JOURNAL OF ENVIRON. SCIENCE &ENGG. VOL.49, No.I,P.

22 - 27, January 2007

Atmospheric Pollution:
A Case Study of Degrading Urban Air Quality over Punjab, India
PARMJIT SINGH SEHRA

This paper presents the results of a case study of urban air quality over a densely
populated city Ludhiana situated in Punjab, India, in the form of monthly and annual
average concentrations of Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), N02 and S02 for the
periods 1988-1989, 1994-1999 and 2001-2005 which is generally found to be increasing
with time and thus requires immediate corrective measures lest the situation becomes
totally uncontrollable. The present situation is as bad as in other metropolitan Indian
cities, although it seems to have somewhat improved as indicated by the latest 2001-
2005 data in comparison with the past 1988-1989 and 1994-1999 data, but much more still
needs to be done. In addition to the industrial and vehicular pollution, the agricultural
pollution due to the burning of wheat and rice straws by the farmers should also be
[
checked because it also creates tremendous pollution in the atmosphere.

Introduction years, an increasing emphasis has been placed on the use of

The city of Ludhiana in Punjab occupies a place of
pride on the industrial map ofIndia and can be rightly called
the home of small scale and household industries, and is
thus popularly known as the "Manchester of India". There
has been a rapid growth of industries in Ludhiana,
especially, after the independence of the country. The
growth has further been enhanced due to various facilities
and incentives provided to the industrial entrepreneurs by
the Government for setting up industry in the industrial
areas and focal points in Ludhiana, Punjab, India. Thus,
most of the industrial activities have been confined to the
developed industrial areas. However, there is also a
mushroom growth ofmajor industries along the G.T. Road
towards Ambala as well as towards Amritsar.
Major sources of air pollution in Ludhiana
Major industrial sources of air pollution in Ludhiana
are (i) textile industry including dyeing, fmishing, and wool
) combing, (ii) miscellaneous industry like food products,
card board mills, steel re-rolling mills, vegetable ghee mills,
and chemical industries, etc., and (iii) arc furnaces, cupola
furnaces, and induction furnaces, etc. Compared to these,
emissions of other industrial sources in Ludhiana are of
lesser importance.
rice husk as an alternate fuel due to its easy availability and
lesser cost.
Since rice husk contains cellulose and resinous
substances, its burning increases smoke content in the air
causing irritation to the eyes and breathing problems.
Particulate matter from the rice husk burning is either ash
or carbonaceous material resulting from incomplete burning.
More than 2000 metric tons of rice husk is burnt every day
by the industry as fuel which results in significant amount
ofunburnt carbon and particulate matter along with gaseous
pollutants which are carried over to the atmosphere with
fuel gases. In addition to the burning of rice husk, air
pollution in the city is also caused by burning of flue coal
and oil, etc.
The total number of industrial units in and around
Ludhiana city has increased from 6918 in 1972 to 79000 in
1993, which has now increased further also. There are about
1585 units, which are highly polluting and fall under the
red category of industries. Out of the total 1585 highly
polluting units, about 1075 are contributing substantially
towards air pollution. Due to rapid urbanisation and
industrialisation in this town, its population has also
increased from 10.411akhs in 1991 to almost double now.

A majority of these industries use steam as the heat
transfer medium. The predominant fuel utilised for the
production of steam is coal, fuel oil and high speed diesel.
Shortage of conventional fuel has generated interest in
utilisation of the agro-residues such as paddy straw, wheat
straw,etc., whichhave a relatively low calorificvalue. In recent
A good fraction of the air pollution in the city
originates from the vehicular traffic and railway operation,
particularly, in the vicinity of the railway station and
locomotive yard. In Ludhiana, some of the roads have not
been metalled and some are damaged due to heavy traffic
load and lack of regular repair. Substantial dust remains in

*DepartmentofAgronomy, AgrometeorologyandForestry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 004, Punjab, India
 A case study of degrading urban air quality over Punjab, India
suspension due to heavy traffic intensity causing poor
visibility, respiratory problems and eye irritation in addition
to general nuisance.
There has been a rapid increasein the number of vehicles
in the city overthe past few years. In Ludhiana, there are about
5.5lakh vehiclesincludingthree-wheelers,scooters,cars,motor
cycles, trucks, and buses, etc. Scooters and motor cycles are
the major transport source in the city. These along with three-
wheelers are the major contributors of carbon monoxide (CO)
and hydro-carbons (HC) pollution in Ludhiana. The diesel
powered heavy vehicles add to the air pollution problem by
emittingoutjet black smoke.The problem is furtheraggravated
whensomevehiclesuse adulteratedpetrol mixed withkerosene
oil. The emissions from such vehicles are very high in
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) such as carbon and soot
particles resulting in smoke, and noise pollution.
Dispenion conditions in Ludhiana
The concentration of air pollutants and their impact on
human health,-plants, and materials not only depends on the
emissions but also on the way the air pollutants after their
emissioninto theatmosphereare dispersedand finallyremoved.
This period is called the transmission period for which the
'. main climatological factors of importance include wind direction,
wind speed, and atmospheric stability. It is thus possible to
discuss in a qualitative way three significantly different periods,
such as the monsoon period (July to September), the summer
period (April to June), and the winter period (October to March),
which include the equinoctial periods also.
During the monsoon period, most factors of influence
result in low concentration of pollutants. While the wind
speed is moderate, other factors like high rainfall and
washout, etc., lead to decrease of pollutants. The summer
period is characterised by high solar radiation, high wind
erosion, moderate stability and almost zero precipitation
without any washout. There is thus high SPM since wind
erosions due to high wind speed and minimal vegetation
cover and also burning of agricultural residues lead to high
SPM background concentration. On the other hand,
expected concentration of pollution during the winter period
is in the medium range, although high concentration of the
SPM during October and November gives an indication
that burning of the agricultural residues after the monsoon
harvest might have a substantial impact on air quality.
Methodology of air pollution monitoring
The entire area ofLudhiana city has been studied on
the basis of land use pattern and micrometeorological
conditions. The land use pattern, wind conditions and also
the WHO criteria that the monitoring stations should
represent background, residential, commercial and
industrial areas have been kept in mind while selecting the
locations of monitoring stations. Thus, three stations were
set up at the following locations: (1) Milk Plant representing
the background concentration of the pollutants, (2) Rita
Sewing Machine representing highly industrialised area of
the city, and (3) PPCB Office Building! Vishavkarma Chowk
in Industrial Area-B of the city.
SPM in the ambient atmosphere in the size range of
0.1 to 100 microns (mm) were collected on 8" x 10" glass
micro fibre sheets by means of high volume air samples
and estimated gravimetrically. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO.) were
determined by bubbling the ambient air samples through
a solution of sodium arsenite and sodium hydroxide, and then
determined spectrophotometrically. Analysis of all
the pollutants such as the SPM, NO., and S02' etc., was
conducted as per I the prescribed standard methods
(Anonymous, 1992).
Regular monitoring was started at all the stations in
June 1988 with the Punjab Pollution Control Board (PPCB)
Office Building presently located in industrial area-B of the
city having recorded its regular observations there
subsequently. Monitoring was done at all the stations thrice
a week. SPM was monitored for 24 hours with 8 hours
averaging, whereas N02 and S02 were monitored for 24 hours
with 4 hours averaging.
The SPM, N02 and S02 data for the above mentioned
stations has been analysed for 3 time periods, namely, (i)
March 1988-December 1989, (ii) 1994-1999 as discussed by
Sehra (2001),2 and (iii) 2001-2005. In these observations,
the f11"sttime period, however, does not include the S02
monitoring. For the second time period, data is presented
in the form of annual averages, but the latest third time
period includes both the monthly as well as annual average
concentrations of these parameters.
Results and discussion
The results of this investigation are presented in
Table 1 and Table 2. The. seasonal influence of varying
weather conditions on the SPM, NO. and S02
concentrations is well pronounced with their annual cycles
showing two maxima and two minima. The first maximum
occurs during the pre-monsoon summer months of April-
June. This maximum coincides with strong surface winds
and a generally dry atmosphere which increases natural
wind erosion. The following monsoon minimum is well
developed and caused by factors such as increased vertical
dispersion, washout by monsoon rains and suppressed
wind erosion. This minimum is followed by a maximum
during the months of October and Nevember possibly due
 PamJjit Singh Sebra

Table 1: Atmualaverage concentrations ofSPM, NOz and SOz

All values in Ilglm3
Year 1988 1989 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Standard values
Annual 24bomty
average IM!'IIge
SPM
Site-I 'lA7 313 213 260 251 368 314 321 143 160 196 181 214 70 100
Site-2 566 525 450 495 436 413 588 526 234 229 289 2S4 266 360 SOO
Site-3 490 509 471 263 336 425 548 537 203 278 22S 331 233 360 SOO

NOz
Site-I 26 21 51 48 43 42 46 40 30 30 31 33 34 15 30
Site-2 33 29 SO SO 45 45 41 40 31 33 36 38 37 00 120
Site-3 Z2 34 51 SO 44 45 42 40 31 33 40 ro 44 00 120
SOz
Site-1 - - 21 15 18 22 21 11 11 10 16 15 30
Site-2 - - 21 16 17 21 11 12 12 21 21 00 120
Site-3 - - 21 19 16 21 11 12 12 24 22 00 120

- - -
Site I VerkaMilk Plant, Site2 Rita Sewing Machine, Site 3 PPCB Pffice BuildinglVishavkarmaChowk in Ludhiana,Punjab during 1988-
89,1994-99 and 2001-2005. Standard values of the SPM, NOz' and SOzgiven in the last colunms are derived from the annual arithmetic mean
of minimum 104measurementsin a yeartaken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals.Minimum and maximum values for the period 1988-
2005 are underlined.

to the burning of agricultural residues after the monsoon
harvest. It is difficult to relate the following secondary
rninimllm during the winter months January-March to the
prevailing atmospheric conditions. Quite interestingly,
the background station at the Verka Milk Plant shows the
most pronounced seasonal variation of the pollutants
concentrations. This is possible because industrial
emissions usually show no seasonal variations. The
seasonal variations of NOz and SOz are less pronounced
but are recognizable, in particular, its monsoon minimum
and two pre/post monsoon maxima.
It is clear from Table 2, which gives the monthly
average values of SPM, NOz and SOz for the period from
2001 to 2005, that the minimum values of SPM at the sites
1, 2 and 3 in 2001 were 76, 103 and 1411lg/m3in the months
of July and September during the monsoon season due to
the washout of the pollutants by the monsoon rains. This
trend of minimum SPM during the monsoon period
generally continued for 2002, 2003, .2004 and 2005 also with
small variations at some sites due to variations in the
monsoon rains.
The maximum values of the SPM at three different
sites 1, 2 and 3 in 2001 were found to be 177, 341 and 289
llg/m3in December, September and July. These were 296,
339 and 352 llg/m3 in the months of December, April and
December (all in 2005), respectively, at site 1, 2 and 3, due to
wheat and paddy straw burning by the farmers in their fields
after rabi and kharif crops harvesting in the months of April
and September/October. This trend was noticed in the other
years also with small variations depending upon the natural
meteorological conditions.
Further, the data is interpreted in the form of general
patterns, such as comparison of mean values, the general
influence of wind direction which transports the various
pollutants to the sampling site, and the seasonal variations
where the influence of varying weather conditions can
be easily observed. From a general overview of the
statistically relevant values of SPM of the present
investigation, it is found that the SPM values at the Verka
Milk Plant station are significantly lower than those of the
other stations. The difference "between this station and the
other stations representing industrial areas such as the Rita
Sewing Machine is remarkable in their SPM values, although
a greater data collection is further required for establishing
these fmdings on a flfm footing.
By setting the SPM average concentration at the Verka
Milk Plant (background station) as 100%, relative SPM
values at the Rita Sewing Machine (industrial area) was
 A ease study of degrading urban air quality over Punjab, India

Table 2 : Monthly average values of the ambient air quality data ofSPM, NOz and SOz for the period 2001 to 2005 at three sites

y . Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug . Sept Oct Nov Dee
-
Site 1 SPM 128 115 136 172 176 125 76 124 160 171 152 177
NOx 30 31 28 31 31 31 31 31 Zl 32 30 31
S02 11 11 10 12 12 10 12 12 11 10 12 12
-
Site 2 SPM ZlO 242 219 236 244 155 103 249 341 324 231 197
D»1 NOx 31 31 '29 31 31 31 31 32 30 34 33 31
S01 11 11 10 12 12 10 11 12 10 11 13 13
-
Site 3 SPM 217 228 187 232 231 228 289 2JJ7 141 150 163 159
NOx 31 31 '29 31 31 31 31 32 31 36 32 31
S02 13 11 11 12 12 10 11 12 10 11 13 12
-
Site 1 SPM 113 128 149 206 20S 20S 192 % 84 158 164 222
NOx 32 32 31 31 32 '29 31 ZI 25 '29 33 31
S02 13 13 12 12 12 13 11 9 8 9 11 11
Site- 2 .SPM 180 168 190 273 .26S 209 267 163 171 212 310 344
D)Z NOx 32 .32 31 32 32 31 31 33 33 35 J7 35
SO, 13 14 12 12 13 13 11 11 11 11 12 13
Site- 3 SPM 298 325 286 315 248 Zl6 290 240 ZlI 2'29 420 134
NOx 32 32 31 32 32 32 34 34 33 39 39 30
S02 13 13 12 12 12 13 11 11 10 12 15 12
-
Site 1 SPM 228 187 182 224 206 234 121 132 136 199 249 2S7
NOx '29 '29 30 30 31 34 28 24 Zl 36 38 41
S02 10 9 11 9 10 11 9 11 13 11 10 12
-
Site 2 SPM 247 218 243 244 394 360 286 325 Zl9 334 302 235
D)3 NOx 31 34 32 33 35 39 39 '29 ZI 42 42 46
S02 12 12 11 11 11 12 9 12 13 12 13 14
Site- 3 SPM 128 145 163 170 20S 204 - Zll 321 268 306 292
30 .35 32 32 43 42 - Zl 44 SO 49 56
NOx
11 11 11 10 9. 10 - '13 14 13 16 18
.S02
Site- 1 SPM 169 119 148 202 195 192 160 217 246 192 217 189
NOx 44 36 30 30 '29 33 31 '29 30 36 34 30
SOz 13 13 16 15 15 12 15 16 17 16 22 18
Site- 2 SPM Zl2 193 192 184 223 212 357 261 m 263 344 Zl2
3XM NOx 55 41 J7 39 34 32 39 34 34 38 41 36
SO, 22 19 18 16 14 16 23 26 31 23
-
Site 3 SPM ZlI 280 319 395 292 282 315 249 303 489 5(J7 ZlO
NOx OJ 79 75 6'2 56 57 ifl 54 55 58 61 51
S02 25 28 '29 26 19 14 21 23 28 31 ZI
contd...
 P~it SinghSehra
contd...Table 2

Year Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dee
-
Site 1 SPM 163 159 155 281 219 zn 185 145 167 m 295 296
NOx 26 28 31 33 31 32 31 32 36 46 37
S02 14 15 19 19 18 10 10 10 21 26 26 21
-
Site 2 SPM 219 230 195 339 Z79 300 264 230 217 274 320 330
2005 NOx 33 33 39 36 35 37 40 33 42 43 47 36
802 19 17 10 24 10 10 10 21 23 13 26 21
-
Site 3 SPM 166 122 154 213 320 313 235 199 185 213 341 352
NOx 35 32 49 52 48 41 42 48 47 46 39
802 14 18 22 21 22 21 10 23 24 26 26 22
-
Site I : Verka Plant (Outskirts of the city),
-
Site 2 ; Rita Sewing Machine (Industrial area), and
-
Site 3 : Office Building / Vishavkarma Chowk (Industrial and residential area)
Minimum and Maximum values of the SPM are underlined in this Table
Source;- P.P.C.B.

found to be 200%. Since the Verka Milk Plant station is
located in the south-western (SW) outer fringe ofLudhiana,
it is not directly affected by industrial and commercial
residual emissions as the main wind direction is north-west
(NW) and south-east (SE), this result seems quite plausible.
This station is thus mainly influenced by the background
concentration of the SPM. The influence of industrial dust
emission can be seen through the higher values of the SPM
in the industrial area. The average N02 concentrations at
all the stations do not differ significantly. It seems that
emission, dispersion, and chemical reaction pattern of this
air pollutant, i.e., (N02) needs further studies to understand
it completely. In particular, more rural background stations
which are uninfluenced by urban emissions are needed. It
also seems that the stations are more influenced by
emissions in their vicinity itself.
Conelusions
The results of monitoring of air quality in Ludhiana
during the period 1988-1989, and those of the annual
averages of three pollutants concentrations during the
periods 1994-1999 and 2001-2005 including their monthly
averages for 2001-2005 have been analysed, which show
that the present situation is far from satisfactory.
The minimum and maximum values of the SPM at site-
1 in the outskirts of the city were found 143 and 363 Ilg/m3
in 2001 and 1997, respectively, while their values in the
Industrial area at site 2 and 3 were found 229 and 588 J1g/m3
in 2002 and 1998, and 203 and 548 J1g/m3in 2001 and 1998,
respectively, indicating somewhat improvement in the
situation through the role played by the 'PPCB' and public
awareness.
Although the latest data for the period 2001 2005 -
shows soml: improvement in air quality as compared with
the past periods 1988-1989 and 1994-1999, but still much
more needs to be done.
The analysis of the past and latest data also shows
that besides the industrial and vehicular pollution, there is
tremendous agricultural pollution also due to the burning
of wheat and rice straws by the farmers in their fields after
harvesting of their rabi (wheat) and kharif (rice) crops in
April and September/October months, which also need to
be checked by all means for better air quality and healthy
living.
Farmers are resorting to wheat stubble and rice straw
burning after harvesting their wheat and rice crops in April
and September/October. They think that fire is the most
economical and easiest way to clear their fields for further
sowing.But they are ignorant of the fact that fire in their fields
kills friendly pests and bacteria that increases the fertility of
soil. It also brings about adverse environmental changes. The
SPM left in the air due to fire are also considered to be one of
the reasons for dense fog/smog that engulfs the region in
winters.
Besides, the SPM generated due to fire can cause
respiratory and other health problems for the people. The
farmers themselves are worst affected as they come in direct
contactwiththe ill-effectsoffield fires.It is,therefore,absolutely
necessary to spread its awareness in the farmers so that they
 A case study of degrading urban air quality over Punjab, India
can stop burning wheat stubble and rice straw, and use it for
making manurefor their fields.
The dependence on the relevant factors of influence
is absolutely necessary. Monitoring of the prevailing air
pollution bas thus to be intensified by adding more stations
and expanding to other components, particularly, carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC), etc. Knowledge of
the chemical composition of the Suspended Particulate
Matter is necessary to assess its possible health impacts.
Air quality modelling by use of a dispersion model based
on an emission inventory would be a vital prerequisite to
optimise a sound monitoring programme for understanding
the cycle of relevant air pollutants in a better way and to
plan necessary measures to control air pollution in
Ludhiana.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the Punjab Pollution Control
Board (PPCB), VatavaranBhawan, NabhaRoad, Patiala-147
00 I, Punjab, India, for providing all the required information
for the present study.
ReferenceS
1. Anonymous, A Report on Status of Ambient Air
Quality of Ludhiana City, SAAQRlPPCB/1I1992,
Punjab Pollution Control Board (PPCB), Patiala -
147001, Punjab, India (1992).
2. Sebra,P.S.,HazardousPollutionProblemoverLudbiana,
Punjab, India. Third International Conferenceon UrbJn
Air Quality and Fifth Saturn Workshop, Measurement,
Modelling and Management 19-23 March 2001, The
Poseidon Hotel Resort, Loutraki, Greece. Organized by
the Environmental Physics Group of the Institute of
Physics, London, the Environmental Research
Laboratory INTRP, NCSR "Demokritos", and the
University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield ALl09AB in
collaboration with SATURN, TRAPOS and C()ST71S,
U.K, Supported by AWMA, IUAPPA and EURASAP.
Paper No. UAP.Pl.18, Extended Abstracts CD-ROM,
Institute of Physics, 76 Portland Place, London WIN
3DH,UK.