PSE would be significantly and negatively associated with child behavior problems was supported for mothers (r .34, p .05), but not fathers (r .13, p .49).

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Table 1 Intercorrelations Between Study Variables
Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. PSE GSE NA PA H/C S/E Control Ethnicity TFI Marital status ECBI Child age Child sex 1 .55 .33 .42 .40 .37 .13 .14 .01 .05 .34 .07 .05 2 .73 .15 .35 .11 .20 .23 .28 .02 .01 .27 .08 .18

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3 .16 .17 .18 .43 .22 .06 .06 .05 .03 .19 .21 .33

4 .38 .48 .31 .18 .38 .15 .09 .07 .02 .20 .23 .21

5 .22 .12 .26 .25 .17 .29 .45 .15 .01 .14 .15 .12

6 .54 .37 .10 .56 .45 .38 .02 .13 .07 .17 .41 .12

7 .43 .48 .01 .46 .01 .55 .22 .23 .13 .15 .06 .20

8 .08 .02 .11 .01 .06 .27 .25 .43 .38 .05 .10 .12

9 .01 .07 .17 .15 .14 .09 .10 .35 .66 .27 .13 .12

10 .10 .08 .01 .30 .38 .10 .01 .28 .50 .16 .01 .04

11 .13 .02 .10 .46 .13 .24 .09 .10 .20 .10 .04 .15

12 .13 .12 .20 .27 .06 .13 .13 .03 .13 .13 .16 .01

13 .09 .22 .25 .18 .07 .20 .26 .19 .15 .04 .08 .17

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Note. Mothers (n 49) appear below the diagonal and fathers (n 33) appear above the diagonal. PSE parental self-efficacy beliefs; GSE general self-efficacy beliefs; NA negative affect; PA positive affect; H/C hostile or coercive parenting behavior; S/E supportive or engaged parenting behavior; Control parental control; Ethnicity coded: 0 White, 1 Nonwhite; TFI total family income; Marital status coded: 0 unmarried, 1 married; ECBI Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory; Child sex coded: 1 female, 2 male. p .05. p .01. p .10.

Regression Analyses Among Parents

Regression analyses were used to examine parental characteristics (GSE, negative and positive affect, parenting behaviors), social contextual variables (total family income, marital status, ethnicity), and child characteristics (ECBI scores, child age, and sex) as predictors of PSE. Following Belskys (1984) process model, Sevigny and Loutzenhiser (2010) recommend using hierarchical regression analyses to examine predictors of PSE; however, due to the small sample size of the present study, three separate analyses were generated to decrease the likelihood of Type II error. For mothers (see Table 2), GSE ( .52, p .01) and hostile or Table 2 Regression Analyses Predicting Maternal Parental Self-Efficacy
Predictor Parental characteristics (Constant) General self-efficacy Negative affect Positive affect H/C S/E Control Social contextual variables (Constant) Ethnicity Total family income Marital status Child characteristics (Constant) Child behavior problems Child age Child sex B 1.52 0.62 0.02 0.07 0.23 0.12 0.05 25.42 2.24 0.04 1.34 35.02 0.04 0.49 0.03 SE 6.43 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.07 2.98 1.55 0.56 1.92 3.99 0.02 0.80 1.18

coercive parenting behavior ( .43, p .01) emerged as parental characteristics predictive of PSE, while none of the social contextual variables predicted PSE. In addition, child behavior problems emerged as the only child characteristic to predict maternal PSE ( .34, p .05). For fathers (see Table 3), GSE ( .65, p .01) and supportive or engaged parenting behavior ( .40, p .05) were parental characteristics predictive of PSE, while no social contextual variable or child characteristic emerged as a significant predictor of paternal PSE. Furthermore, for both mothers and fathers, parental characteristics predicted a significant amount of variance in PSE, while social contextual variables and child characteristics did not.

p .81 .01 .86 .45 .01 .31 .53 .01 .16 .94 .47 .01 .02 .55 .98

R2 .56

F 8.93

.52 .02 .09 .43 .13 .08 .24 .01 .15 .34 .08 .01

.05

0.76

.12

2.06

Note. n 49. H/C hostile or coercive parenting behavior; S/E supportive or engaged parenting behavior; Control parental control; Ethnicity coded: 1 White, 2 Nonwhite; Marital status coded: 1 unmarried, 2 married; Child sex coded: 1 female, 2 male. p .05. p .01.

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Table 3 Regression Analyses Predicting Paternal Parental Self-Efficacy

Predictor Parental characteristics (Constant) General self-efficacy Negative affect Positive affect H/C S/E Control Social contextual variables (Constant) Ethnicity Total family income Marital status Child characteristics (Constant) Child behavior problems Child age Child sex B 3.14 0.68 0.05 0.11 0.01 0.20 0.03 29.21 0.82 0.27 1.52 24.35 0.01 0.80 1.14 SE 5.19 0.14 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.11 4.32 2.09 0.69 2.50 4.91 0.02 1.10 1.67 p .55 .01 .69 .33 .94 .04 .79 .01 .70 .70 .55 .01 .54 .47 .50 .02 0.20 R2 .64 .68 .05 .16 .01 .40 .04 .08 .09 .13 .11 .14 .13 F 7.54

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.04

0.45

Note. n 33. H/C hostile or coercive parenting behavior; S/E supportive or engaged parenting behavior; Control parental control; Ethnicity coded: 1 White, 2 Nonwhite; Marital status coded: 1 unmarried, 2 married; Child sex coded: 1 female, 2 male. p .05. p .01.

Discussion
The primary purpose of the present study was to evaluate potential correlates and predictors of maternal and paternal PSE. It was hypothesized that maternal and paternal PSE would be similarly associated with study variables (i.e., GSE, affect, parenting behavior, and child behavior problems); however, similarities and differences emerged.

Identified Similarities Between Mothers and Fathers

Bivariate correlational analyses, which were not entirely replicated in linear regression analyses due to covariance of predictors, provided support for the hypothesis that PSE and GSE would be significantly and positively associated for both mothers and fathers. This finding highlights the importance of the parenting role for both mothers and fathers general sense of competence. Moreover, data identified in the present study departs from previous findings that have suggested the parenting role is more important for mothers personal identity than fathers (Sevigny & Loutzenhiser, 2010). Perhaps fathers in the present study were able to incorporate situations that were relevant to their estimations of their competence as a parent because a global measure of PSE was used. Sevigny and Loutzenhiser (2010) used a task-specific measure of PSE that was developed with traditional maternal tasks in mind, and as such, the identified situations in that study may have been less relevant to fathers estimations of their competence as a parent. Although the present study is the first to identify a significant positive association between PSE and GSE in a sample of both mothers and fathers, a variety of theoretical and empirical evidence suggests such a similarity may have been identified. For instance, the majority of individuals see having a child as part of ones progression through life (Daniluk, 2001), and the inability to have

children has been associated with feelings of loss, isolation, and depression among women (e.g., Jordan & Revenson, 1999) and men (Hadley & Hanley, 2011). Therefore, irrespective of gender, the inability to become a parent may leave a portion of ones self-identity unfulfilled, demonstrating the importance of the parenting role prior to having children. Furthermore, among men expecting the birth of their first child, being a father was rated as the second most important self identity, second only to being a husband, and being a father constituted an average of 21.2% of their overall identity (Habib & Lancaster, 2010). Thus, a variety of empirical data suggests the parenting role may be a salient aspect of both female and male identities, even among those who do not currently function as a parent. However, identity theory indicates that role learning and role taking underlie ones commitment to an identity (e.g., Daly, 1993). As such, ones parental identity may be largely determined by experience within the parenting role. In line with identity theory, findings demonstrating that parenting experience may influence ones identity have been identified (e.g., Anderson, 1999). The change in identify for fathers is highlighted by findings indicating that the paternal identity represents an average of 34.1% of the overall identity of fathers of infants and toddlers (Tremblay & Pierce, 2011), an increase of 12.9% when compared to expecting fathers. Therefore, among both men and women, the parenting role appears to be an important aspect of ones identity, and the importance of the parenting role to ones overall identity may increase over time with experience. Because the mothers and fathers in the present study had at least 35 years of parenting experience, the parenting role may be of significant importance to their overall identity, as would be suggested by identity theory. This hypothesis was supported by the large positive associations identified between GSE and PSE for mothers and fathers, as well as data indicating that GSE was associated with both maternal and paternal PSE when performing regression analyses.

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Findings identifying a significant association between PSE and GSE among fathers are also important for our understanding of the available literature on fathers. For example, as would be suggested by social cognitive theory (e.g., Bandura, 1989), paternal PSE and paternal involvement have been found to be positively associated (e.g., Jacobs & Kelley, 2006). Further, Schindler (2010) identified data suggesting that paternal involvement is associated with improvements in fathers general psychological well-being, rather than fathers general psychological well-being leading to increased paternal involvement. Given that the paternal identity represents a significant portion of fathers overall identity (e.g., Tremblay & Pierce, 2011), a lack of involvement among fathers may leave a portion of their identity unfulfilled. Because self-fulfillment is associated with global well-being (e.g., Martin, 2008), having an unfulfilled paternal identity may be associated with decreased well-being. It may be that being an involved father is associated with the development of the skills necessary to judge ones self as a competent and successful parent, rendering the paternal role identity fulfilled. A fulfilled paternal role may be associated with indicators of global well-being, such as GSE (e.g., Luszczynska, Gutie rrez-Don a, & Schwarzer, 2005). Thus, paternal PSE and GSE may be associated through paternal involvement and fulfillment of the paternal identity. However, further research among samples of fathers is needed to address these potential meditational models. Another similarity identified between mothers and fathers was that PSE was positively associated with positive affect for mothers and fathers. This finding is in line with Banduras (1997) hypothesis that high positive affect may be associated with increased self-efficacy beliefs due to thoughts of success and well-being. Because positive affect is associated with energy and engagement in the environment (Watson & Tellegen, 1985), it may be that mothers and fathers need a certain level of energy to engage in parenting behaviors that are likely to produce an increase in PSE beliefs. Support for this notion stems from findings indicating that maternal and paternal PSE were also significantly and positively associated with supportive or engaged parenting behaviors, behaviors that are also associated with positive affect (Rueger et al., 2011). Engagement in supportive or engaged parenting behaviors generally requires the use of energy on the part of parents. However, successful parenting experiences may be elicited through supportive or engaged parenting behaviors (e.g., calming children when distressed, sharing enjoyable activities), which may be associated with an increase in ones PSE beliefs. Because successful parenting experiences may encompass a variety of situations mothers and/or fathers may encounter, the measurement strategy used in the present study may have contributed to the similarities between mothers and fathers identified. More specifically, the global measurement strategy may allow parents to complete PSE and parenting behavior measures while thinking about situations that are personally relevant. Findings for the associations between PSE, positive affect, and supportive or engaged parenting behavior may differ between mothers and fathers if task-specific measures of PSE and parenting behavior are used. In particular, findings may differ using task-specific measures because they may reference tasks mothers and/or fathers may not be likely to encounter, given that the tasks parents perform may differ (e.g., Craig, 2006).

Identified Differences Between Mothers and Fathers

Although various similarities were identified between mothers and fathers, differences also emerged. For instance, negative affect was significantly and negatively associated with maternal, but not paternal, PSE. This finding was unexpected, given that negative affect is positively associated with depression (Clark & Watson, 1991), and negative associations between depression and PSE have previously been identified among both mothers and fathers (e.g., Sevigny & Loutzenhiser, 2010). One potential explanation for this difference stems from theoretical and empirical evidence addressing the socialization of gender roles among men and women. Biosocial theory suggests that men have been socialized, in the traditional sense, to be dominant, assertive, controlling, and unemotional (Wood & Eagly, 2002). Alternatively, women have been socialized to engage in behaviors associated with being nurturing and affectionate (Wood & Eagly, 2002). Providing support for biosocial theory, men have been found to be more restrictive in their emotionality than women (e.g., Levant, Hall, Williams, & Hasan, 2009). Therefore, mothers may be more likely than fathers to externalize or express their emotions during interactions with their children. Because the expression of negative affect is associated with behaviors that are unlikely to produce success in parenting situations (e.g., Rueger et al., 2011), negative affect may be associated with maternal PSE to a greater degree than paternal PSE. The potential for negative affect being more strongly related to maternal PSE than to paternal PSE, potentially through the expression of negative affect, is highlighted by findings indicating that PSE was significantly and negatively associated with hostile or coercive parenting behavior for mothers only. Because negative affect is associated with increased hostile or coercive parenting behavior (Rueger et al., 2011), an interactive cycle between negative affect, hostile or coercive parenting behavior, and maternal PSE may exist. In other words, it may be that when mothers experience negative affect in parenting situations, they express this emotion with increased hostile or coercive parenting behavior, which may result in unsuccessful interactions (e.g., inability to calm child when they are distressed). These potential unsuccessful interactions may reduce mothers PSE beliefs, and increase their experienced negative affect and engagement in hostile or coercive parenting behaviors, during future interactions with their children. Alternatively, because mothers are socialized to be nurturing and affectionate (Wood & Eagly, 2002), it may be that mothers interpret engagement in hostile or coercive parenting behaviors as less acceptable than fathers. As such, if mothers engage in hostile or coercive parenting behaviors, they may be more likely to interpret their behavior as reflecting poor parenting ability to a greater degree than fathers. Present study findings also indicated that maternal PSE, but not paternal PSE, was significantly and negatively associated with, and predicted by, child behavior problems. Thus, among mothers, child behavior may also contribute to a negative interactive cycle among negative affect, hostile or coercive parenting behavior, and PSE. However, because fathers in the present study were more likely than mothers to work full-time outside the home, mothers in this study may have been more likely than fathers to spend time in direct contact with their children. An increase in the amount of time spent with a child may render their characteristics, especially

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behavioral problems, more of a challenge for mothers than fathers. Thus, the characteristics of children in the present study may be incorporated into maternal PSE to a greater degree than paternal PSE. Perhaps, the reverse effect may be identified among samples of families in which mothers work full time and fathers stay at home. The final difference that emerged between mothers and fathers was that paternal PSE, but not maternal PSE, was significantly and positively associated with parental control. Although unexpected, these results suggest that fathers may be more likely than mothers to incorporate situations in which they were or were not able to control their childs behavior in an effective manner into their estimations of their overall abilities as a parent. As previously discussed, it may be that these findings are associated with the socialization of gender roles. Because men are traditionally socialized to be dominant and controlling (Wood & Eagly, 2002), it may be that fathers interpret controlling their childs behavior as reflecting increased parenting ability. However, because women are traditionally socialized to be nurturing (Wood & Eagly, 2002), they may be less likely than fathers to consider controlling their childs behavior as reflecting increased parenting ability.

Clinical Implications
The identified differences between mothers and fathers in the present study may provide practical implications for applied disciplines. For example, because PSE was significantly associated with hostile or coercive parenting behavior for mothers only, interventions aimed at increasing PSE beliefs may be effective for reducing maternal, but not paternal, hostile or coercive parenting behavior. An alternative to PSE interventions for reducing paternal hostile or coercive parenting behavior may be engagement in emotion regulation training. Effective emotion regulation has been found to be associated with decreased engagement in hostile or coercive parenting behaviors (Teti & Cole, 2011; Ben-Porath, 2010). Therefore, interventions targeting effective emotion regulation may be a more beneficial strategy for reducing paternal hostile or coercive parenting behavior than PSE interventions. This strategy may be beneficial for a variety of aspects of fathers lives, given that they may be restricted in their emotionality (e.g., Levant et al., 2009). An additional difference that may inform applied disciplines was the significant association identified between PSE and child behavior problems for mothers, but not fathers. These results suggest that mothers may be more likely than fathers to incorporate aspects of their childs behavior when estimating their PSE beliefs. Incorporating external factors when referring to ones parenting ability may be associated with a decrease in PSE beliefs according to social cognitive theory (e.g., Bandura, 1989). Therefore, it may be beneficial for clinicians to include aspects of cognitive reappraisal when working with mothers (e.g., reinterpreting parenting successes as being associated with internal factors).

ing in power to detect only moderately large to large population effect sizes (power .80, .05; Cohen, 1992). Therefore, the possibility for Type II error was increased in this study, especially because a relatively stringent alpha level ( .05) was used to indicate significance. However, for the associations of interest (i.e., associations with PSE), the results would have remained identical had a more conservative level of alpha (e.g., .10), or a moderate effect size level (i.e., .30), were used to indicate significance (see Tables 13). Third, the present study sample was relatively homogenous, in that mothers and fathers were largely in marital relationships and White, which compromises the generalizability of study findings to more diverse parents. However, the homogeneity of the present sample is typical for studies in which both mothers and fathers are incorporated (e.g., Maurer & Pleck, 2006; Braungart-Rieker, Garwood, Powers, & Wang, 2001). Additionally, the study is limited by its use of a single measurement strategy for PSE. Using multiple measures of PSE would have allowed for comparisons between the task-specific and global measurement strategies. However, as mentioned previously, the applicability of existing task-specific measures of PSE is unclear, given the differences in the parenting tasks in which mothers and fathers typically engage (e.g., Craig, 2006; Paquette, 2004).

Future Directions
Although generalization of the present findings is limited, the study is the first to identify data suggesting that paternal GSE and PSE are significantly associated, providing evidence for the importance of the parenting role among fathers. Further, the study identified a variety of similarities and differences between maternal PSE and paternal PSE, providing a foundation for further research in the area. Future researchers could replicate and extend present findings in a number of ways. First, recruitment of larger, and more representative, samples of mothers and fathers may allow for further identification of potential similarities and differences between maternal and paternal PSE, and may provide further information for the development of more effective parenting interventions for mothers and fathers. Second, because the present study only used one type of PSE measure (i.e., domain PSE), future research may benefit from the development of a fatheroriented task-specific measure of PSE to replicate present study findings. Task-specific measures allow for swift identification of tasks that may need to be targeted in applied settings, which may add beneficial information for intervention programs that include fathers. However, it is important to note that a task-specific measure of paternal PSE may not be applicable to all fathers, given the wide distribution of levels of paternal involvement (e.g., Isacco, Garfield, & Rogers, 2010). As fathers become more involved with their children, they may be more likely to gain experience in tasks in which mothers have traditionally participated more than fathers (e.g., emotional support, Craig, 2006). This may be especially true for stay-at-home fathers (Rochlen et al., 2010), and, as such, research may benefit from the development of multiple measures of task-specific paternal PSE in which identified tasks are altered depending on the level of paternal involvement. Third, given that the level of experience one has in a particular situation is thought to influence the level of efficacy (e.g., Bandura, 1977), future research may benefit from including measures of paternal involvement and participation in child rearing. As

Study Limitations
One of this studys most significant limitations is the correlational nature of the analyses. As such, the results do not provide information about the directionality of the relationships between variables, and therefore, causality cannot be assumed. Second, the study sample was relatively small (49 mothers, 33 fathers), result-

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MURDOCK how mothers and fathers in intact families spend time with children. Gender & Society, 20, 259 281. doi:10.1177/0891243205285212. doi: 10.1177/0891243205285212. Daly, K. (1993). Reshaping fatherhood: Finding the models. Journal of Family Issues, 14, 510 530. doi:10.1177/019251393014004003 Daniluk, J. C. (2001). Reconstructing their lives: A longitudinal, qualitative analysis of the transition to biological childlessness for infertile couples. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79(4), 439 449. Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1998). Multiple risk factors in the development of externalizing behavior problems: Group and individual differences. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 469 493. doi:10.1017/S0954579498001709 de Haan, A. D., Prinzie, P., & Dekovic , M. (2009). Mothers and fathers personality and parenting: The mediating role of sense of competence. Developmental Psychology, 45, 16951707. doi:10.1037/a0016121 Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1997). How the experience of early physical abuse leads children to become chronically aggressive. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth (Eds.), Developmental perspectives on trauma: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 263288). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. Dumka, L. E., Stoerzinger, H. D., Jackson, K. M., & Roosa, M. W. (1996). Examination of the cross-cultural and cross-language equivalence of the parenting self-agency measure. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 45, 216 222. doi:10.2307/585293 Erdwins, C. J., Buffardi, L. C., Casper, W. J., & OBrien, A. S. (2001). The relationship of womens role strain to social support, role satisfaction, and self-efficacy. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 50, 230 238. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2001.00230.x Fox, G. L., & Bruce, C. (1999). The anticipation of single parenthood: A profile of mens concerns. Journal of Family Issues, 20, 485506. doi:10.1177/019251399020004004 Funderburk, B. W., Eyberg, S. M., Rich, B. A., & Behar, L. (2003). Further psychometric evaluation of the Eyberg and Behar rating scales for parents and teachers of preschoolers. Early Education and Development, 14, 6782. doi: 10.1207/s15566935eed1401_5 Gross, D., Sambrook, A., & Fogg, L. (1999). Behavior problems among young children in low-income urban day care centers. Research in Nursing & Health, 22, 1525. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098240X(199902)22:115::AID-NUR33.0.CO;2-2 Habib, C., & Lancaster, S. (2010). Changes in identity and paternal-foetal attachment across a first pregnancy. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 28, 128 142. doi:10.1080/02646830903298723 Hadley, R., & Hanley, T. (2011). Involuntarily childless men and the desire for fatherhood. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 29, 56 68. doi:10.1080/02646838.2010.544294 Haslam, D. M., Pakenham, K. I., & Smith, A. (2006). Social support and postpartum depressive symptomatology: The mediating role of maternal self-efficacy. Infant Mental Health Journal, 27, 276 291. doi:10.1002/ imhj.20092 Isacco, A., Garfield, C. F., & Rogers, T. E. (2010). Correlates of coparental support among married and nonmarried fathers. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 11, 262278. doi:10.1037/a0020686 Izzo, C., Weiss, L., Shanahan, T., & Rodriguez-Brown, F. (2000). Parental self-efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting practices and childrens socioemotional adjustment in Mexican immigrant families. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 20, 197213. doi:10.1300/J005v20n01_13 Jacobs, J. N., & Kelley, M. L. (2006). Predictors of paternal involvement in childcare in dual-earner families with young children. Fathering: A Journal of Theory Research and Practice about Men as Fathers, 4, 23 47. doi:10.3149/fth.0401.23 Jones, T. L., & Prinz, R. J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 341363. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.12.004

previously discussed, such research may be important for developing greater understanding of the associations between paternal PSE and GSE. Fourth, because present findings are correlational in nature, future research, using longitudinal or experimental research designs to examine the directionality of the identified relationships with PSE, is needed to create a stronger empirical basis for the role of PSE in the lives of parents and their children.

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Received June 7, 2011 Revision received December 14, 2011 Accepted December 15, 2011