The NATURE and PLACE of policy-making in Public administration By Gilton

Tafirenyika Mademe.

1. Introduction
The generic administrative functions are affected by several factors which are out of the
scope of public administration. Policy making is not an exception among financing,
organizing, staffing, proceduring and controlling as other administrative functions. A
policy is declaration of intent it is like a road map in that it determines where the
policymakers want to go, what they want to achieve and how they want to achieve their
goals and objectives.

Environmental factors are variables independent or dependant which should be considered

whenever policy decisions have to be made. The variables may be internally or externally
induced .ln fact it is the place in which policy making takes place.lnfluence can be merely
defined as the impact made by a variable on an activity or event .Public policy making is
the first step in the policy process.lt involves being aware of a problem or future need,
describing the problem, gathering of information and finally stating clearly what has to be
done and this is done in form of bills, acts, by-laws and white papers. This assignment is
therefore going to specifically look at internally or externally induced variables which
have an impact on how finding solution to a future and/or present problem or need can be
clearly stated.

The main objective of this assignment is to help the reader understand in as simple as
possible the environmental factors that affect public policy making but before doing that it
is also the aim of this assignment that the reader understands public policy making (as a
step in the policy process).This will be made possible by giving special reference to
facts,values,perceptions and illusions.M.S Bayat and I.H Meyer(1994:) are of the opinion
that, “understanding public policy is both an art and a craft.lt is an art because it requires
insight ,creativity, and imagination in identifying them, in describing them,indevising
public policies which might alleviate them and then ,in finding out on whether these
policies end up making things better or worse.lt is a craft because these tasks usually

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require some knowledge of economics ,political science, public
administration,sociology,law and statistics. With regard to the above, this assignment will
be presented with a lot of insight, creativity and imagination and some relevant facts from
other disciplines such as political science will be applied so that the reader will find it
much easier to understand the factors influencing public policy-making

The first section that the assignment will reveal on policy making. The nature and place of
policy making in policy process, the enabling function and the three policy making steps
shall be discussed under policy making. There after the influence of environmental factors
will be systematically discussed .Before rounding up, the role of decision making in policy
making will be highlighted taking into account the decision making process, the need for
facts and the role of values in decision making.

2. Policy making
According to N.L Roux –vol 37 no 4 12- 2002; before attempting to define policy, it
should be noted that no administration action takes place if specific goals and objectives
have not been set.
2.1 The nature and place of policy making in policy process

There are as many definitions of policy as there are authors of policy.

A few definitions on policy are given for consideration:
• According to Thornhill (1995:54) policy can be defined as: a desired course of action
and interaction which is to serve as guideline in the allocation of resources necessary
to realize societal goals and objectives, decided by upon by the legislator and made
known either in writing or verbally.
• Dye (1995:4) define public policy is what ever governments choose to do or not to do.
• Fox and Meyer (1995:107) define policy as “authoritative statements made by
legitimate public institutions about the way in which they propose to deal with policy
problems”.
• J .E Anderson (1997:9), defines policy as “a proposed course of action of a person,
group or government within a given environment providing obstacles and

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 opportunities which the policy was proposed to utilize and overcome in an effort to
reach a goal or realize an objective.”

Meiring (2008:30) classified the policy process into three categories or functions thus
policy making; policy implementation and policy analysis and-evaluations. He further
noted that policy making can also be classified into three consecutive and related steps,
thus the policy initiation, policy formulation and approval of policy.

According to Cloete (1991:79) as cited in Thornhill et al (1995:55); the functions

preceding the announcement of goals and the measures for goal realization are referred to
as policy making and the result is a policy which is made known.

Policy making in the policy process does not take place in isolation rather policy
implementation and policy evaluation-analysis occupy an equally important role in the
policy process as the diagram shows below;

Policy Process

1. Policy making 2.policy implementation 3.policy analysis-evaluation

Policy initiation policy formulation policy approval

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The presence of policy-making elites, the bureaucratization of roles, the formalization of
procedures, and the operation of incentive systems that reward conservatism and punish
innovation all contribute to the underutilization non-utilization of information produced by
policy analysts William Dunn (1994:418).

Meanwhile policy making has not proved to be an issue or problem in the developing
countries, Africa in particular but the implementation of policies has somehow proved to
be an uphill task. This is evidenced by the recent elections crisis in the eastern placed
Kenya and our neighbouring Zimbabwe in which the presidential results are still hanging,
fifteen days after the polls. The policies are there but no one is implementing them
lamenting the fact that the policies will achieve their objectives.

2.2 Enabling functions

These are provisions which make the administrative process happen or achieve the
targeted goals and they include policy making, creation of posts and structures, provision
of money, provision of personnel, determination of work procedures and finally
determination of control measures and standards. These functions are interdependent in
that the absence of one will make the administrative impossible for example if money is
not availed there will be no progress as inter alia, employees need to be paid.

2.3 Policy making as a process (3 steps)

The idea that policy making underlies the fact that it does not take place harphazardly;
rather it follows certain interrelated steps thus policy initiation, policy formulation and
policy approval. Each of the steps will be now discussed.

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Policy initiation
The term initiation means starting therefore this confers that policy initiation is all about
starting the policy process thus the commencements of the activities to make a policy.
According to M.H Meiring(2007:30);policy making is aimed at developing the
environment and development means change and before development can take place ,the
politicians and officials must identify specific development areas.Meiring also stated that
initiation relates to; making a problem known; emphasizing the necessity for a new policy
or the amendment of an existing policy to satisfy an existing problem or to prevent a
potential problem and; submission of suitable policy recommendations/proposals.

Policy formulation
Policy initiation and policy formulation have been used interchangeably by many and yet
the two terms are totally different though interrelated as the former precedes the latter in
the policy making process.

On almost a similar note “policy formulation” and “policy making” can not be
differentiated by many despite the vividly notable difference which is to be clarified.
Policy making is a process which involves three steps thus policy initiation, policy
formulation and policy approval. On the other hand policy formulation is a step or
component in the policy making process.lt involves drafting, putting down the policy
proposals or recommendations by the policy makers.Meiring (2007:35) identified various
consecutive steps into which the formulation of a policy can be classified and these are;
liason withy interested parties; processing information; setting of objectives; determining
priorities; considering of available resources and survey of available financial resources.

Policy approval
Policy approval is the endorsement of the formulated policy for implementation. National
policies are endorsed by the head of state; institutional policies are endorsed by the
executive heads of department and departmental policies by heads of departments. On

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approval the policy can become an act, bill or by law which will then be published for
implementation.

All public activities should be aimed at achieving a specific goal. The deduction can
therefore be made that planning should also be aimed at formulating alternatives and
selecting a most suitable way of achieving the broad policy goal. Therefore broad policy
goals should be formulated before planning commences (Thornhill, 1995:102).Whereas
policy making is a component of policy process among policy implementation and policy
analysis it is also an enabling function which makes the administrative functions
achievable.lt can be deduced that policy initiation, policy formulation and policy approval
are the three important steps of the policy making process.

3. Influence of environmental factors in policy making

Depending on the nature and type of the policy to made some environmental factors do
have some influence in the whole process and some consideration of these factors have to
be taken into account if ever the policy is to serve its ideal purpose. These factors include
political culture, social conditions, and economic conditions. Anderson(1997:52) as cited
in The Journal of Public Administration-FH Smith ,vol 38 No 3 September 2003:317)
argued that political culture and socio-economic conditions are environmental factors
which are of cardinal importance in the study of rationality in the policy making
process.These factors can now be discussed as follows:

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3.1 Political culture

Political culture refers to the widely held values, beliefs and attitudes on what
governments should do, how they should do it and the relationships between the citizens
and the government. There are three identifiable political cultures in any political system.
The individualistic political culture emphasizes private concerns and views the
government as a utilitarian device to be used to accomplish what people want. The
moralistic culture views government as a mechanism for advancing the public interest.
Governmental intervention in the economy is accepted and there is much public concern
about policy issues. The traditionalistic political culture takes a paternalistic and elitist
view of government and favors its use to maintain the existing social order.

The existence of the above three political cultures in any political system is not an
exception in South Africa. The way in which the South Africa citizens views the
government’s zeal to accomplish what they want will determine the support they will give
for the policies.ln simple terms, the government of South Africa should work closely with
the citizens or groups within the citizens if its policies are to be effectively
implemented.Nigro and Nigro (1984:21) agued that most problems are not solved by the
government though many are acted on by it. The problems with which the contemporary
must cope are so complex that often there are no complete or permanent solutions
.Governments generally try to create the conditions that permit private individuals and
organizations to succeed in their endeavors.

3.2 Social-Economic conditions

The term socio-economic is used as it is most of the time impossible to separate social and
economic factors and its influence on the political activities. Public policies are the result
of conflict among groups and apply especially to regulatory and redistributive policies.
Groups that are underprivileged may seek government assistance to improve their
situation(Anderson 1997:55).According to The Journal of Public Administration-FH Smith

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,vol 38 No 3 September 2003:317),the RDP(Reconstruction and Development Programme
is one of the proposed plan by government to address conflict among South African
groups.

Meiring (2007:38) concluded that, “policy decisions cannot be taken arbitrarily

because such decisions will always have a financial implication. Any change in the nature
and scope of the public services rendered will stem from a change in policy, which will in
most cases, have a financial implication.” The current electricity supply in our own South
Africa which is characterized by power outages in all parts of the country has brought
more harm than good such that the responsible authorities are spending sleepless nights to
work out a sustainable policy for the crisis.

Having realized that it can’t afford it and that it needs the money to pay for expanding
electricity infrastructure, Government is rethinking its electricity-pricing policy (The Fin
Week, p21-20/03-2008).So it is cardinal for the policy makers to consider the financial
implications of expanding the current power generating methods. The big question is who
is going to fund the expansion program and until when because the policy should solve the
crisis once and for all. Meanwhile; The South African Editors Forum (Sanef) has
questioned Eskom’s insistence on keeping secret sections of its application for tariff hikes,
“Eskom seeks to destroy the public’s right to know about the matters that will significantly
increase the cost of electricity”sanef said(Daily Dispatch, Thursday ,10/04/2008)

Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) as social groups within the society plays a
significant role by identifying problems and suggesting possible factors to be considered
when making a policy.” The country’s laws can protect prisoners from rape in jail, but
ensuring that it was applied, NGO leaders say. Sexual abuse in detention facilities is
“increasingly becoming an issue that demands attention”, Sasha Gear, Senior researcher at
the Centre for Study of Violence and Reconciliation (The Herald, Friday 4 April
2008).The problem of rape in prison is a public issue as anyone can be a prisoner if
convicted for a crime committed or alleged to have committed even if one is innocent. A
big question arises when male rape is common in prison, how do we separate male

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prisoners? Probably prisoners with same crimes should share the same housing facilities.
But still remains, will that stop that kind of rape.

The current heated land policy where property ownership provokes a heated debate in and
out of Parliament is a major area of concern. “Australia does it. Canada does it. And so do
New Zealand Brazil and the United States. But when South Africa it might also like to use
it as a policy instrument,” the banana republic” and “foreign investors flee” labels get
hauled out. (The Fin week-pg22, 13 September 2007).From these facts it is important that
the policy makers of property ownership should not only consider that it worked for other
countries but the impact to foreign investors. Where as land is more than just a commodity
it needs to be used to protect national heritage in all its forms policies made on it should
accommodate foreign investors as they contribute a significant section of the gross
domestic product (GDP).
D T Jamison and W H Mosley- AJPH,Vol. 81, Issue 1 15-22 advocated that, Health
policymakers must engage in undertaking an epidemiological and economic analysis of the
major disease problems, evaluating the cost-effectiveness of alternative intervention
strategies; designing health care delivery systems; and, choosing what governments can do
through persuasion, taxation, regulation, and provision of services.

BT Mossman, J Bignon, M Corn, A Seaton, and JB Gee 19 January 1990: Vol. 247. no.
4940, pp. 294 – 301 in their article argued that asbestos have scientific developments and
implications for public policy. The concentration of asbestos fibers in air, type of asbestos,
and size of fibers must be considered in evaluation of potential health risks. This in itself
reiterates the fact that the intervention in the physical environment must not be overlooked
as some of these effects leads to healthy hazards or even loss of human life which must be
protected at all cost.

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From the above it can be deduced that some social and economic factors are not easy to
separate. Meanwhile electricity, land are inter alia some of the critical policy areas in
South Africa.

3.3 Legal environment

The Expropriation Bill faces a Constitutional Court challenge if "unacceptable clauses" are
not sort out (Mail&Guardian-07/04/2008).This was said by Farmers' union AgriSA
arguing that the bill poses a threat to property rights. This clearly depicts that all public
policies should be constitutional or lawful otherwise the policies will face insatiable
challenges and achieve a little success in realizing its goals.

Drug misadventuring is defined, applicable public policy issues are identified and
analyzed, and recommendations are suggested for reducing the magnitude and scope of
drug misadventuring. The extensive use of pharmaceuticals in the United States, as well as
the error-prone systems that are responsible for the appropriate preparation and
distribution of drugs, has created new challenges for prescribers, dispensers, and users of
drugs. The term "drug misadventuring" covers the broad array of phenomena associated
with negative drug experiences (Manasse HR Jr- Vol 46, Issue 5, 929-944).Due to
globalization, South Africa like United States also faces this "drug misadventuring"
challenge which is associated with negative drug experiences.

Political culture, socio-economic conditions and legal environment are the common
environmental factors affecting the public policy making process.

The role of decision making in policy making

Decision making explained

Everyday people; at individual and group level make decisions in their normal courses of
life.ln respect of that; few among many people also make decisions in performing their

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administrative functions. Due the complex nature of administrative functions, the
decisions made by the legislature, executive and judiciary have to be time and place bound
to effect efficient and effective rendering of goods and services to the public.

Meiring (2007:43) cited the following explanations for decision-making:

(a) Frankel, J (1963:5): “Decision-making constitutes a process ending in an

act of will of a person or a group of persons who choose between two or more
alternatives”
(b)Basi,RS (1968:26) : Decision-making is “the process of identifying a number of
possible behavior alternatives to achieve a desired objective and choosing one behavior
alternative from among them so as to obtain the best results under the circumstances”
(c) Banovetz, JM (1971:134):Decision-making is “the process by which an individual or a
group of individuals (e.g. a municipal council) chooses among alternatives”
(d) Le Breton, PP and DA Henning (1961:7): “A decision is the resolution of conflicting
alternative choices. A decision need to involve either action of the future. One can decides
that milk tastes better than coffee. This is a decision that involves neither action nor furity”

Welsh (1980:62) as cited in DFP du Toit et al (1998:224) proposed that managers use the
mnemonic DECIDE to make sound decisions:
• Define the problem
• Examine the facts
• Consider alternatives
• Include the view of others
• Decide the course of action
• Evaluate results

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Decision making explained –the need for facts and values
The role of values and facts in decision making
Values are beliefs of a person or social group in which they have an emotional investment
(either for or against something).Values can be personal, family or core. A fact is a
verifiable truth; reality that which is known about a specific subject or situation. lt is
something having real, demonstrable existence and the following terms help in
understanding and identifying facts; data, information, intelligence, knowledge, lore
actuality, event, phenomenon, reality.

Decision making is based on considerations of facts and values. Officials will supply to
the executive political office-bearer. Values will be determined by the community and
must be taken into account by politicians when making decisions. Facts concern concrete
,relatively immutable data, while values can not be accurately measured or assessed and
depend on the decision maker’s beliefs about what is “right” or “wrong”(Cloete et al
2006:167).Examples of facts may include; there is electricity crisis in South Africa, 33,033
women attending 1,415 antenatal clinics across all nine provinces, South African
Department of Health Study - about 29.1% of pregnant women were living with HIV in
2006.Facts can not be changed though they can be misrepresented so it is important that
when the public officials, executive political-office bearers make policies they should
consider the immutable data which forms the facts.

According to J.E Anderson (1997:30); a well –known sociologist, Robin W Williams,

identified a number of “major-value orientations” in the American society. These include
individual freedom, equality, progress, efficiency, and practicality. Values such as these-
and others, such as democracy, individualism, and humanitarianism- clearly have
significance for policy making.

Meiring (2007) illustrated diagrammatically that the summation of decisions on facts and
values yields a policy. Decision making plays a pivotal role in policy making and in
making decisions facts and values should be magnificently taken into account.

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Conclusion

Administrative functions can not be carried out without enabling functions within which
policy making falls. Policy making plays a crucial role in policy process by showing what
the policy makers want to achieve, how they want to achieve it and under what conditions.
Policy initiation, formulation and approval are the three important steps of policy making
process. Policy making does not take place in isolation thus it is affected by certain factors
taken as environmental factors in this assignment and the discussed are political, socio-
economic and legal factors. Political environment considers values, beliefs and attitudes
on what governments should do, how they should do it. The socio-economic environment
emphasizes on the notion that public policies are the result of conflict among groups.
Decision making plays a pivotal role in policy making and in making decisions facts and
values should be magnificently taken into account.

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References

Text Books

1. Thornhill, C and S.X.Hanekom (1995): The public sector manager.Durban:

Butterworths.
2. Meiring, M.H (2007): The Essence of the Public Policy Process (Alice: Department of
Public Administration, UFH)
3. DFP du Toit, G van der Waldt, MS Bayat, J Cheminais (1998): Public Administration
and Management for Effective Governance.Juta and co ltd
4. Daan du Toit, Gerrit van der Waldt (1999): Public Administration and Management: The
Grassroots, 2nd Edition, Juta & co ltd.
5. J.E Anderson (1997): Public Policy Making 3rd edition (Houghton Mifflin, Boston).
6. William Dunn (1994: Public Policy Analysis: An Introduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
7. Fox William and Meyer lvan H (1995): Public administration dictionary Juta & Co.
8. M.S Bayat and I.H Meyer (1994): Public Administration: Concepts, Theory and
Practice, Halfway House: Southern Book Publishers
9. Bekker, K. (1996): Citizen Participation in Local Government, Van Schaik, Pretoria
10. Cloete .F, .Wissink, H.and C.de Coning (2006): lmproving Public Policy-From theory
to practice, Van Schaik, Pretoria
11. F.A Nigro, Lloyd.G Nigro (1984): Modern Administration 6th Edition, Harper and Row
Publishers.

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Journals
1. The Journal of Public Administration- N.L Roux: vol 37 no 4 December 2002
2. The Journal of Public Administration-FH Smith: vol 38 No 3 September 2003.
3. American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy-, Manasse HR Jr Vol 46, Issue 5, 929-
944(1989)
4. American Journal of Public Health-D T Jamison and W H Mosley, Vol. 81, Issue 1 15-
22, (1991)
5. Science Journal -BT Mossman, J Bignon, M Corn, A Seaton, and JB Gee 19 January
1990: Vol. 247. No. 4940.

Newspapers
1. Daily Dispatch, Thursday, April10, 2008
2. Mail&Guardian, 07 April 2008
3. The Fin Week, 13 September 2007
4. The Fin Week, 20 March 2008
The Herald, Friday 4 April 2008

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