4136 NITRATES AND NITRITES

NITRATES AND NITRITES

M J Dennis and L A Wilson, Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton, York, UK
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Background
0001

Nitrate is a normal component of plant tissues, whereas nitrite is not normally found in significant quantities unless microbiological spoilage occurs. Both nitrate and nitrite are permitted food additives for use in curing meat. Their original function was to confer microbiological safety, but they were also found to contribute useful color and flavor characteristics, which, with the advent of refrigeration, are now of greater technological significance. There have been considerable concerns over the safety of nitrate and nitrite in foods. Nitrate is largely unreactive but can be reduced to nitrite, which can then react with secondary amines to form nitrosamines (many of which are carcinogens). Equally, it is becoming apparent that oxides of nitrogen play an important role in human physiology. Hence, in this review, we will cover the occurrence of nitrate and nitrite in food, the legislation governing their use as food additives, and legislation governing their occurrence in vegetables, their human dietary intake, their potential health benefits, and concerns.

especially light levels and soil temperature, and nitrogen fertilization. Nitrate content varies considerably according to species, with vegetables such as spinach and lettuce often containing up to 2500 mg kg1, whereas those such as asparagus have levels as low as 13 mg kg1. Table 1 lists the concentrations of nitrate found in some vegetables and fruits, and compares the levels found in different countries. The natural levels of nitrate in vegetables generally are high when compared with other food groups. It is estimated that 7580% of the total daily intake comes from vegetables, compared with only about 510% from drinking water. Cooking has been shown to decrease the concentration of nitrate in foods, dependent on the cooking technique used (see Table 2). Nitrite levels in vegetables and fruit are low, usually below 2 mg kg1, except where there has been damage or improper storage leading to the microbiological reduction of nitrate to nitrite.
Meat and Meat Products

0004

0005

Fresh meat normally contains low levels of nitrate and nitrite, estimated at < 47 mg kg1 and < 0.4 0.5 mg kg1, respectively, in the UK in 1997, although higher concentrations of about 1030 mg kg1 of nitrate are found in cured meats such as ham and salami, where nitrite and nitrate have been incorporated as a permitted additive. Nitrite salts have

0006

Occurrence in Foods
0002

Concentration of nitrate (mg/kg nitrate)

Nitrate is found as a naturally occurring compound in foods such as vegetables, fruit, cereals, fish, milk, and dairy products, and is also found in water as a consequence of agricultural practices such as the use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers and from animal waste. Low levels are generally found from these sources, except in the case of some vegetables. Nitrate and nitrite are also permitted as food additives in some foods, primarily as protection against botulism.
Vegetables and Fruit

4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 September November January May March July

0003

Nitrate in the soil is taken up by plants for use as a nitrogen source in the formation of proteins. Protein production occurs as a result of photosynthesis, but when light levels fall, the rate of photosynthesis decreases, and nitrate accumulates in cell fluids and sap. The levels of nitrate in vegetables grown under low light conditions are thus correspondingly higher than those grown under bright light, as shown in Figure 1. Overall, nitrate accumulation in plants is determined by genotype, growing conditions,

Month
Figure 1 Seasonal variation in nitrate concentrations of lettuce (mg per kilogram of nitrate) (Denmark). From Petersen A and Stoltz S (1999) Nitrate and nitrite in vegetables on the Danish market: content and intake. Food Additives and Contaminants 16(7): 291299, with permission.
fig0001