ProjectManagement

Unit2

Unit2
Structure

ProjectPlanningandProcesses

2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 ProjectLifecycleandprocessflows 2.1.2 Characteristic 2.2 Projectplanningandscoping 2.3 PlanningToolsandEstimation 2.3.1 PlanningTools 2.3.1.1 Projectorganization 2.3.1.2 Projectstructure 2.3.1.3 ProjectKeypersonnel 2.3.1.4 Projectmanagementteam 2.3.1.5 Keystakeholders 2.3.1.6 Stageteams 2.3.1.7 Keyresources 2.3.1.8 WorkBreakdownStructure(WBS) 2.3.1.9 Keyresource 2.3.1.10 Taskduration 2.3.2PlanningEstimation 2.3.2.1Purposeofestimation 2.3.2.2Estimatingtips 2.4 EstimationApproachesandEstimationTools 2.4.1 EstimationApproaches 2.4.1.1 Bottomupapproach 2.4.1.2 TopDown 2.4.2 EstimationTools

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2.5 RiskManagement 2.5.1 Components 2.5.2 ClassificationandCategories 2.6 Summary TQs AnswertoSAQsandTQs

2.1 Introduction
Itiswellknowntoallthattheorganizationscontinuetogrowyearbyyear.Asthereisaneedto grow it becomes necessary for a growing organization to resort to proper growth plan. The plan needs to be properly prepared. It is possible to prepare proper plans only if the manager has sufficientknowledgeofthevariousprocessoftheprojectenvisageforgrowth.Themanagerhasto workonthevariouslifecyclestagesandapplynecessaryplanningtoolstocomeoutwithaproper growth plan of the company. The various techniques of identifying the project items, work break downstructureoftheproject,taskduration,estimationetcaretobedonemeticulously. Inthisunitthevarioustechniquesandmethodologiesareexplained.

LearningObjectives

1. Theprojectlifecycleanditsprocessflows. 2. Thewaysinwhichaprojecthastobeplannedandexecuted 3. Thetoolsnecessarytoplantheresources 4. Theestimationapproachesinprojectmanagementand 5. Thefundamentalsofmanagingtherisksinvolvedintheproject.

2.1.1 ProjectLifeCycleAndProcessFlows
Thelifecyclemeanstheimportantphasesthatarerequiredbyanyprojectfromstarttoendofthe project. Normally this process of project will go through the preparation which constitutes formulationandmodeling,planning,control,execution,monitoring,completionandreview.

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UnderstandingtheprojectlifecycleInthepreparationstage,theprojectmanageralongwiththe associates and team members draft the outline of the project. They identify the various factors requiredtobetakencareofintheproject.Basedontheirdiscussiontheyformulatetheplansand model the activities for execution. Budgets are prepared. Once the model is approved it is then recommendedforimplementation. Duringthisstagerolesandresponsibilitiesofthevariousmembersinvolvedintheprojectarelisted out. Also the team works on the feasibility report to assess the project feasibility with respect to time, economics and technicalities. The factors which are arrived at based on risk analysis and uncertaintiesareusedtoestablishthecontrolfactorstobeexercisedduringtheexecutionofthe project.Variousmonitoringtoolsaresettomonitortheprojectprogress. The implementation stage involves the execution of the project as agreed, while carefully monitoring progress and managing changes. The completion stage involves the satisfactory deliverytothecustomertheproductsorservices.Thisisfollowedbyprojectreviewtolookintothe variousissueswhichaffectedtheprojectduringthecourseofitsexecution. Anyprojectisundertakentodelivereitheraserviceoraproduct.Projectdeliverablescouldbea setofoutputsthatareexpectedduringvariousstagesoftheproject.Itcouldbeassimpleasanew productormodificationtoanexistingproduct. Whatarethekeyissuesattheplanningstageofaproject? A projectplanisdocumentedwiththefollowingkeyissues Keystagesoftheproject Projectlogicdiagram Keystagesresponsibilitychart Estimatesforallkeystages OptimizedprojectGanttchart Updatedandreviewedprojectrisklog Riskmanagementformsfornewhighrisks Projectoperatingbudget

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2.1.2 Characteristics Anyprojectmaybeconsideredtohavethefollowingcharacteristics: a) Resource requirement : During the course of executing the project, it is seen that the

resource requirement increases from start to an intermediate stage of the project. It further increases at rapid rate andbecomes constant while the project is during its 80 to 95% progress stage. Thereafter the resources requirement decreases to zero i.e when the project comes to a finish.RefertheCharacteristicchart. b) Funds:Therequirementoffundsforthecompletesexecutionoftheprojectalsofollowsthe

same trend as that of the resources. The two are more or less proportional. Refer the Characteristicchart. c) Probabilityofcompletion:Theprobabilityofcompletingtheprojectcanbeestimatedbased

uponthenormaldistributioncurve.Intheinitialstageoftheprojecttheprobabilityofcompletingthe project is low though not zero. It gradually increases and as the project approaches finish the probabilityofcompletingtheprojecttendstobecome100%.RefertheCharacteristicchart. d) Risk:Therisksinvolvedintheprojectaffectingitscompletiontimeishighattheinitialstages

andlowatthelaterstagesoftheproject.RefertheCharacteristicchart. e) Designchanges:Theprojectduringthecourseofitsprogressmaybesubjectedtochanges

becauseofsomeexternalfactors.Theinfluenceofsuchexternalfactorsontheprojectmayresult inchangesinthedesignftheprojectthoughnotveryoften.Itisobservedthatsuchchangesifany arenormallyhighduringtheinitialstagesoftheprojectanddecreasesastheprojectapproaches finish.RefertheCharacteristicchart.

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PrejectLifecycleCharacteristic
100 90 80
75 95 90 85 80 75 70 60 95 90 100

A p p ro x im a te (% )

70 60 50

45

40
35

30
25

30 25 20 15

25 15 15 10 5 3

20
15

10 0 Start 1 2 3 4

Finish

ProjectStage
Resourcerequirements Probability DesignChanges Funds Risk

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SelfAssessmentQuestions1: TrueorFalse
1. 2. 3. Anyprojectisundertakentodelivereitheraserviceoraproduct. Project logic diagram, key stages responsibility chart, Gantt chart are the only key issues Thefivecharacteristicsofaprojectareresourcerequirement,funds,probabilityofcompletion,

documentedinaprojectplan. riskanddesignchanges.

2.2

Projectplanningandscoping

The purpose of project planning and scoping is to first identify the areas of the project work and identifyingtheforcesaffectingtheprojectandthentodefinetheboundariesoftheproject.Alsothe scopinghastobeexplicitlystatedonthelineoftheprojectobjectives.Italsohastoimplicitlyprovide directionstotheproject.Theplanningandscopingshouldbesuchthattheprojectmanagerisableto assesseverystageoftheprojectandalsoenablingtheassessmentofthequalityofthedeliverable oftheprojectateverystage.Thevariousstepsofprojectscopinganditscharacteristicsare: i. Identifythevariousparametricforcesrelevanttotheprojectanditsstages. ii. Enabletheteammemberstoworkontoolstokeeptrackofthestagesandtherebyproceedin theplannedmanner. iii. Avoidingareasofproblemswhichmayaffecttheprogressoftheproject. iv. Eliminatingthefactorsresponsibleforinducingtheproblem. v. Analyzingthefinancialimplicationsandcostfactoratvariousstageoftheproject vi. Understandinganddevelopingthevariousdesignsrequiredatvariousstageoftheproject. vii. The scope may include identification of key areas from clients through various meetings, discussion,andinterviews. viii. Providingabaseandtracktoenablealignmentofprojectwiththeorganizationanditsbusiness objectives. ix. Finding out the dimensions applicable to the project and also the ones not applicable to the project. x. Listoutallthelimitations,boundaryvaluesandconstraintsintheproject. xi. Understandtheassumptionsmadeindefiningthescope.

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Themainprojectplanningprocesses
a) TheidentificationprocessThemainstepsintheidentificationprocessofanyprojectare: i. Identifyinitialrequirements. ii. Validatethemagainsttheprojectobjective. iii. Identifythecriteriaforassessingthesuccessofboththefinalprojectproductandtheprocess usedtocreateit.Ex:qualityobjectives,quantitativerequirementsfortheproject. iv. Identifytheframeworkofthesolution v. Prepareatemplateoftheframeworkofsolution toillustratetheproject feasibility. vi. Prepare relevant charts to demonstrate the techniques of executing the project and its differentstages. vii. Prepare a proper project schema of achieving the defined business requirements for the project. viii. Identifytrainingrequirement ix. Makealistofthetrainingprogramnecessaryforthepersonnelworkingontheproject. x. Identify the training needs of the individuals working in various functions responsible in the project. xi. Prepareatrainingplanandatrainingcalendar. xii. Assessthecapabilitiesandskillsofallthoseidentifiedaspartoftheprojectorganization b)TheReviewProcessBaseduponthisassessment,establishatrainingplantoacquaintthe project team members with the methodologies, technologies and business areas under study. Updatetheproject scheduleto incorporatescheduled trainingactivitiesand identifythe needsto reviewandreviewingtheprojectscope.Reviewtheproject.Reviewingaprojectwithrespecttoits stages and progress is necessary, for which the project manager has to prepare a plan for the review and fix an agenda to review the project progress and keep the reports ready to discuss aboutstageperformance.Reviewprojectscope, theobjectivestatement,thenonconformancesin theprojectstagesandidentifytheneedtousetheprojectplan.Prepareaproperprojectplan.The planshouldindicatealltherequirementsfromstarttofinishoftheprojectandalsoateverystageof the project. Prepare a checklist of items to be monitored and controlled during the course of executionoftheproject.

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c)TheAnalysisProcessComparetheactualdetailswiththatintheplanwrttoprojectstages. Measurevariouscomponentsoftheprojectanditsstagesfrequently.Thisisnecessarytocontrol theprojectfromdeviatingandalsomonitortheperformance.Certainpointson howthetask,the effort and the defects are to be tracked, what tools to be used, what reporting structure and frequency will befollowed may be decidedatvarious stages. Upon identificationof any variance what are the steps to be taken should be identified. Root cause analysis for all such problems encounteredhastobedone.

SelfAssessmentQuestions2:TrueorFalse

1. Thepurposeofprojectplanningandscopingistofirstidentifytheareasoftheprojectworkand identifyingtheforcesaffectingtheprojectandthentodefinetheboundariesoftheproject. 2. Avoidingareasofproblemswhichmayaffecttheprogressoftheprojectistheonlyfactortobe consideredforscopingaproject. 3. Assessthecapabilitiesandskillsofallthoseidentifiedaspartoftheprojectorganizationisa stepintheanalysisprocess. 4. Comparetheactualdetailswiththatintheplanwithrespecttoprojectstagesisataskofthe identificationprocess.

2.3 Planning ToolsandEstimation

2.3.1PlanningTools:Thetoolswhichmaybenecessaryforcoordinatingaprojectsuccessfully
arethefollowing:
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2.3.1.1Projectorganization Process Skillsandactivities Prepareanoutlineprojectjustification,planandproject budget Initiation Selection and briefing of the project team, assigning rolesandorganization Feasibilitystudyriskandkeysuccessfactors Planning Projectdefinitionandprojectplan Communicatetotheteam Allocatingandmonitoringtheworkandcost Execution Ensuringworkandteamcohesion Reportingprogress Control Monitoringprogressandmanagingchanges Helpingtheteamtosolveprojectproblems Close Satisfactorydelivery Compilinglessonsfromprojectexperience

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2.3.1.2Project structure
Developmentplan,projecttrackingandoversight

Initiateplanning

Developsoftwaredevelopment plan(SDP)

Reviewandapprove SDP

ImplementSDPprocessesand applySPTOprocess

Measureand improvetheprocess

RevisetheSDP

Recordlessonslearnt

2.3.1.3 Project Key personnel Identify those business areas that are within the scope or
directly interface with the scope boundary and list them in the Business area column of the projectassignmentworksheet
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Identify the key personnel for each area and list them in the Person column of the project assignmentworksheet.

2.3.1.4Projectmanagementteam
Itisaseniormanagementteam,whichwillbeaccountablefortheproject. Identifyprojectsponsor,clientrepresentativeandtechnicalrepresentative. Stagemanagerswhowillplanandmanagetheprojectonadaytodaybasisforthisstage Projectcoordinatorsclientcoordinatorandtechnicalcoordinator Clearlydefinethesecoordination,controlactivitiesandidentifythebriefsuitablepersonnelto

carrythemout

2.3.1.5Keystakeholders
Identifymanagementlevelpersonnelwhoarecriticaltothesuccessoftheproject. Documenttheresponsibilitiesofstakeholders

2.3.1.6Stageteams
Identifyappropriatepersonnelrequiredforthestage,definetheteamstructureandappointteam leaders Documentthetimecommitmentandresponsibilitiestobeperformedbytheteammembers.

2.3.1.7Keyresources
Individuals assigned to a key resource role may work towards gathering Business key resourcesandTechnicalkeyresources.Theyareprojectcoordinatorsandteaminvitees.

2.3.1.8WorkBreakdownStructure(WBS)
The entire process of a project may be considered to be made up on number of sub process placedindifferentstagecalledthe WorkBreakdownStructure(WBS). Atypicalexampleofaworkbreakdownstructureofarecruitmentprocessisindicatedbelow:

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Filling vacancies

Unit2

Thejob

Thecandidate

Theselection

Theneed

Job specification

attracting

Shortlisting

Theinterview

Postselection

budget

Thejob

Advertcontent

criteria

venue

terms

options

timing

Advertlocation

ReviewCVs

interview

induction

approval

person

Shortlist

tour

relocation

decide

Thisisthetechniquetoanalyzethecontentofworkandcostbybreakingitdownintoitscomponent parts. ProjectkeystagesformthehighestleveloftheWBS,whichisthenusedtoshowthedetailsatthe lowerlevelsoftheproject. Eachkeystagecomprisesmanytasksidentifiedatthestartofplanningandlaterthislistwillhaveto bevalidated. WBSisproducedbyIdentifyingthekeyelements,breakingeachelementdownintocomponentparts andcontinuingtobreakdownuntilmanageableworkpackageshavebeenidentified.Thesecanthen beallocatedtotheappropriateperson. TheWBS doesnot show dependencies other thana groupingunder the key stages. It is not time basedthereisnotimescaleothedrawing.

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2.3.1.9 Taskduration
Identifyingleadandlagtimeshelpsinworkingouttaskduration. Leadtime:Anamountoftime,whichasuccessortaskcanoverlapwithitspredecessortask,i.e. thetimebeforethecompletionofthepredecessoratwhichthesuccessorcanstart. Lagtime:Anamountoftime,betweenapredecessorandasuccessortask,i.e.thetimeafterthe completionofthepredecessorthatthestartofthesuccessorisdelayed

2.3.2 PlanningEstimation 2.3.2.1Purposeofestimation

Definestheprojectfunctionalrequirements Not to have surprises on various fronts effort, schedule, cost and ultimately success of the Endeavour Reasonableestimates(notaccurate)tendtobecomeaselffulfillingprophecy.

2.3.2.2Estimatingtips
Baseestimatesonsomeanalytical,quantitativeprocessthanwithanumberpulledoutofthinair. Historicalmetricsdatacanhelp. Explainyourestimatingmethodtothestakeholdersandcomparewithwhattheywant.Theymay notreallyhaveanestimateitmaybeaguessoragoal. If you cant provide an accurate estimate because there are no written requirements, offer to provideamorepreciseestimateaftersomeinitialexplorationoftheprojectscopeandgeneraluser requirements. Presentarangeofestimates:bestcase,mostlikelycaseandworstcase,withtheapproximate probabilityofmeetingeachone.Presentingasingleestimateatthebeginningofasizableproject sets an expectation that will persist in peoples minds long after the original requirements and assumptionshavedrasticallychanged. Negotiate for a larger team, fewer features, phased delivery or reduced quality as ways to achieve an aggressively accelerated schedule. Make sure the stakeholders understand these tradesoffs.

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Redo your estimate with some different assumptions of project size, resources or other

factors to see how close you can come to the managers shorter goal. Make sure the assumptionsareclearlycommunicatedtoeveryoneinvolvedinthedecisionmaking. Makeacounterofferincaseyourestimationdoesnotmeetyourstakeholdersexpectation,

showingthemwhatfractionofthesystemsfunctionalitycouldrealisticallybedeliveredinthetime periodexpected.

SelfAssessmentQuestions3:Fillintheblanks
1. 2. Inthecontrolprocesstheprogressis________andthe______aremanaged. Theentireprocessofaprojectmaybeconsideredtobemadeuponnumberofsubprocess placedindifferentstagecalledthe____________. 3. _______istheamountoftime,whichasuccessortaskcanoverlapwithitspredecessortask, i.e.thetimebeforethecompletionofthepredecessoratwhichthesuccessorcanstart.

2.4 EstimationApproachesandEstimationTools 2.4.1 EstimationApproaches Therearetwotypesofestimationapproaches:

a. Bottomupapproach Thebottomupapproachconsistsofthefollowing i. Projectmanagerfirstdividestheproductunderdevelopmentintomajormodules. ii. Eachmoduleissubdividedintosmallerunits. iii. Projectmanagerdefinesastandardformanufacturingandselftestingas Identifymodulesinthesystemandclassifythemassimple,mediumorcomplex. As much as possible,useeither theprovided standard definitionsor definitionsfrompast projects Ifaprojectspecificbaselineexists,gettheaveragebuildeffortforsimple/medium/complex (S/M/C)programsfromthebaseline.

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If a project specific baseline does not exist, use project type, technology, language and otherattributestolookforsimilarprojectsinprocessdatabase.Usedatafromtheseprojects todefinethebuildeffortofS/M/Cprogram. If no similar project exist in the process database and no project specific baseline exist refinetheestimatesbasedonprojectspecificfactors.

b. TopDownApproach Thetopdownapproachconsistsofthefollowing i. Gettheestimateofthetotalsizeoftheproductinfunctionpoints ii. Using the productivity data from the project specific capability baseline from the general processcapabilitybaseline,orfromsimilarprojects,fixtheproductivitylevelfortheproject. iii. Obtain the overall effort estimate from the productivity and size estimates. Use effort distributiondatafromtheprocesscapabilitybaselinesorsimilarprojectstoestimatetheeffort forthevariousphases.Refinetheestimatestakingprojectspecificfactorsintoconsideration.

2.4.1

EstimationTools

Thevariousestimationtoolsthatmaybeusedinmanagingaprojectare: a. AlgorithmicmodelItconsistsofoneormorealgorithmsthatproduceaneffortestimateasa functionofanumberofvariablesorcostdrivers. b. Expert judgment It relies on one or more people who are considered experts in some endeavorrelatedtotheproblemathandeg:Thesoftwareapplicationoreffortestimation. c.AnalogyComparisonoftheproposedprojecttocompletedprojectsofasimilarnaturewhose costareknown.Theorganizationsprocessdatabaseisasourceforhistoricalcostdata. d. Top down Anoverall cost estimatefor the project is derivedfrom global properties of the product.Thisestimatewillusuallybebasedonthepreviousprojectsandwillincludethecostsof all functions in a project like integration, documentation, quality assurance and configuration management. e. BottomupEachcomponentofthesoftwareproductisseparatelyestimatedandtheresults aggregatedtoproduceanestimatefortheoveralljob.

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f.Automated estimation models A number of computerized models are available which estimate cost and schedule from user inputs of size and environmental cost factors. Most of thesearealgorithmicmodelsthatusecomponentsasthemeasureofsize. SelfAssessmentQuestions 4:TrueofFalse 1. Theestimationapproachesarethelogarithmicandsequentialapproaches. 2. Expert judgment and analogy are types of estimation tools that may be used in managing a project

2.5 RiskManagement
Risks are those events or conditions that may occur and whose occurrence has a harmful or negative impact ona project. Risk managementaims to identify the risks and then takeactionsto minimize their effect on the project. Risk management entails additional cost. Hence risk management can be considered costeffective only if the cost of risk management is considerably lessthanthecostincurrediftheriskmaterializes.

2.5.1 Components
Importantcomponentsinriskmanagementare: a) RiskAssessmentIdentifythepossiblerisksandassesstheconsequencesbymeansof

checklistsofpossiblerisks,surveys,meetingsandbrainstormingandreviewsofplans,processes andproducts.Theprojectmanagercanalsousetheprocessdatabasetogetinformationabout risksandriskmanagementonsimilarprojects. b) Risk Control Identify the actions needed to minimize the risk consequences. This is alsoknownasriskmitigation.Developariskmanagementplan.Focusonthehighestprioritized risks. Prioritization requires analyzing the possible effects of the risk event in case it actually occurs. This approach requires a quantitative assessment of the risk probability and the risk consequences.Foreachriskdeterminetherateofitsoccurrenceandindicatewhethertheriskis low, medium or of high category. If necessary, assign probability values in the ranges as prescribedbaseduponexperience.Ifnecessaryassignaweightonascaleof1to10.
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c)

Risk Ranking Rank the risk based on the probability and effects on the project for

example,ahighprobability,highimpactitemwillhavehigherrankthanariskitemwithamedium probabilityandhighimpact.Incaseofconflictusejudgment. d) RiskMitigation Selectthetopfewriskitemsformitigationandtracking.Refertoalistof commonlyusedriskmitigationstepsforvariousrisksfromthepreviousrisklogsmaintainedby the project manager and select suitable risk mitigation step. The risk mitigation step must be properlyexecutedbyincorporatingthemintotheprojectschedule.Inadditiontomonitoringthe progressoftheplannedriskmitigationstepsperiodicallyrevisittheriskperceptionfortheentire project.Theresultsofthisreviewarereportedineachmilestoneanalysisreport.Topreparethis report,makefreshriskanalysistodeterminewhethertheprioritieshavechanged.

2.5.2 ClassificationandCategories
Riskmanagementmaybeclassifiedandcategorizedas 1. Risk assessment and identification The assessment and identification focuses on enumerating possible risks to the project. Methods that can aid risk identification include checklistsofpossiblerisks,surveys,meetingsandbrainstormingandreviewsofplans,process andworkproducts.Theprojectmanagercanalsousetheprocessdatabasetogetinformation aboutrisksandriskmanagementonsimilarprojects. 2. Risk prioritization focus on the highest risk. Prioritization requires analyzing the possible effects of the risk event in case it actually occurs. This approach requires a quantitative assessmentoftheriskprobabilityandtheriskconsequences.Foreachriskratetheprobabilityof itshappeningaslow,mediumorhigh.Ifnecessary,assignprobabilityvaluesintherangesgiven foreachrating.Foreachrisk,assessitsimpactontheprojectaslow,medium,highorveryhigh. Ranktheriskbasedontheprobability.Selectthetopfewriskitemsformitigationandtracking. 3. Risk Control: The main task is to identify the actions needed to minimize the risk consequences,generallycalledriskmitigationsteps. Refertoalistofcommonlyusedriskmitigationstepsforvariousrisksfromthepreviousrisklogs maintainedbythePMandselectasuitableriskmitigationstep.Theriskmitigationstepmustbe properlyexecutedbyincorporatingthemintotheprojectschedule.Inadditiontomonitoringthe progressoftheplannedriskmitigationstepsperiodicallyrevisittheriskperceptionfortheentire

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project.Theresultsofthisreviewarereportedineachmilestoneanalysisreport.Topreparethis report,makefreshriskanalysistodeterminewhethertheprioritieshavechanged.

SelfAssessmentQuestions5 :TrueorFalse
1. Riskmanagementaimstoidentifytherisksandthentakeactionstominimizetheireffecton theproject. 2. Important components of risk are risk assessment, risk control, risk ranking and risk mitigation. 3. Identifyingtheactionsneededtominimizetheriskconsequences,aregenerallycalledthe riskdevelopmentsteps.

2.6Summary
Now that you have gonethrough thisunit you shouldhave learnt the basicsof the project life cycleanditsprocessflows.Alsothewaysinwhichaprojecthastobeplannedandexecutedhas beenexplained.Youhavealsogonethroughthetoolsnecessarytoplantheresourceswhichcan be applied to various processes. You have learnt about the estimation approaches in project managementandthefundamentalsofmanagingtherisksinvolvedintheproject.

2.7TerminalQuestions:
1. Whatarethevariouscharacteristicsofaproject? 2. Whatarethestepsinscopingaproject? 3. Explainthevariousstepsintheidentificationprocessofaproject? 4. Whatarethetoolsusedinprojectplanning? 5. Howcanrisksbeprioritized?

2.8AnswertoSelfAssessmentQuestionsandTQs
SelfAssessmentQuestions1 1Tue,2False,3True SelfAssessmentsQuestions2 1True,2False,3False,4False SelfAssessmentQuestions3

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1monitored,changes,2WBS,3LeadTime SelfAssessmentQuestions4 1True,2False SelfAssessmentQuestions5 1True,2True,3False.

AnswertoTerminalQuestions:
1. Refer2.1.2 2. Refer2.2 3. Refer2.2.1 4. Refer2.3.1 5. Refer2.5.2

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