Geomorphology 70 (2005) 296 310 www.elsevier.

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The sinuous bedrock channel of the Tapi River, Central India: Its form and processes
Vishwas S. KaleT
Department of Geography, University of Pune, Pune 411 007, India Received 15 September 2003; received in revised form 3 March 2004; accepted 14 February 2005 Available online 19 April 2005

Abstract The Tapi Gorge lies in the monsoon-dominated region of the Indian subcontinent. Because of the seasonality of rainfall and flows all the fluvial activity in the bedrock gorge is confined to the monsoon season, in general, and during a few highmagnitude monsoon floods in particular. Field investigations along a 30-km reach of the sinuous bedrock gorge indicate that the river displays all the morphologic properties of a meandering alluvial channel albeit with a much higher level of energy expenditure. Considering the perimeter lithology and channel morphology two types of reaches are evident in the field: a predominantly rocky and relatively straight reach close to the gorge-head, and a longer, sinuous reach of gravel deposition downstream. Hydraulic modeling of a rainfall-induced dam-failure flood indicates that large-magnitude events that exceed the threshold of bedrock resistance for a sustained length of time are capable of erosion. It appears that the overall channel and gorge morphology is adjusted to two types of thresholds. A threshold of boulder-transport, which is associated with large floods that are competent to entrain boulders but are incapable of bedrock erosion; and another higher threshold that is exceeded by truly high-energy processes that generate large total energy and exceed the threshold of bedrock resistance. The later threshold is exceeded only episodically, with fairly long periods of little or no bedrock erosion in between. Interestingly, meso-scale erosional features such as inner channels and well-developed potholes are nearly absent or inconspicuous within the gorge section. Whilst this could be partly attributed to the bedrock resistance, it appears that under the present hydro-geomorphic conditions the dominant fluvial activity is not directed towards the channel bed, but towards the banks. This is evident from the concentration of erosion on the outer banks and deposition of coarse gravel on the inner banks, and armoring of the channel bed. The main conclusion of the study is that the bedrock channel is increasing the flow resistance and energy losses by developing and enhancing the meandering pattern. D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Monsoon floods; Bedrock gorge; Meandering pattern; Gravel deposits; Tapi River; India

1. Introduction
T Tel.: +91 20 2560 1248. E-mail addresses: vskale@unipune.ernet.in, vs_kale@yahoo.com. 0169-555X/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.02.016

In the monsoonal and seasonal tropics the geomorphic work is strictly confined to the wet season

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and in the dry season the rivers are predominantly inactive or dormant (Kale, 2002). Even during the wet season, the response of the stream channels to high monsoon flows is essentially determined by the lithology of the channel perimeter and channel geometry. Whilst in alluvial channels the more commonly occurring moderate flows are effective (Wolman and Miller, 1960; Gupta, 1995), in bedrock channels noteworthy fluvial activity is associated only with high-energy processes that occur during infrequent, large-magnitude floods (Baker, 1977, 1988; Kale and Hire, 2004). Because of high boundary resistance and coarse bedload, moderate- and low-magnitude flows are incapable of transporting the coarse bedload and/or changing the morphologies of the non-alluvial river channels (Baker and Costa, 1987). Consequently, the geomorphically effective flows in bedrock-dominated channels have larger recurrence intervals (Tinkler, 1971; Kale and Hire, 2004). Given the relatively large recurrence interval of geomorphically effective flows in seasonally wet areas, channels incised into bedrock develop morphologies that yield the optimum energy expenditures of flow (Baker and Kale, 1998). Similar to the alluvial channels, an adjustment occurs in the channel morphology, sinuosity, and gradient to energy expenditure at a higher level associated with large-magnitude floods. Whereas amazingly high energy expenditure is achieved along relatively straight and constricted reaches, a sinuous or meandering channel pattern reduces energy expenditure and evens out the loss of power along the flow path (Baker and Kale, 1998). This paper will consider the morphological and hydraulic characteristics of the sinuous bedrock channel of the Tapi River in central India. The main objectives are to record and explain the longitudinal variations in the morphologic and sediment characters of the sinuous bedrock gorge, and to understand the role of lithology and the variations in the hydraulic conditions along the bedrock channel.

2. Geologic and geomorphic setting The Tapi River rises over the Betul Plateau (600 730 m asl) in central India and flows west to meet the Arabian Sea. The river covers a total area of about

65 145 km2, but the focus of the present paper is on the approximately 100-km-long bedrock reach in the headwaters of the Tapi River, in general, and on a 30km reach from the gorge-head, in particular (Fig. 1). The headwater area receives up to 100 cm of annual rainfall. For about 35 km the river flows over a board, undulating rocky surface, before entering the Tapi Gorge, near Dhanora (Fig. 1). In general, the upper gorge is narrow, deep (4080 m) and sinuous (Figs. 2 and 3A) and various types of basalts are exposed on the bed and banks. The lower wide gorge is characterized by, more or less, a straight channel and granitic gneisses and sandstones are exposed on the bed or banks (Fig. 1). Upon exiting the gorge, the river has incised into thick, late Quaternary alluvium (Kale and Hire, 2004; Fig. 1). The 30-km reach of the Tapi Gorge under review is dominantly cut into horizontally bedded Cretaceous Eocene dDeccan TrapT basalts. Two types of structures, namely columnarjointed and vesicularamygdaloidal basalts are commonly observed. Columnar basalt flows are observed at different levels, and amygdaloidal basalts occur as intervening layers. Evidence that the river encounters greater difficulty in incising the columnar basalts is provided by the presence of waterfalls and hanging tributaries at the contact of the columnar and amygdaloidal basalts. Wherever the river has managed to cut into the resistant columnar basalts, however, it is confined to narrow, deep, and box-shaped canyons. The river basin occupies the Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA) lineament zone, characterized by strong neotectonism and moderate seismicity (Ravi Shankar, 1991). The gorge morphology, therefore, appears to be strongly related to the lithological and tectonic controls. The loglog plot of the longitudinal profile of the upper Tapi River shows noticeable convexity (Fig. 3B). The overall streamgradient index of Hack (1973) is 95. From the source up to about 35 km the gradient index value is less than 100, because the river flows over the wide, rocky undulating Betul Plateau, and the bedrock channel is shallow and unincised. In the vicinity of the gorge-head, however, the gradient index values increase significantly (Fig. 3B). The Tapi Bedrock Gorge, therefore, is characterized by higher channel gradient and stream power. Occurrence of early Holocene deposits within the gorge (Kale et al., 2003) indicates that the gorge is

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Fig. 1. Geomorphic map of the upper Tapi Gorge.

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299

Mendha

Goinda

2 km

Fig. 2. Indian Remote Sensing satellite image (FCC) of the study area (acquired in November, 1996). Data Source: National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad, India.

pre-Holocene in age. The preservation of the deposits also suggests that probably the overall morphology of the bedrock gorge has not changed significantly since early Holocene times.

3. River hydrology The Tapi River is entirely fed by monsoon rains. Measurable flows occur only during the monsoon season (June to October) and for a short time after the end of the monsoon season. During the long dry summer season, the channel is virtually dry. Only large pools contain water. Consequently, all of the fluvial activity takes place during the 45 months of the monsoon season. During the remaining part of the year the channel is totally inactive. Because the channel boundaries are resistant and the channel bed material is coarse, most of the common monsoon flows are incompetent to cause erosion or to move the coarse gravel. Long continuous gauge data were not available for any site within the study area. To get some idea about the intra-seasonal variations in the monsoon discharges, daily discharge data for a sample year (19881989) for the Dedtalai gauging station, located ca. 190 km from the source, are presented in Fig. 4. This figure shows that the monsoon flow (June to October) is occasionally interrupted by large-magnitude events. These events occur in response to large amounts of monsoon rainfall in the source region (Kale et al., 1994). During such events, most of the geomorphic activity takes place within the gorge. The discharge pattern suggests that the bedrock gorge is

Fig. 3. (A) Cross-section across the Betual Plateau and the Tapi Gorge. (B) Longitudinal profile of the upper Tapi River showing values of Hacks (1973) streamgradient index.

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Fig. 4. Variation in the daily discharge for a sample year (19881989) for the Dedtalai gauging station, located ca. 190 km from the source. Catchment area = 3860 km2. Data source: Water Year Book, Central Water Commission, New Delhi.

subjected to extreme variations in discharge and energy conditions even during the wet season (Kale and Hire, 2004).

4. Methodology The 30-km reach described in this paper forms the upper part of the Tapi Gorge. The present study is entirely based on field investigations in the upper narrow section of the gorge. Observations regarding channel morphology, erosional and depositional features, bed and bank material, and lithology were made in the field during the non-monsoon season and the information was recorded on a map. The width and depth of channel flow were measured at 24 crosssections along the 30-km reach of the gorge (Table 1). The flow depths were estimated on the basis of high water marks and information provided by the local people. In July 1991, a rainfall-induced failure of a dam, located upstream of the Tapi Gorge-head, generated a flood far larger than possible from extreme amounts of monsoon rainfall (Kale et al., 1994). This event was unprecedented in the recent geomorphic history of the Tapi River. Because the event provided an excellent opportunity to understand the impact of a rare, highmagnitude event on bedrock channels, post-flood studies were undertaken downstream of the dam, and

high water marks and information regarding changes in the channel morphology were recorded at 33 locations downstream of the dam (Kale and Gadgil, 1997). Because the gorge section is ungauged, multiple cross-section surveys were undertaken at two sites with the help of an Electronic Distance Measurer (EDM), and the flood hydraulics were reconstructed by employing the step-backwater flow modelHEC2 (Hydrologic Engineering Centre, 1982) and the high water marks (Kale and Gadgil, 1997). The hydraulic step-backwater routine was used to estimate the discharge of the common monsoon high flows, one of the largest monsoon floods that occurred in 1994 and the July 1991 dam-failure flood. The common high monsoon flow was assumed to be close to ca. 2000 m3 s 1 on the basis of information provided by the local people.

5. Bedrock channel morphology Fig. 5 shows the geomorphic map of the 30-km reach under review. The data regarding channel width and depth, channel characteristics and the average intermediate diameter of boulders collected at 24 cross-sections are presented in Table 1. Approximately 13 km downstream of the gorgehead (knick point) the river flows through a narrow bedrock gorge with steep to near-vertical walls. The

V.S. Kale / Geomorphology 70 (2005) 296310 Table 1 Cross-sectional parameters along the upper Tapi River Cross-section no.a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Distance from the gorge-head (km) 0 0.3 2.1 4.5 5.1 6.5 8.3 9.1 9.5 10.1 10.6 11.1 12.6 Channel floor width (m) 144 153 79 71 120 86 110 84 100 180 112 112 120 Flow depth (m)b 5.3 7.5 7.5 4.8 6 5.6 4.5 9.4 4.5 6.0 6.3 7.0 7.4 Max. grain size (cm) 58 46 88 103 50 86 138 33 110 76 69 74 20 Dominant channel bed characteristics Bedrock Bedrock Bedrock Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Bedrock Coarse gravel Bedrock Bedrock Coarse gravel Geomorphic features

301

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
a b

15.9 16.4 16.9 19.6 21.1 22.4 26.7 28.5 29.7 30.3 31.2

140 181 182 147 131 180 164 148 131 172 272

5.3 5.3 6.2 5.0 6.3 5.7 6.5 5.8 9.0 7.5 9.0

41 72 92 68 73 122 48 66 79 57 61

Bedrock Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Bedrock Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Coarse gravel Coarse gravel

Waterfall, plunge pool Boulder berm Waterfall, boulder berm Narrow gorge Narrow gorge Narrow gorge Narrow gorge, narrow floodplain Narrow gorge Narrow gorge Narrow gorge Narrow gorge Wide gorge Wide gorge, narrow flood plain on the right bank and gravel deposits on the left bank Wide gorge Right bank cut in gravel bar Wide gorge Wide gorge Wide gorge Wide gorge Wide gorge Wide gorge Wide gorge Wide gorge Wide gorge

See Fig. 5 for location of the cross-sections. On the basis of high level marks.

channel width generally varies between 70 and 120 m (Table 1). Downstream the channel widens and the width varies between 130 and 275 m (Table 1). Fig. 5 also reveals that steep or precipitous gorge walls are usually present along the outer banks of the sinuous channel of the Tapi River. According to the lithology of channel perimeter and channel morphology two main types of channel categories(i) predominantly rocky reach, and (ii) reach of gravel deposition, could be identified in the field. The representative cross-sections are shown in Fig. 6. 5.1. Predominantly rocky reach (Reach-1) This reach occurs close to the gorge-head (cross sections 1 to 4; Fig. 5) and is characterized by a

relatively steep gradient, narrow channel, and low sinuosity (Fig. 7). Erosional forms and features dominate this reach. The gradient is high, about 0.0072. Two major breaks in longitudinal profile, represented by waterfalls with plunge pools (at crosssections 1 and 3), are associated with this reach (Fig. 7). The reach contains two large boulder berms (Table 2). These berms are present downstream of the waterfalls. The channel is box-shaped in appearance (Fig. 7) with a flat rocky floor and steep rocky banks (Fig. 6A). Concentrations of coarse gravel also occur at the inside of the bends, but the extent of these deposits is limited. Slackwater deposits (SWD) of varying thickness are sometimes present at tributary junctions. The channel reach between cross-sections 2 and 3 (Fig. 7B) is completely

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Fig. 5. Geomorphic map of the study reach showing the major morphologic features discussed in the text. 1 = bedrock reaches; 2 = gravel deposition reaches; 3 = steep gorge walls; 4 = waterfalls; 5 = deeply incised tributaries; 6 = unincised tributaries; 7 = large point bars; 8 = main settlements; 9 = cross-section numbers. The inset map shows the channel gradient estimated for different sections on the basis of 1:50 000 topomap.

devoid of any kind of sediments. The almost straight reach and box-shaped appearance of the channel (Fig. 6B) suggest that the channel geometry does not provide any location favouring a decrease in the stream power per unit area. Although the channel has been carved out by fluvial erosion, very little evidence exists of intense bedrock erosion along this study reach. Well-developed inner channels are conspicuously absent and the frequency of potholes is remarkably low (Fig. 7B). Apart from the hydraulic and energy conditions, this could be attributed to the bedrock structure. The two waterfalls (knick points) are developed over the resistant columnar basalts. Elsewhere, whenever columnar basalts form the channel bed,

potholes are poorly developed and inner channels are absent or inconspicuous (Fig. 7B). Columnar basalt flows are encountered close the gorge-head. Therefore, the main gorge and the higher order tributaries cutting through the columnar basalts are narrow and deep (Fig. 5). Elsewhere hanging tributaries are common. In comparison, vesicularamygdaloidal basalt flows are relatively more susceptible to weathering and erosion. Therefore, reaches developed in amygdaloidal basalts have hummocky bedrock surfaces and the channels are relatively wide and shallow. Although small-scale erosional features, such as flute marks and grooves, are present meso-scale erosional features, such as potholes and inner channels, are

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Fig. 6. Representative channel cross-sections across(A) rocky reach (Reach-1) near Dhanora and (B) gravel depositional reach (Reach-2) near Ghuttigarh. Based on EDM survey.

poorly developed. At the gorge-head (cross section 1; Fig. 5) the resistant columnar basalt flow is underlain by relatively less-resistant vesicularamygdaloidal basalt flow. As a result of differing erosional resistance, it appears that the knick point (waterfall) is receding upstream primarily by erosion and undercutting of the less-resistant amygdaloidal basalts. Columnar basalt flows that occur along the gorge walls yield large blocks. Consequently, the two large boulder berms located downstream of the waterfalls consist of large boulders (Table 2) supplied from the gorge walls. 5.2. Reach of gravel deposition (Reach-2) This reach has low channel gradient and the sinuosity is noticeably high (Fig. 2). The gradient varies between 0.0011 and 0.0026 (Fig. 5). The gradient decreases with an increase in channel sinuosity and meander size. Although the gorge is basically developed in bedrock, coarse gravel covers the channel bed and occurs in the form of bars, riffles, and point bars. Bedrock is exposed in patches on the channel floor, particularly in the vicinity of large pools or on the concave banks. Sometimes unconsolidated cobblybouldery gravel deposits form the

bank material (Fig. 6B). These situations represent incision in gravel deposits. Fig. 5 illustrates that downstream of the crosssection 6 the meander bends are generally wide and open. Only between cross-sections 14 and 17 is the meander bend relatively tight. The variation in the channel curvature has influenced the flow and sediment dynamics. The satellite image, Fig. 2, shows the path of post-monsoon flow along the sinuous channel of the Tapi River. The low monsoon flow is consistently closer to the outer bank but mid-way (inflection point) between the axes of meander bend. This represents changes in the bed topography across the river. The channel is wider and asymmetrical at the meander bend axis but relatively narrow and symmetrical between the bends. Scour pools are located along the outer banks and broad, shallow point bars wrap around the inner bends. During floods, the flows are deeper along the concave banks and shallower along the convex banks. This in turn indicates that the zone of high velocity and bed shear stress shifts towards the outer bank along the bend and leads to higher erosion. Throughout the reach the point bar deposits are dominated by coarse gravel (cobbles and boulders). Riffles occur along reaches between the scour pools. All these features are characteristics of meandering alluvial channels. This, therefore, suggests that, despite the differences in the channel boundary resistance and level of energy expenditure, the meandering alluvial and bedrock channels behave in a similar manner. Wherever the gorge walls have receded significantly away from the channel banks, low and narrow floodplains have developed. Such a situation is best developed at cross-section 13 (Fig. 5). The floodwaters of the 1994 flood (one of the largest in recent years) covered the floodplain and deposited pebbles and cobbles besides fine sand and silt. Between cross-sections 20 and 24, the meanders are larger, the gradient is lower, the channel is wider and shallower (Table 1) and the width of bars is significantly higher. These are, therefore, reaches of gravel deposition because of significant loss of energy and flood power. Slackwater deposits occur at several places along the gorge. The deposits are about 13 m thick and are mostly present on the inner banks and at tributary junctions. Radiocarbon dates indicate that these

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Fig. 7. (A) A view of the Tapi Gorge cut into the Betual Plateau. The gorge-head is seen in the center, and a gravel bar is present in the lower left-hand corner of the photograph. (B) The box-shaped, rocky channel of the Tapi River. A major break in the bed profile, represented by a waterfall (dry) is visible in the lower left-hand corner. The flat channel bed is developed in a resistant columnar basalt flow. Another columnar basalt flow occurs at the top, above the scour line (SL). Note the absence of meso-scale erosional features or sediments on the rocky channel bed. The scour line (SL) is developed in weathered amygdaloidal basalt.

deposits were emplaced about 150400 years ago (Kale et al., 2003).

6. Flood hydraulics and dynamics Large monsoon flows through the rocky and gravel bed reaches were modeled by generating watersurface profiles for different discharges by

using the step-backwater model (HEC-2; OConnor and Webb, 1988). The generated watersurfaces profiles were compared with various high stage indicators to infer the discharges. Two sub-reaches were modeled. Fig. 8 shows the watersurface profiles generated for a 650-m-long rocky sub-reach at the gorge-head (cross-sections 12; Fig. 5) and Fig. 9 illustrates the simulated watersurface profiles for a 800-m sub-reach dominated by coarse gravel at

V.S. Kale / Geomorphology 70 (2005) 296310 Table 2 Dimension and grain size of boulder berms Parameters (m) Distance from the waterfall Length of the berm Width of the berm Height of the berm Mean long axisa Mean intermediate axisa Mean short axisa Location of the berm
a

305

Boulder berm at cross-section 2 260 258 67 8 1.19 0.88 0.48 Confined to right bank

Boulder berm at cross-section 3 70 96 8 3 1.78 1.27 0.83 Linear and close to mid-channel

Based on 10 largest boulders.

Ghuttigarh (cross-sections 1416; Fig. 5; Kale and Gadgil, 1997). The scour line carved by the July 1991 dam-failure flood (Fig. 7B) corresponds with discharges ranging between 9000 and 9500 m3 s 1, and the top of the large boulder berm is approximately associated with discharge close to 2000 m3 s 1 (Fig. 8). Similar reconstruction for the Ghuttigarh reach shows that the 1991 catastrophic discharge was close to 10 000 m3 s 1. The 1994-flood indicators correlate with about 6000 m3 s 1. The slackwater flood

deposits, occurring at lower level, correspond with discharges between 1000 and 2000 m3 s 1 (Fig. 9). Apart from the watersurface profiles, the HEC-2 step-backwater program was used to derive estimates of flow width, depth, mean velocity, energy slope, boundary shear stress, and stream power per unit boundary area. The longitudinal variations in these values were studied to understand the distribution of erosion and deposition dominated areas of the channel. One important hydraulic feature of the channel that is apparent is the increase in the hydraulic efficiency with discharge. Because of narrow and incised nature of the channel, flows get deeper and faster as the discharge increases. The increase in discharge and stage is associated with a decline in the width/depth ratio. Consequently, the velocity and the energy per unit area increases (Kale and Hire, 2004). Large flows, therefore, are more effective in terms of sediment transport and channel erosion. This seems particularly applicable to the rocky reach close to gorge-head (Reach-1). Fig. 8 gives the longitudinal variation in the unit stream power for the flood from the dam-failure. The unit stream power values for 2000 m3 s 1 were also computed because this is assumed to be the relatively

Fig. 8. Generated water-surface profiles for different discharges for the bedrock reach near the gorge-head (Reach-1). Inverted triangles represent the scour line carved by the July 1991 dam-failure flood. Unit stream power at 9500 m2 s 1 is shown in the upper part of the figure. After Kale and Gadgil (1997).

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Fig. 9. Water-surface profiles along the gravel dominated reach near Ghuttigarh (Reach-2). Shaded area at the bottom indicates unit steam power at 10 000 m2 s 1. After Kale and Gadgil (1997).

frequent high monsoon flow. At the Dhanora subreach (Fig. 8) the high monsoon flows have unit stream power values in the range of 98 and 1700 W m 2 and along the Ghuttigarh sub-reach (Fig. 9) the values vary between 400 and 1000 W m 2. The longitudinal distribution of the unit stream power values indicate that the boulder berm (Fig. 8) and gravel-bedded sections (Fig. 9) are associated with a decrease in stream power per unit boundary area. In comparison the rock-floored reaches are characterized by relatively higher values of unit stream power. This implies that gravel deposition occurs at all the locations where a decrease occurs in the stream power per unit area of the large flows (Wohl, 1992, 1993). If this inference is applied to the entire study reach, it would suggest that close to the gorge-head (Reach1) the channel geometry and hydraulic conditions do not favour large-scale deposition of gravel and largemagnitude events are capable of boulder transport. Downstream (Reach-2) as the sinuosity and channel size increases and the gradient decreases, however, a decline occurs in the boundary shear stress and unit stream power, and widespread gravel deposition is induced.

6.1. Hydraulic characteristics of the July 1991 flood from dam-failure The Chandora Dam is located about 16 km downstream from the source of the Tapi River. The catchment area up to the dam site is about 71 km2. Intense precipitation from low-pressure systems during a few days was the major cause of high-magnitude floods in the area (Kale et al., 1994). Such was the case in the last week of July 1991. As much as 40% of the annual total rainfall was received in 1 day. The very intense rainfall was followed by breaching of the Chandora Dam (gross storage capacity 18.2 106 m3) and the reservoir was drained in less than an hour (according to eyewitness accounts). In the absence of systematic gauge data or even estimates of flood discharges, watersurface profiles were calculated for a series of discharges ranging from 1000 to 15 000 m3 s 1 by using the HEC-2 stepbackwater program (Hydrologic Engineering Centre, 1982; Kale and Gadgil, 1997). The most reliable evidence of maximum flood-stage along the canyon is a scour line carved in weathered amygdaloidal basalt at Dhanora (Figs. 6A and 8). The hydraulic calcu-

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lations demonstrate that flood discharges between 9000 and 9500 m3 s 1 are required to match the high stage evidence in the form of a scour line near the gorge-head (Figs. 7A and 8). Sensitivity analysis using different Mannings n -values reveals that the scour line is invariably associated with discharges between 9000 and 10 000 m3 s 1 (Kale and Gadgil, 1997). Hydraulic modeling further indicates that during peak flooding, energy slopes ranged between 0.0014 and 0.0057, mean channel velocities varied between 8 and 11 m s 1, and calculated flow depths ranged from 14 to 16 m. During the flood, Froude numbers were in the subcritical domain, ranging between 0.50 and 0.86 (Kale and Gadgil, 1997). Similarly, results of the hydraulic modeling indicate that a peak discharge of ca. 10 000 m3 s 1 is consistent with the high water mark at Ghuttigarh (Fig. 8). The mean velocities in the channel during the flood peak ranged from 4.4 to 6.6 m s 1 and the Froude numbers varied between 0.36 and 0.55. Because of the relatively higher form ratio and lower channel gradient along this sub-reach, the values of mean velocity and Froude number are lower (Kale and Gadgil, 1997). The results indicate that the July 1991 flood was an exceptional geomorphic and hydrologic event. The potential of such a large flood flow to modify the landscape can be evaluated in terms of unit stream power and boundary shear stress, rather than discharge alone (Baker and Costa, 1987). Calculations yielded a maximum stream power per unit area of 13006300 W m 2 for the peak discharge and in some deep bedrock pools the values would have been much higher. Such high power per unit area is sufficient to accomplish a variety of unusual geomorphic and hydraulic phenomena (Baker and Costa, 1987; Wohl et al., 1994). Comparison of the threshold values of coarse sediment transport estimated by using the equations developed by Williams (1983) and the values generated by the step-backwater routine indicates that the peak flow was capable of boulder transport. Interestingly, the record-breaking event did not produce spectacular, dramatic, and widespread geomorphic impacts (Kale and Gadgil, 1997). About 60 km downstream of the dam, the channel experienced little effect from the flood. Morphological characteristics of the pre-flood channel are not known. The present account, there-

fore, is based on the information provided by the local inhabitants of our study area. A checklist of the effects of the flood was prepared and investigations were carried out at 33 cross-sections along the Tapi River between the dam site and Teska (Fig. 1). The summary of the results is presented in Table 3. Limited movement and redistribution of channel boulders and localized channel scour and scabland development (Table 3) implies that the peak flood velocity and depth did not exceed the threshold conditions necessary to cause significant channel modifications. Although evidence exists of damage to human structures (temples/bridges) along the channel, eyewitness accounts reveal that the demolition mainly resulted from hammering by large trees uprooted and washed by the flood. The survey, therefore, suggests that the flood from dam-failure caused less net channel change. Significant channel modifications occur only when the critical competence values are exceeded for a sustained length of time, such that sediment is entrained and the bedrock is eroded (Costa and OConnor, 1995; Wohl, 1998). Systematic records or observations of the duration of the flood in the gorge section are not available to estimate the total energy expended over a flood hydrograph, as suggested by Costa and OConnor (1995). Local inhabitants, when questioned, invariably mentioned that the flood peak passed in less than half-an-hour. It, therefore, appears

Table 3 Summary of geomorphic impacts of the July 1991 flood from a dam-failure based on observations at 33 locations (after Kale and Gadgil, 1997) Geomorphic effects Bank/gorge wall erosion Erosion of SWD/floodplain Channel widening Channel bed erosion Channel deposition Scabland formation Extent/magnitude/remarks Local, not significant Relatively common, but limited Minor, insignificant Insignificant to absent Moderate to high in some areas Local, reported from 1 to 2 areas; scabland formed by removal of top weathered layer Local Local, confined to wide gorge Widespread Relatively widespread Reported from 1 site Observed at many places

Erratic boulders Overbank gravel deposition Sand deposition Bar reorganization Link channels across bends Filling of deep pools

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that the peak flood was characterized by short duration and low total energy expenditure. This in turn implies that the pre-flood bedrock channel morphology of the Tapi River is largely adjusted in three dimensions to geomorphically effective flows that have a much longer return period. Evidently, the July 1991 flood was not a threshold-passing flood for bedrock erosion.

7. Discussion and conclusion All the geomorphic activity is confined to the wet season because of the seasonality of the flows in monsoon areas. Along the Tapi Gorge, monsoon flows that exceed the threshold of boulder transport and bedrock erosion are geomorphically effective. Reconstruction of flood hydraulics implies that bedrock erosion in the resistant columnar basalts is associated with rare, high-magnitude floods that generate large values of total energy and exceed the threshold of bedrock erosion. Even a flood from a dam-failure that occurred in July 1991 could not generate such conditions because the total energy was low. It thus appears that the overall channel morphology of the sinuous bedrock channel of the Tapi River is adjusted to two types of thresholds: a threshold of boulder-transport, which is associated with highmagnitude floods that are competent to entrain boulders but are incapable of bedrock erosion; and another higher threshold of bedrock erosion, which is exceeded by truly high-energy processes that generate large total energy and exceed the threshold of bedrock resistance. While the former threshold is exceeded from time to time, the later threshold is exceeded only episodically, with fairly long periods of no bedrock erosion in between (Kale and Hire, 2004). The incised bedrock channel of the Tapi River is sinuous in planform. The channel reveals all the characteristics of alluvial meandering channels. The outer and the inner bends are characterized, respectively, by scour pools and point bar deposits. The location of bars, pools, and riffles is controlled by the hydraulics of the flows. Most coarse gravel bars are developed at the inside of bends because the power per unit area declines in these locations (Kelsey, 1988; Wohl, 1992; Baker and Kale, 1998). Unlike the alluvial meandering channels, however,

the channel morphology appears to be strongly related to infrequent large-magnitude floods because only large floods are likely to be effective in terms of erosion of the outer banks and transportation of coarse gravel. An interesting aspect that has emerged during the course of the present study is that within the bedrock gorge the present channel is incised into coarse gravel at some places. For instances, a large cobbly bouldery bar has been cut at Ghuttigarh (Fig. 6B), indicating incision of rock to the present channel bed level, followed by infilling of N 10 m of coarse gravel, and subsequent removal. Because stream power is inversely related with channel width (Baker and Costa, 1987), any increase in width associated with lateral erosion (particularly along the concave banks) decreases the specific energy. The river is compelled to incise into its own deposits and decrease the width/depth ratio to maintain its hydraulic efficiency and geomorphic effectiveness at a level required to sustain water and sediment flux (Deodhar and Kale, 1999). The bedrock reach close to gorge-head (Reach-1), with waterfalls (knick points), plunge pools, and large boulder berms, falls in the zone of greatest concentration of energy dissipation (Wohl, 1998). The absence of inner channels and well-developed potholes in this reach, however, is intriguing. The channel is developed in horizontally layered bedrock with differing erosional resistance. Sometimes it flows over more resistant columnar basalts and sometimes over less-resistant vesicularamygdaloidal basalts. According to some workers, under such situations incising streams exhibit waterfalls or steep rapids at the point of greatest incision, rather than inner channels (Wohl, 1993). This explanation seems unlikely in the present case, however, because a well-developed inner channel in columnar basalts exists several kilometers upstream of the gorge-head. The meandering channel planform, the erosion along the outer bends, deposition along the inner bends and armoring of the channel bed by coarse gravel imply that vertical incision is not the primary activity under present hydraulic and gradient conditions. Experimental studies by Shepherd (1972) have demonstrated that sediment deposition at the inside of the bends and erosion along the outer banks is associated with a decrease in channel gradient

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following intense vertical erosion. It appears that the present gradient conditions do not favour channel incision and downcutting. Preservation of early Holocene flood deposits and thick gravel deposits at some places in Reach-2 supports this inference because aggradation is unlikely if vertical erosion and incision is the dominant process. The tendency to meander and increase the sinuosity is a fundamental characteristic of some rivers that are attempting to increase the flow resistance and energy loss of high-magnitude events. The development of a meandering pattern is one way to reduce the energy expenditure of extreme discharges that are competent to erode the channel bed and entrain coarse gravel (Baker and Kale, 1998). The Tapi River provides an interesting example of channel response in a high gradient, bedrock system that is controlled by layered bedrock with differing erosional resistance and is episodically subjected to extreme discharges with large expenditure of total energy. Acknowledgement The results presented in this paper are largely based on studies carried out in connection with a research project undertaken by the author and supported by the Indian Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi. The author acknowledges the support received from Pramod Hire and V.R. Nagarale in the field. The author also thanks Paul Carling, David Bridgland, and John Vitek for their constructive and helpful comments. References
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