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Psychology of Music
DOI: 10.1177/0305735605050651
2005; 33; 193 Psychology of Music
David Collins
A synthesis process model of creative thinking in music composition
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A synthesis process model of
creative thinking in music
composition
193 ARTI CL E
Psychology of Music
Psychology of Music
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Society for Education, Music
and Psychology Research
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DAVI D COL L I NS
DONCAS TE R COL L E GE , UK
ABS TRACT A three-year single case study of a composer was undertaken in
order to track the compositional process in real time. A combination of data
collection techniques was used to attempt to map cognitive processes: digital
MIDI save-as files, analogue audio files, semi-structured interviews, immediately
retrospective verbal accounts and verification sessions between composer and
researcher. Findings indicated a chunking of processes and strategies at micro
and macro levels. A hypothetical model is presented which points to a generative
process of problem proliferation and successive solution implementation,
occurring not only in a linear manner but also recursively. Moments of creative
insight were observed which related to Gestalt theory problem restructuring;
some were seen to overlap in real time with others, indicating an element of
parallelism in creative thinking. A synthesis of differing creative process theories
is suggested to explain the compositional process observed in the study.
KE YWORDS : cognition, creative process
Introduction
Several authors have suggested theoretical or hypothetical models to describe
the compositional process by building upon general theories of creative
behaviour and autobiographical descriptions of the creative process
(Aranosian, 1981; Emmerson, 1989; Laske, 1989; Roozendaal, 1993; Baroni,
1999). Webster (1987, 1989, 2002) has attempted to provide a comprehen-
sive conceptual model for creative thinking in music, which encompasses
composition, performance and analysis within the interplay of divergent and
convergent thinking.
A literature model, or organizational scheme, outlined by the same author
(Webster, 1992) draws a clear distinction between those studies which have
focused mainly upon an assessment of musical product and those concerned
sempre :
with the musical process, which is the primary concern of this study.
Whereas product-based studies (not including innumerable post-hoc analy-
ses of compositions in all genres and styles) regard musical characteristics of
the piece as the primary identifier of cognitive processes (e.g. Doig, 1941;
Loane, 1984; Kratus,1985; Swanwick and Tillman, 1986; Bunting, 1987;
Van Ernst, 1993; Kennedy, 1999), process-based studies focus upon observ-
able behaviours or reported thought processes during the creative act
(Webster, 1992: 70). Some studies have related the process of musical com-
position to Wallass stage theory of creative thinking (Wallas, 1926) (for
example, Bennett, 1976; Kratus, 1989; Burnard and Younker, 2002), but the
overall picture is one which describes or tracks only linear, macro-level plan-
ning and implementation, or general routes and working strategies which
could be used by composers.
Adopting the stance that creative thinking is a form of problem-solving
activity (Gilhooly, 1996), and that a single model of creative behaviour may
well be inadequate to describe the complexity of the creative act (see
Mumford, 2003), the study outlined in this article attempts to illustrate a
finer-grained tracking of the compositional process in real time and broaden
out and relate any findings not only to Wallass stage theory, but to three
other process theories of creative thinking.
GENERAL THEORIES OF CREATIVE PROCESS
Stage theory
The most commonly cited stage theory is that developed by Wallas (1926)
who, on the evidence of biographical and autobiographical accounts, postu-
lated the existence of four stages within creative activity: preparation, incu-
bation, illumination and verification. Preparation describes the period when
the initial problem is assessed and the person becomes familiar with the
musical materials they are working with. Incubation represents time away
from the problem when conscious work is set to one side. This period may
include passive forgetting of superficial details or previous attempts of the
problem, and/or associative play between problem elements (Lubart, 1994).
Illumination is the so-called flash of insight within problem-solving behav-
iour which is often preceded by some form of intimation that a solution to the
problem is imminent. The production of new ideas requires a process of
refinement, development and evaluation which Wallas terms verification
and this itself may lead back to the preparation or incubation stages. Burnard
and Younker (2002) explicate such a model more fully in musical terms in
their study of compositional process.
Gestalt theory
The idea of dividing creative thought into discrete stages is alien to the
Gestalt school (Duncker, 1945; Wertheimer, 1945); creative problem solving
is a process where individual sub-elements have to be gathered into a whole
194 Psychology of Music 33(2)
structure. The emphasis is upon organization, where in the composition of a
piece of music, for example, the constituent parts of the emerging product fit
together. Restructuring or the flash of illumination occurs when the problem
solver/creator may see an unexpected solution to the problem. Schoon
(1992) points out that:
Restructuring a given situation changes the structural relations of the entire
situation and leads to a better understanding and to a new and more penetrat-
ing perspective. Restructuring events lead to the integration of experiences
which have not been connected before, the underlying structure of a given
situation is fully grasped, and insight occurs. (p. 19)
Emerging systems theory
The Gestalt psychologists flash of insight and the stage theorists moment
of illumination are translated, in emerging systems theory (Gruber, 1980),
into the many moments of insight that occur in the course of creative effort
(Gruber and Davis, 1988: 244). The emerging systems approach to the
phenomenon of creative thinking recognizes the manner in which generative
ideas evolve over significant periods of time, often with a proliferation of
goals, sub-goals, incorrect pathways and false starts (Gilhooly, 1996). Gruber
and Davis (1988) place the methodological emphasis upon the case study,
with the need to understand creative activity within naturalistic contexts and
meaningful timeframes.
Information processing theory
By examining the action protocols of human subjects involved in problem-
solving tasks chess, mathematical problems etc. information processing
theory aims to encapsulate these processes in workable, testable computer
simulation programs (Newell et al., 1962; Newell and Simon, 1972; Boden,
1994). As Gilhooly points out, thinking is regarded by information process-
ing theory as a hierarchical organization of elementary processes carried
out one at a time (Gilhooly, 1996: 238). Trial-and-error search through a
variety of possibilities occurs in the so-called problem-space (Newell and
Simon, 1972). In a problem-space, the problem-solver moves from the initial
state of the problem to its goal state controlled by the structure of a particu-
lar rule system; in music composition this requires tacit acknowledgement by
the composer of a musical generative grammar (Baroni, 1999).
For information processing theorists, creativity is regarded as a form of
problem solving characterized by (1) the ill-defined nature of the problem;
and (2) the notion of novelty or newness (Johnson-Laird, 1988, 1993)
RELATED EMPIRICAL STUDIES
Twenty years ago, Sloboda (1985) pointed out the imbalance which existed
between the number of studies in music perception and those in the field of
musical creativity exemplified in composition process. A decade later, the
Collins: A synthesis process model of creative thinking in composition 195
same author indicated that the situation had undergone little change, with
several thousand empirical studies on music perception, but still fewer than
ten serious direct studies of the compositional process, involving in total,
fewer than twenty composers (Sloboda, 1995: 3).
The earliest serious study of compositional process by Reitman (1965)
included an intriguing single case study of a professional composer, with the
primary aim of establishing whether or not it would provide adequate material
for computer modelling. In information processing theory the composition of
a piece of music is classified as an ill-defined problem, and, in this instance,
the ill-defined problem constituted the composition of a fugue by the partici-
pant. Reitmans single case study stands as a key work in the empirical litera-
ture, with its in-depth implementation and analysis of a verbal protocol
delivered by a real composer writing a real piece of music. He postulates
several transformational characteristics used by a composer: (1) constraint
proliferation, where as the problem-solving embedded within the compositional
activity progresses, the increasing number of problem components thrown
up become more critical as a source of constraints; (2) attribute discontinuity,
where in the problem-solving process the composer ignores or suspends
attention to particular attributes (i.e. musical parameters such as rhythm or
dynamics) in order to deal with an aspect of the problem-solving; and (3) con-
nected alternates, where the composer defers plans or actions until suitable
conditions arise for their implementation. Reitman also highlights the
recursive nature of creative thinking involved in musical composition.
Ten years later Bamberger (1977), working with eight musically
untrained students, aimed to discover the strategies involved in composing a
melody. Using a methodological top-down approach, students were given the
opportunity to arrange and rearrange pre-composed tune-blocks embedded
in a computer program; these consisted of musical motifs, or small melodic
phrases consisting of between three to six notes. This was a highly innovative
approach to data-generation and storage and paved the way for later computer-
based studies. As with Reitmans composer, the participants in Bambergers
study made comments as they worked, which became embedded within the
growing musical structure and final protocol. An evaluation of the strategies
involved included the search for continuity, goals, structuring parts into
wholes: grappling with crucial questions involving the interaction between
local and global structure, between detail and larger design (1977: 301).
Davidson and Welsh (1988) applied more experimental procedures in
their study of compositional procedures, and in a similar fashion, asked both
novice and expert participants to speak aloud while they worked on a task of
writing a modulating melody. The authors noted that while novices generally
worked on a note-by-note basis, the experts were able to chunk information
into larger units, hold the focus of attention on the task in hand, but be able
to look both forwards and backwards into the music at the same time.
Davidson and Welshs work provided a point of departure for Younker and
Smiths empirical study of the composition process (1996) with novices and
experts. Differing levels of working strategy were observed: novices con-
sidered only local features or isolated, individual sound events. Those
working at a higher level reflected a Gestalt-like approach where they demon-
strated the ability to consider moments of the task from the perspective of
the structured whole (p. 274).
Younker and Smith (1996) recognized the methodological difficulty of
managing vast amounts of transcribed verbal, music notation and sonic data
in process-based studies (p. 34).
Colley et al.s (1992) study of compositional processes involving four-part
harmony also used a verbal protocol data collection methodology. Three
music novices and one music expert were asked to complete seven bars of a
Bach chorale with a given soprano line, within a time constraint of one hour.
A tape-recorder and microphone were used to collect the participants verbal
data. While experts approached the task considering general strategic factors,
novices took less of an overview and approached the task on a bar-by-bar
basis.
By highlighting music composition as a dynamic time-related process,
Kratus (1989, 1994) suggested that in the analysis of compositional activity,
researchers should trace changes in the process over time and, in two studies,
implemented computer-based data collection techniques in order to track
such changes. Computer-based data collection techniques were also used in
Scripp et al.s study (1988). In comparison with some of the previously
described approaches to studying the compositional process, their study gave
participants a greater deal of freedom in completing tasks. Smith and Smith
(1994) aimed to address the problem of data overload from the Younker and
Smith (1996) study and postulated a computer-based multimedia platform to
examine research efforts in creative problem solving and teaching and learn-
ing in music composition. By using the HyperCard environment of the Apple
computer, the various forms of data would be displayed: text protocol, digit-
ized speech from the protocol, digitized music from the unfolding composi-
tion, digitized playing, singing or humming. The computer was also used by
Wilson and Wales (1995) in their product-based study, to assess the ways in
which children represent melody and rhythm. Building upon previous work
which explored the relationships between graphical, figural representation of
sounds and cognitive processes (see Bamberger, 1982; Davidson and Scripp,
1988; Scripp et al., 1988), the authors hoped that the interactive nature of
the computer would allow untrained participants access into music composi-
tion, notation and performance/playback.
More recently, Folkestads longitudinal study of young peoples musical
compositions (Folkestad, 1996; also Folkestad et al., 1997) used more sophis-
ticated computer-based data collection techniques and is of particular sig-
nificance here. A similar dynamic or time-based approach to Kratus was
adopted, but as participants created their music at the computer workstation,
MIDI files were continuously collected using the save-as command. This
novel approach allowed a more accurate degree of mapping compositional
processes, as each save-as could be accompanied by a date and time stamp
within the file, rather than erasing previous work. Folkestad suggested two
fundamental styles of composition: horizontal, where melody, harmony and
structure are composed in one activity from beginning to end, and smaller-
scale editing procedures such as instrumentation deployed afterwards, and
vertical, where the composer works in small chunks, completing them
before moving on to the next section.
Burnard and Younkers study (2002) aimed to track compositional strate-
gies, which they define as significant decision-making moments for the over-
all composition (p. 248) with individual students from varied backgrounds.
The authors adopt Websters model of creative thinking in music (Webster,
1987), which lays emphasis upon the interplay between divergent and con-
vergent thinking, and suggest that compositional strategies may well accord
with Wallass stage theory model (Wallas, 1926). In order to carry out this
mapping, multiple sources of data were derived from verbal reports in the
form of think alouds while composing, interviews, observation, students
written reports as well as the examination of musical products. These
products were captured using a MIDI keyboard and Apple computer. Not
only did the authors claim to observe both linearity and recursivity within the
stage model, but also eureka moments of illumination when, for example, a
student might grasp a holistic understanding of the, as yet incomplete, piece.
A further open-ended compositional process study set within a one-week
timeframe by Seddon and ONeill (2003) also employed computer-based data
collection techniques, in this case to track compositional strategies used by
adolescents with or without formal instrumental tuition. MIDI save-as files
were collected at the end of each composition session, rather than in an
ongoing manner, as well as videotape to track phases in the compositional
process: the exploratory, rehearsal and construction phases. As in previous
studies, students were observed to move in both linear and recursive fashion
between these phases.
In order to contextualize this present study some issues surrounding the
above empirical studies of the compositional process require highlighting:
1. Very little of the empirical data outlined above has been obtained in a
real-world, naturalistic setting; the so-called scientific objectivity
claimed by researchers may well be flavoured by the experimental psy-
chology paradigm (see Persson and Robson, 1995). Thus, many of the
studies, for example, ask participants to behave creatively within precise
time constraints (Kratus, 1989), within pre-set rhythmical frameworks
(Younker and Smith, 1996), in examination-type environments
(Davidson and Welsh, 1988), or within styles or genres of composing
which are foreign to them (Colley et al., 1992).
2. Only a few of the studies observe other than monophonic composition,
(e.g. Bamberger, 1977, 1978, 1991; Bamberger and Schon, 1977; Flohr,
1985; Swanwick and Tillman, 1986; Conant, 1988; Davidson and
Welsh, 1988; Scripp et al., 1988; Kratus, 1989, 1994; Moore, 1989;
Wilson and Wales, 1995; Younker and Smith, 1996).
3. The use of computer-based data collection techniques in what are now
termed time-based studies (often allied to verbal protocol methodology)
has become increasingly common. However, this has mapped composi-
tional process at what one may term a macro level. Kratus (1989)
describes the compositional strategies of exploration, development and
repetition. Folkestad (1996) highlights vertical and horizontal modes
of compositional process and Burnard and Younker (2002) map path-
ways across Wallass four stages. The finer-grained tracking of musical
process over time is not evident in the literature.
4. Only one study (Reitman, 1965) attempts to track larger-scale creative
thinking processes exemplified in musical composition over a significant
period of time
5. The aim of observing and tracking imaginative creative behaviour may
well be limited by the type and quality of sounds available to participants,
which has often been basic for example, the use of handbells or cheap
electronic keyboards.
Within the broad aim of the study to map the creative process of musical
composition at a closer level, a computer-based methodology was implemented
which would hopefully (1) enable the researcher to withdraw from the
participants space allowing a naturalistic, constraint-free setting in which
creative work could take place; (2) allow the time-based mapping of composi-
tional processes over substantial periods of time utilizing accurate computer-
generated translation to conventional notation; (3) provide opportunities for
utilization of a more varied and higher quality palette of sounds; (4) not limit
the tracking of the composition process to the single parameter of melody;
(5) utilize data which could track the compositional process at both a micro
and macro level which, in turn, could be informed by theoretical/conceptual
models of the creative process outlined earlier.
Correspondingly, data was collected in the form of analogue audio files,
MIDI files, semi-structured interviews, immediately retrospective verbal
accounts and verification sessions between composer and researcher.
Method
PARTICIPANT
For this three-year study a professional composer was purposively selected.
With a large-scale verbal protocol analysis being a major component of
the methodology, it was important that not only was he articulate, but
enthusiastic about being involved in the study and understood the demands
upon his time that such a study might imply. The participant was regularly
involved in writing music to commission (e.g. video soundtracks, music for
radio and TV, computer game music). His preferred mode of writing music
was via a home computer-based system, and therefore the data collection
methods were not an artificial or unnatural intrusion.
APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE
The composer was asked to compose freely without any prescribed limitations
as to length of piece, genre, instrumentation, etc. The music would also act as
a showreel for a potential computer game soundtrack. Compositional hard-
ware consisted of a PC (80 Mb RAM, 233 MHz) with sound generated by a
Roland JV-1080, Roland MSE-1 strings module, Proteus sound module and
Akai S3000 sampler routed through a Yamaha O2R mixing desk. A Roland
A-30 6 octave controller keyboard was linked to this setup.
Data in the form of digital and analogue sound, speech and graphical and
music notation, were collected using the following methods.
MIDI save-as files
Following the procedure adopted by Folkestad (1996), the participant was
asked to make a computer file save-as when he felt that some new or signifi-
cant change had occurred (i.e. when a thematic motif had been extended, a
different mode of harmonization had been used, a significant change in
instrumentation had occurred, etc.). The particular software chosen for this
MIDI save-as protocol was a commercial package, E-magic Logic Audio v.3.6
(from Apple) which allows music data (MIDI) to be stored and edited using a
variety of screen windows: arrange, score, list, matrix and so forth. The
arrange window, where all MIDI information is recorded onto tracks, is dis-
played as horizontal bars. Due to the inevitable increasing complexity of the
window as the composition progresses, the participant used folders to act as
an arranging object containing individual tracks, similar to files in word
processing software which contain individual documents. As the composer
works on the composition, differing sections which may contain a large
number of tracks and instruments are packed into separate folders, which
allows a global or macro, view of the unfolding composition. Correspond-
ingly, a folder can be unpacked or dismantled into its constituent objects
which, for the purposes of this study, are viewed in conventional score
notation.
Verbal protocols
Protocol analysis techniques developed by Ericsson and Simon (1980) have
been used in a variety of qualitative research fields, particularly in writing
research (e.g. Hayes and Flower, 1983; Smagorinsky, 1994; Witte and
Cherry, 1994). For Ericsson and Simon (1984), the most reliable verbal
reports on cognitive processes are concurrent, and most studies using this
technique have involved participants in relatively low cognitive-load problem-
solving activities. In this particular study, which involved a high degree of
physical manipulation that could interfere with concurrent reporting (i.e.
manipulation of music and QWERTY keyboard, mouse and pointer, opera-
tion of mixing desk and outboard processors and sound generating devices),
immediate retrospective reporting was employed. Perkins (1981) has indicated
that investigators report this as a finer-grained improvement over thinking-
aloud, one designed to collect a more detailed account of the last minute or
so of thinking (p. 36). Thus, the participant was requested to carry out retro-
spective reporting immediately following a period of compositional activity.
In order to make clear, unambiguous verbal reports during the working
period, with as little distraction from the task as possible, a microphone was
linked to a cassette recorder through the mixing desk. This arrangement
allowed the participant not only to record his own voice, but also to easily
record and intersperse musical examples as he progressed through the work;
it acted as an effective audio enhancement of the verbal protocol, and
clarified any ambiguously transcribed text.
Interviews and verification sessions
Semi-structured interviews were carried out with the composer in order to
verify the emerging data from the structural mapping (described later) and
the verbal protocols. These interviews were carried out prior to the composi-
tion period and once the composition had been completed. Verification
sessions (a regular two-way discussion during the course of the composition)
was a strategy used to inform issues arising over the period of composing; this
included the relating of MIDI data files with the correct section of the verbal
protocol, and explaining vague or inconclusive comments in the protocol.
DATA ANALYSIS
In this study data was presented in the following ways:
music data (in the form of MIDI files, audio and notation);
graphical representation of the ongoing work derived from computer
screenshots; and
text (acquired through a verbal protocol, interviews, and verification
sessions).
Through long-term engagement with this data, three major components
emerged:
real-time mapping;
thematic mapping;
structural mapping.
Real-time mapping
The aim of real-time mapping was to present and collate the MIDI save-as
files which had been collected over the period of the composition, with
elements of the verbal protocol, specifically in terms of statements by the
composer relating to reflection and planning. In essence, this represents a
diary of sound and verbal data. This data was also cross-correlated with
extracts from the interviews.
Thematic mapping
Once the verbal protocol had been transcribed, it was read and re-read in
order to identify broad categories. Following Erlandsons suggestions on
emergent category designation (Erlandson et al., 1993), this was also applied
to the initial and final interviews. In order to allow new categories to emerge
and old categories to dissipate as empty sets, further reading and coding was
carried out, until the following resultant categories were elicited, which
directed the final textual analysis:
perspectives (by the composer of elements and sub-elements of the com-
position)
approaches (to composing, in general and in particular)
processes/strategies (at a micro level e.g. dynamics, instrumentation,
pitch)
processes/strategies (at a macro level e.g. placement of themes,
sections)
During the constant reading and re-reading of the texts, certain keywords
emerged from the data (such as evolve, add, mood). These occurrences
were then subject to codification in terms of meaning and content. Finally,
data from the verification sessions was used to enhance or clarify meanings
in the text, where needed.
Structural mapping
This acted as a graphically presented overview of events. Through interac-
tion with the emerging data it became evident that the element which
became elevated to a feature was the process of musical structuring. This is
a global view; the individual building blocks of the composition melody,
rhythm, instrumentation, etc. have been subsumed into larger elements
(deriving from the individual folders in which the composer packed music
data in conjunction with the ongoing save-as files). These, as observed in the
real-time mapping, were essentially the fundamental themes of the compo-
sition. Themes are not considered from a single-parameter viewpoint i.e.
melody but as a structural function which encompasses all necessary
parameters. Thematic placement over time served to illustrate how the com-
poser manipulated the emerging composition both in small-scale and global
terms.
Results
One of the most intriguing issues to arise out of the data analysis at a macro
level of process/strategy was the convolution of thematic placement, which
occurred essentially because of the composers reluctance to change, or pos-
sibly abandon, the two major themes which had originally been composed
within hours of each other on the first day.
The composer at the outset appeared to possess a mental picture of his
composition (or commanding form Langer, 1967: 122) and although this
was only roughly articulated in terms of mood and metaphor (i.e. battle-
like) together with visual/textural ideas rather than specific melodies,
themes or other specifically musical ideas, it nonetheless acted as a loose
framework or superordinate constraint (Sloboda, 1985: 118). In this case,
the composer adhered strongly to the jig (A) and battle (B) themes which
he knew or understood at the outset to be integral to the piece, although at
that stage their final placement within the overall structure was unclear.
The initial concept of the first theme, A (Figure 1) was stated by the com-
poser merely to act as a contrast or relief, or one of perhaps a number of
sections which will be a bit shorter, which will intersperse with the more
battle-like stuff . Thus in the first instance, although the composer did not
ascribe much structural importance to this theme, he was unwilling to make
the theme less significant than B (Figure 2).
Through restructuring the problem, he reformulated the givens; that is,
sticking to what he had written a few hours earlier, he reversed the order of
the seemingly incompatible themes A and B rather than losing either or both.
In what I term a process of problem proliferation; two concurrent
problems now arose out of this restructuring: first, both themes now needed
an appropriate link, and second, since A now opened the piece, a reworking
was required in order to make a more gradual lead in. Two general solutions
are postulated by the composer in the verbal protocol: (1) should he rework
the end of B; or (2) pare down the opening? Either of these would have been
possible, but in an inspired move, he again restructured the problem by
F I GURE 1 Theme A. Note: Some of the triplet beaming has been omitted from this
original screenshot.
F I GURE 2 Theme B
reformulating his goals; in other words, by placing a ghost version of A at
the opening (A derivative), he meets the demands of both problems. The new
theme (A derivative), would simultaneously create a gradual lead in to the
piece, and, by hinting at what is to come after B, lessen the contrast for the
listener between B and A when it comes. Figure 3 illustrates this situation.
As the composers commanding form of the work did not allow him to
abandon his orginally written themes A and B, some form of linking or
smoothing out process still had to take place. In Reitmans study (Reitman,
1965), the composer postulated a fourth entry for the fugal composition, yet
this was not in fact implemented until a substantially later period (described
as deferred implementation). In this study, the link between A and B had
been partially effected by the ghost version of A, as described, but the com-
poser still referred back to the early issue of smoothing the link. Once the A
deriv problem restructuring had taken place, he questioned how he could,
with the materials he had, further smooth the transition. In a complex set of
concurrent problem-solving strategies, he restructured the problem, this time
by reformulating the givens so that they more closely approximated to this
new sub-goal, i.e. he took the unusual step of looking outside the composi-
tion to material he had written elsewhere and imported a new theme C (see
Figure 4) with the effect of expanding the transition section between B and
the final statement of A. Thus, in real time it is possible to observe a nesting
Restructuring the
problem: reverses
order of themes
Reformulate
givens
Restructuring the problem
Places ghost version of
A in intro (A deriv)
= Reformulating
goals
Problem proliferation
Concurrent problem 2
Opening needs reworking to
make more gradual lead in
Themes are varied
in character and need
an appropriate link
General solution 1
Rework end of B?
General solution 2
Pare down
opening?
F I GURE 3 The A/B problem
of restructuring processes which overlap in the solution spaces, as seen in
Figure 5.
This restructuring process has the knock-on effect of creating a new set of
problems (echoing Reitmans observation of cases in which the problem
solver generates a new information structure which violates the constraints
of the problem, but nonetheless appears too interesting or promising in other
respects to throw away (Reitman, 1965: 176). First, the balance (in terms of
mood or feel) at the link/transition had been altered; second, the overall
length of the piece had been extended; and third, there was now (after some
changing of plans by the composer) an unwanted build up into the final
statement of A.
There were now two possible general solutions which he postulated in the
verbal protocol: (1) he could build up the dynamics at the opening to A; or (2)
repeat the end bars of A. Instead, in a similar move to one earlier in the com-
position, he once again restructured the problem by reformulating the givens:
Ive changed something ... which has an impact upon the way the structure
unfolds. This can be viewed as a Gestalt moment of insight or illumination
F I GURE 4 Theme C
Themes are varied in character
and need an appropriate link
Opening needs reworking to
make more gradual lead
General solution 1
Rework end of B?
General solution 2
'Pare down' opening
Places ghost version of
A in introduction
(= A derivative)
= Reformulating
goals
Restructuring the
problem
So adds new material,
imported theme (C)
= Reformulating
givens
F I GURE 5 The link/transition problem (1)
25
(described in the verbal protocol as a bit different to the one Id anticipated
but ... I certainly believe in exploring chance), and was effected again by a
simple reversal of order of the themes B and C (i.e. from A deriv>B>C>A to A
deriv>C>B>A). The diagram (Figure 6) indicates how three concurrent prob-
lems coalesce in the solution space, a proposal of two general solutions and a
subsequent restructuring.
Concurrently, the composer had to deal with the final entry into A now
that B was once more adjacent, and again a process of nested restructuring
took place which echoed his original ideas behind the use of A derivative as a
taster of what was to follow. By reformulating his sub-goals he adds a new
oboe theme D (Figure 7) to provide space between B and the jig (A) and finally
smooths the link by interspersing D with an incomplete version of A. The
flow of the total problem-solving process is indicated in Figure 8.
So again a process of problem solving and problem proliferation had taken
place; there was a Gestalt moment of restructuring which bisected problem-
spaces through a reformulation of the compositional aims or the givens. In
essence, for the composer, the construction of the entire composition in real
New theme C now imported A deriv theme now at
opening
Balance at link/transition now altered

Which also ...
Creates an unwanted build up into final A
Overall length of piece
now extended
General solution 1
Build up dynamics at
opening to A
General solution 2
Repeat end bars of C
Reverses order of themes B/C,
i.e. from A deriv/B/C/A to A
deriv/C/B/A
= Reformulate givens
F I GURE 7 Theme D. Note: Some of the triplet beaming has been omitted from this
original screenshot.
93
time may be viewed as a complex, extended resolution of the dichotomy
between the two highly differing themes A and B.
Discussion
On the basis of these findings (for more extended detail see Collins, 2001) a
hypothetical model is suggested. The model views the compositional process
as a synthesis of stage process models of general creativity and Gestalt theory
with the spirit of Grubers emerging systems theory (Gruber, 1980; Gruber
and Davis, 1988). Like Wallass stage theory (Wallas, 1926) it views the crea-
tive process as a series of steps over time; it also acknowledges that in the

New theme C
now imported
A deriv theme now
at opening
Balance at link/transition
now altered

Which also ...

... creates an unwanted
build up into final A
General solution 1
Build up dynamics
at opening to A
General solution 2
Repeat end bars of C
Reverses order of themes
B/C, i.e. from A deriv/B/C/A to
A deriv/C/B/A
Reformulate
givens
Add theme D to provide a
space between B and jig:
A deriv/C/B/D/A
Reformulate goals
Overall length of piece now
extended
Rethinks entry into A
from B
Proposed specific
solution/reformulate givens
D interspersed with
incomplete version of A =
delayed implementation
Link needs further
smoothing
construction of a piece of music, the process can mirror elements of the
information processing theory of creativity (e.g. Newell and Simon, 1972),
and involve the application of both general and specific solutions to the prolif-
erating problems and sub-problems. However, it also encompasses Gestalt
moments of insight or restructuring as alternative and regular phenomena.
These may act as sudden moments of insight providing a ladder up for the
composer to better grasp the overall structural view of the evolving composi-
tion, but, reflecting emerging systems theory, they can also be a small part of
a process which involves an extraordinary degree of small-scale changes.
The stages in this hypothetical model do not have clear boundaries; unlike
Wallass description of the creative process consisting of the stages of prepa-
ration, incubation, illumination and verification, these instead were observed
to be subsumed into richly context-driven solution spaces; as the composer is
actively involved in shaping his material there is a recursive moving back and
forth across time. To describe this phenomenon, I propose the term solution
space as opposed to Newell and Simons problem-space (Newell and Simon,
1972); rather than viewing music composition as a meansend, primarily
problem-solving activity, it is, rather, an expressive, solution-generating
activity meeting the constraints of problems set by the composer himself.
Within the solution spaces, specific solutions themselves may be conjec-
tured, implemented or deferred. At non-predictable times, a Gestalt restruc-
turing of the problem may occur (see Duncker, 1945, for an example), which
either involves the composer in reformulating the givens (i.e. the initial
ideas/themes and associated generated sub-goals and sub-problems preced-
ing the restructuring) or reformulating the goals (where the initial postulated
end-state of the composition is abandoned in order to assimilate new material
in the restructuring process).
The findings also point to some degree of simultaneous handling of multi-
ple operations, although from the current literature, the serial/parallel
information processing issue remains contentious (Gilhooly, 1996). It is
interesting to note that Wallas, in describing his stage theory, also refers to
some form of simultaneity or parallel thinking: Even in exploring the same
problem, the mind may be unconsciously incubating on one aspect of it,
while it is consciously employed in preparing or verifying another aspect
(Wallas, 1926: 80). However, these data seem to suggest that the composer
was not unconsciously incubating ideas, but consciously aware of concur-
rent problem-solving issues; certainly, close scrutiny of the verbal protocol
indicates an overlap of Gestalt moments of awareness or insight (or musical
inspiration).
Simultaneity in problem-solving strategies seems to lend weight to
Aranosians hypothetical model of concurrent streams of thought in the
music composition process (Aranosian, 1981). The findings in this study
suggest that a form of simultaneity occurred in the form of:
deferred solutions which may arise concurrently with other solutions
within a particular solution space but are not implemented until the
composer reaches a secondary or later solution space; and
nested restructuring the reformulation of problems which occur close
to the event of a previous restructuring process, and in fact enter in real
time the solution space occupied by the initial restructuring process.
A diagrammatic representation of the overall process is seen in Figure 9.
This may be viewed as a form of stage model, except, unlike Wallas (1926)
and other stage theorists, each subsequent moment of illumination or
restructuring and its corresponding verification/implementation is only one
step in an overall constructive process and may occur any number of times,
although it is not always as a recognizable Gestalt insight. Webster (2002)
similarly suggests that illumination is a qualitative event that occurs many
times in the creative process (p. 12). Furthermore, each stage is cumulative
or additive, rather than distinct. Each problem solved generates an ongoing
set of sub-goals and sub-problems where the composer-as-problem solver is
making a tangible time-based product which has no clearly defined or pre-
scribed end-state (Johnson-Laird, 1993; Alty, 1995).
CHUNKING THE PROTOCOL
Bamberger (1977) spoke of an emergent chunking of the protocol as
participant-composers made up simple tunes. The findings here similarly
highlighted a chunking of the protocol into four stages, where micro-events
became recursively embedded into macro-events, which themselves became
embedded into the composers recursive iteration and reiteration through the
emerging piece:
1. Expressing broad aims: Im going to try to give it a Celtic feel ... give it a
cinematic scale through the use of orchestral and synthesized sounds
(verbal protocol line 30).
2. Putting melodies/themes/ideas in place: there are two themes, two
contrasting themes that have emerged (verbal protocol line 96).
3. Small-scale editing: apart from developing the two themes, Ive also
tinkered about a little with key changes (verbal protocol line 113).
4. Seeing the broader picture: by just having those two sections now, Ive
an idea ... whats going to happen next is a bit clearer (verbal protocol
line 126).
I suggest that within each general solution space, at what may be construed
as a micro-level of analysis, the first three events of the cyclic series of
processes and strategies may either result in general specific and immediate
solutions.
If the composer moves to the fourth event in the chunking seeing the
broader picture then this would result in the Gestalt perception of the
whole, by a restructuring of the problem. Thus the moment of restructuring-
insight actually bypasses implementation of general or specific solutions.
Therefore, within each solution space there seem to be various strategies
of problem solving: (1) general, (2) specific; and (3) insightful. At times,

Figure 50 :Co nceptual model of the compositional process

Germinal
ideas/themes/motifs
Sub-goals
Problem
proliferation
General/functional solutions
Specific
(immediate)
solutions
Sub-goals
Specific
(immediate)
solutions
Sub-goals
and/or
restructuring
and/or
Deferred
solution(s)
= solution
space
Problem
Proliferation
General/functional solutions
and/or restructuring Deferred
solution(s)
and/or
Reformulating givens
Reformulating goals
Reformulating givens
Reformulating goals
And/or nested restructuring
Next stage of composition
F I GURE 9 Hypothetical model of the compositional process
particular specific solutions are verbalized but deferred to a later stage in the
process (see Figure 10).
Conclusion
From the case-study, which attempted to track what Minsky terms the
temporal evolution of the compositional process (Minsky and Laske, 1992:
7), a hypothetical model is presented, based on triangulating multiple sources
of thick data. This model reflects elements of classical stage theories of crea-
tivity; however, these theories rely upon imprecise notions such as the role of
illumination, or insight, the acceptance of discrete and linear stages, and
the assumption of well-defined (and usually singular) goals within the problem-
solving activity. The hypothetical model developed from study suggests that
the musical composition process may incorporate many moments of insight-
ful behaviour within a particular mode of general and specific problem
solving, together with instances of simultaneity (or so-called parallel process-
ing in problem solving). Furthermore, set within a paradigm of large scale
problem solving to product, rather than small-scale problem solving with
single, clearly defined goal tasks, the model allows for the proliferation and
branching of problems and subsequent solutions with associated unclear
goals. Since the act of writing music is a product-based form of creative prob-
lem solving, stages in the process are additive, and, furthermore, linearity can
alternate with recursive process; the analysis of the verbal protocol indicated
quite clearly that the composer was involved in a reflexive feedback process
with the emerging composition.

I

Small-scale
editing
Postulating
General solutions
Solution space
Motifs/ideas
Sees the
broader
picture
Problem input
next sub-
goal
Specific solutions
Restructuring
Deferred solutions
broad aims
F I GURE 10 Summary of solution strategies
Finally, the hypothetical model encompassed the chunking of processes
and strategies, where particular musical problems were addressed by either
general or specific solutions, or Gestalt insightful restructuring processes.
Compositional strategies were seen to operate horizontally within a solution
space or vertically from one solution space to the next.
How insight is defined and the specific role it plays in the creative process
remains a contentious area (Tardif and Sternberg, 1988: 111). From evalua-
tion of the data in this study, moments of insight acted as a ladder up for the
composer to better grasp the overall structural view of the evolving composi-
tion. However, these Gestalt moments of insight are part of an overall process
where creative behaviour involves an extraordinary degree of small-scale
changes, alterations, additions and deletions.
There are suggestions that caution should be applied when transferring
Gestalt theory to the musical domain, since, as Reybrouk suggests, music as a
temporal art requires successive presentation (Reybrouk, 1997). However,
such an argument is based upon Gestalt principles of visual perception
(Kohler, 1940) rather than Gestalt productive thinking (Wertheimer, 1945),
and the evidence from neo-Gestalt authors such as Metcalfe and Weibe
(1987) and Davidson and Sternberg (1984). However, despite a number of
studies on Gestalt theory and musical/auditory perception (e.g Tenney and
Polansky, 1980; Terhardt, 1987), there are no examples in the literature
which relate to the role of Gestalt problem solving and the music composition
process, which the author believes is a fruitful area for further exploration.
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DAVI D COL L I NS is currently Reader at the School of Intermedia and Performance Arts
at University Centre, Doncaster College. His research interests focus around issues of
music composition and cognitive processes and the role of new technologies in live
intermedia performance. He is the founder of the International Journal of Performance
Arts and Digital Media.
Address: School of Intermedia and Performance Arts, University Centre, Doncaster
College, High Melton, Doncaster DN5 7SZ, UK. [email: david.collins@don.ac.uk]

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