Basic Prop Fluids

DEPARTMENT OF CI VI L ENGI NEERI NG
BI TS PI LANI , RAJASTHAN

BY
DR. SHI BANI KHANRA JHA
AUGUST 2013

Transport Phenomena
Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3
1
What is this course about?
2
It is an introductory course
Covering fundamental aspects of fluid mechanics
Especially the well established laws of conservation of
mass, energy and momentum
Transport phenomenon is a study of the behavior of fluids, either at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics).
The analysis is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics, which relate
continuity of mass and energy with force and momentum.
An understanding of the properties and behavior of fluids at rest and in
motion is of great importance in engineering.

Overview of the Course
3
Basic Properties of Fluids (Lecture 1-2)
Fluid at Rest-Pressure and its Effect (Lecture 3-7)
Study of fundamentals of fluid flow and Kinematics of Fluid
Motion (Lecture 8-15)
Flow Analysis using Control Volumes (Lecture 16-21)
Fluids in Motion The Bernoulli Equation (Lecture 22-25)
Flow Analysis using Differential Methods (Lecture 26-29)
Dimensional Analysis, modeling, and similitude (Lecture 30-33)
Study of flow pattern through orifices and mouthpieces (Lecture
34-36)
Study of flow pattern over notches and weirs (Lecture 37-39)
Study of flow pattern through pipes (Lecture 40-43)
Evaluation of your performance in this course
4
1. Mid-semester 30%

2. Comprehensive 45%

3. Tutorial/Assignment 25%

1. 6 evaluative tutorials with 2 surprised tutorials (best 5 for final
grading);
2. 2 evaluative assignments

***IMPLICITLY ON YOUR REGULARITY IN THE CLASS
DEPARTMENT OF CI VI L ENGI NEERI NG
BI TS PI LANI , RAJASTHAN

BY
DR. SHI BANI KHANRA JHA
AUGUST 2013

Basic Properties of Fluids
Lecture 1, 2
5
Topics to be Covered
Characteristics of Fluids
Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity and Units
Systems of Units
Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
Density
Specific Weight
Specific Gravity
Ideal Gas Law
Viscosity
Compressibility of Fluids
Bulk Modulus
Compression and Expansion of Gases
Speed of Sound
Vapor Pressure
Surface Tension.
6
Objectives (Lecture 1-2)
7
1. Identify the units for the basic quantities of time,
length, force and mass.
2. Properly set up equations to ensure consistency of
units.
3. Define the basic fluid properties.
4. Identify the relationships between specific weight,
specific gravity and density, and solve problems using
their relationships.
What is Fluid?

By definition, a fluid is any material that is unable to withstand a static
shear stress.
Unlike an elastic solid which responds to a shear stress with a
recoverable deformation, a fluid responds with an irrecoverable flow.

Examples of fluids include gases and liquids.
8
Concepts and Definitions- fluids (liquid and gas)
A liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in and forms a free
surface in the presence of gravity

A gas expands until it encounters
the walls of the container and fills
the entire available space. Gases
cannot form a free surface

Gas and vapor are often used as
synonymous words

9
Concepts and Definitions
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in
solids and weakest in gases. One
reason is that molecules in solids are
closely packed together,
Whereas in gases they are separated
by relatively large distances
On a microscopic scale, pressure is
determined by the interaction of
individual gas molecules.
10
Formation of drops:
depends on basic properties of fluid
11
The ubiquity of drops is
beautifully illustrated by
this picture of a dolphin,
jumping out of the water
Formation of drops:
Depends on basic properties of fluid
12
Some observations from everyday
life indicate that even the formation
of an individual drop is more
complicated than one might think
What are the
parameters on which
this drop formation
depends???
Why is fluid so useful in engineering applications?

Typically, liquids are considered to be incompressible.
That is once you place a liquid in a sealed container you can DO
WORK on the FLUID as if it were an object.
The PRESSURE you apply is transmitted throughout the liquid
and over the entire length of the fluid itself.
13
Civil Engineering Applications
Fluid mechanics is involved in nearly all areas of Civil
Engineering either directly or indirectly. Some examples of
direct involvement are those where we are concerned with
manipulating the fluid:
Sea and river (flood) defences;
Water distribution / sewerage (sanitation) networks;
Hydraulic design of water/sewage treatment works;
Dams;
Irrigation;
Pumps and Turbines;
Water retaining structures.
14
Civil Engineering Applications
And some examples where the primary object is construction -
yet analysis of the fluid mechanics is essential:

Flow of air in / around buildings;
Bridge piers in rivers;
Ground-water flow.

Notice how nearly all of these involve water.
The following course, although introducing general fluid flow ideas and
principles, will demonstrate many of these principles through examples
where the fluid is water.
15
Characteristics of Fluids
Although the differences between solids and
fluids can be explained qualitatively on the
basis of molecular structure; a more specific
distinction is based on how they deform under
the action of an external load
16
A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,
whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence
of shear stress, no matter however small is the stress.

In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress
is proportional to strain rate.

When a constant shear force is applied, a solid eventually
stops deforming, at some fixed strain angle, whereas a
fluid never stops deforming and approaches a certain rate
of strain.

17
Difference between solid and fluid behaviour
Solid:
It can resist an applied shear by deforming
Stress is proportional to strain
Fluid:
Deforms continuously under applied shear
Stress is proportional to strain rate

F
A
t o =
F V
A h
t =
Solid
Fluid
18
Stress is defined as the
force per unit area.
Normal component:
normal stress
In a fluid at rest, the
normal stress is called
pressure
Tangential component:
shear stress

19
In the analysis of fluids, we often take small volumes
(elements) and examine the forces on these

Forces acting along edges (faces), such as F, are know as
shearing forces
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously,
or flows, when subjected to shearing forces of any magnitude.
20
Shear Stress in moving fluid
21
If fluid is in motion, shear stress are developed if the particles of
the fluid move relative to each other. Adjacent particles have
different velocities, causing the shape of the fluid to become
distorted
On the other hand, the velocity of the fluid is the same at every
point, no shear stress will be produced, the fluid particles are at
rest relative to each other.
Moving plate Shear force
Fluid particles New particle position
Fixed surface
Dimensions
Fluid characteristics can be described qualitatively in terms of certain basic
(primary) quantities such as length [L], time [T], mass [M] and
temperature []
Quantitative description requires both a number and a standard by which
various quantities can be compared
A standard for length might be a meter or foot, for time an hour or second,
and for mass a slug or kilogram; such standards are called units,
The primary quantities can be used to describe any other secondary quantity.
Example:
A[L
2
], Velocity[LT
-1
], Density[ML
-3
]

Systems of Dimensions
[M], [L], [T], and []
[F], [L], [T], and []
[F],[M], [L], [T], and []
22
Dimensional homogeneity
Dimensionally homogeneous equations: All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally
homogeneous
Dimensions of the left side of the equation must be the same as those on the right side, and all
additive separate terms must have the same dimensions. Example
V=V
0
+at
(LT
-1
=LT
-1
+LT
-2
T)

Restricted homogeneous equations: equations that are restricted to a particular system of units.
Example
d=gt
2
/2
d=4.9t
2

General homogeneous equations: valid in any system of units. Example
F=ma

Concept of dimensions is basis for the powerful tool of dimensional analysis
(which will be discussed in later part of this course)
23
Systems of Units
Qualitative vs quantitative measure of any given quantity
Units gives the quantitative measure of a quantity
British Gravitational (BG) system
International system (SI)
English Engineering (EE) system
Two systems of unit that are widely used in engineering systems of unit
are BG and SI
Systems of Units
MLT
SI (kg, m, s, K)
FLT
British Gravitational (lbf, ft, s,
o
R)
FMLT
English Engineering (lbf, lbm, ft, s,
o
R)

24
Systems of Units: Primary Units
In SI system six primary units

25
Systems of Units: Derived Units
In SI system derived units

26
Analysis of Fluid Behaviour
The study of transport phenomenon involves some fundamental
laws you must have encountered in physics and mechanics
before, like
Newtons laws of motion
Conservation of mass
Conservation of energy
Hence, this is indeed helpful since many of the concepts and
techniques of analysis used in this subject will be ones you have
encountered before
The broad aspects of transport phenomenon can be subdivided
into fluid statics (fluid at rest) and fluid dynamics (fluid in
motion)
However before moving towards the broader aspects, it is
necessary to review certain fluid properties that are intimately
related to fluid behaviour
27
Measures of fluid mass and weight
Density: mass per unit volume (BG- slugs/ft
3
; SI- kg/m
3
)

liquid density varies less with pressure and temperature
whereas for gas this variation is quite high

Specific volume: volume per unit mass ( this property is
mainly used in thermodynamics)

volume
mass
=
mass
Volume
v = =
1
28
Measures of fluid mass and weight
Specific Weight: weight per unit volume (BG- lb/ft
3
, SI- N/m
3
)

g acceleration due to gravity (32.174 ft/s
2
; 9.807 m/s
2)
Water at 60
o
F has a specific weight of 62.4 lb/ft
3
and 9.80 kN/m
3
)

Specific Gravity: ratio of densities

= 1.94 slugs/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3

g
volume
weight
= =
C O H
O
SG
4 @
2

=
) 2 . 39 ( 4 @
2
F C O H
O O

29
Hydrostatic Pressure
30
Suppose a Fluid (such as a liquid) is at
REST, we call this HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE
Two important points
A fluid will exert a pressure in all
directions
A fluid will exert a pressure
perpendicular to any surface it contacts
Notice that
The arrows on TOP of the objects are smaller
than at the BOTTOM.
This is because pressure is greatly affected by the
DEPTH of the object.
Since the bottom of each object is deeper than the
top, the pressure is greater at the bottom.
Pressure vs. Depth
31
Suppose we had an object submerged in
water with the top part touching the
atmosphere. If we draw an FBD for this
object, we would have three forces

1. The weight of the object
2. The force of the atmosphere pressing
down
3. The force of the water pressing up
Pressure vs. Depth
32
But recall, pressure is force per unit area.
So if we solve for force; we can insert
our new equation

Note: The initial
pressure in this
case is atmospheric
pressure, which is a
CONSTANT.
P
o
=1x10
5
N/m
2
A closer look at Pressure vs. Depth
33
gh P P + =
0
gh P = A
Depth below surface
Initial Pressure May or MAY NOT be
atmospheric pressure
GAUGE PRESSURE = CHANGE in
pressure or the DIFFERENCE in the initial and
absolute pressure
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Pressure Transmission
Hydraulic Lift
In a closed system, pressure changes from one point are
transmitted throughout the entire system (Pascals Law).
Ideal gas law
Gases are highly compressible compared to liquids
Changes in gas density directly related to changes in pressure and
temperature through following equation
Ideal or perfect gas law or the equation of state for an ideal gas

Where
p is absolute pressure (it is a measured relative to absolute zero pressure;
a pressure that would only occur in a perfect vacuum; standard sea-
level atmospheric pressure is 14.696 psi (abs) or 101.33 kPa (abs))
density,
T the absolute temperature and
R is a gas constant
RT
p
=
36
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow
Newtonian Fluids: A fluid that behaves according to
Newton's law, with a viscosity (absolute or dynamic or
simply viscosity) that is independent of the stress, is said to
be Newtonian.

Gases, water and many common liquids can be considered
Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts.
Most of the common fluids (water, air, oil, etc.)
Also called Linear fluids
37
Viscosity
non-Newtonian Fluids: There are many fluids that
significantly deviate from that law in some way or
other. For example:

Special fluids (e.g., most biological fluids, toothpaste, some paints, etc.)
Also called Non-linear fluids
38
Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity ,
Shear thinning fluids the apparent viscosity decreases
with increasing shear rate; the harder the fluid is sheared,
the less viscous it becomes.

Examples - many colloidal suspensions and polymer
solutions are shear thinning. For example, latex paint does
not drip from the brush because the shear rate is small and
the apparent viscosity is large. However, it flows smoothly
onto the wall because the thin layer of paint between the
wall and the brush causes a large shear rate and a small
apparent viscosity.

39
v =
Viscosity
Shear thickening fluids the apparent viscosity increases
with increasing shear rate; the harder the fluid is sheared,
the more viscous it becomes
Examples - water-corn starch mixture and water-sand
mixture (quicksand). Thus, the difficulty in removing an
object from quicksand increases dramatically as the speed
of removal increases
Bingham plastic neither a fluid nor a solid; such
material can withstand a finite shear stress without motion,
but once the yield stress is exceeded it flows like a fluid
Examples toothpaste and mayonnaise

40
Real Fluid
41
Real fluids, even though
they may be moving,
always stick to the
solid boundaries that
contain them.

THIS IS NO-SLIP
CONDITIONS
Compressibility of fluids
42
Bulk modulus.
Compression and expansion of gases.
Speed of sound.
Compressibility of fluids
Bulk Modulus ( ): How compressible is the fluid?
Change in volume (or density) of a fluid with change
in pressure

Since decrease in volume of a given mass, ( )
will result in an increase in density. Thus we can
write

The bulk modulus (also referred to as the bulk
modulus of elasticity) has dimensions of pressure
(FL
-2
) [lb/in
2
or psi; N/m
2
or Pa]

=
/ d
dp
E
v
= m
/ d
dp
E
v
=
43
v
E
When gases are compressed (or expanded) the relationship
between pressure and density depends on the nature of the
process
At constant temperature conditions (isothermal process), the following
condition holds

If compression or expansion is frictionless and no heat is exchanged
with the surroundings (isentropic process), then

Where k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure (cp), to the
specific heat at constant volume, (cv) (i.e., )
Two specific heats are related to the gas constant R, through the equation

44
t cons
p
tan =
t cons
p
k
tan =
v
p
c
c
k =
Two specific heats are related to the gas
constant R, through the equation

With explicit equations relating pressure
and density the bulk modulus for gases can
be determined by obtaining the derivative
for either of the two processes
discussed before and substituting the
results into the equation for bulk modulus.
Thus, for and isothermal process

Thus, for an isentropic process

45
v p
c c R =
d dp/
p E
v
=
kp E
v
=
It is to be noted that in both the cases, the bulk modulus
varies directly with pressure
For air under standard atmospheric conditions with p=14.7
psi (abs) and k=1.40, the isentropic bulk modulus is E
v
=20.6
psi
For water under the same conditions shows E
v
=312,000 psi.
comparing the both, it shows that air is approximately
15,000 times as compressible as water
NOTE: dealing with gases needs greater attention because
of the significant effect of compressibility on fluid
behaviour; however under small pressure changes, gases
can also be treated as incompressible

46
Example of some application of compressibility of
a liquid
47
Water pulse generator using compressed water has been
developed for use in mining operation
It can fracture rock by producing an effect comparable to
a conventional explosive such as gunpowder
At the ultrahigh pressures used (300 to 400 Mpa, or 3000 to
4000 atmospheres), the water is compressed by about 10 to
15%
When a fast opening valve within the pressure vessel is
opened, the water expands and produces a jet of water that
upon impact with the target material produces an effect
similar to the explosive force from conventional explosives.
Mining with water jet prevents various hazards
Speed of Sound
48
Another important consequence of the compressibility of
fluids is that disturbances introduced at some point in the
fluid propagate at a finite velocity.

For example, if a fluid is flowing in a pipe and a valve at
the outlet is suddenly closed, the effect of the valve
closure is not felt instantaneously upstream.

It takes a finite time for the increased pressure created by the
valve closure to propagate to an upstream location.
Speed of Sound
Speed of sound (c): the velocity at which the small
disturbances propagate in a fluid is called the acoustic
velocity or the speed of sound, c

Or in terms of the bulk modulus the speed can be defined as

Since the disturbance is small, there is negligible heat
transfer and the process is assumed to be isentropic
49
d
dp
c =
v
E
c =
CHECK THE DIMENSION.
Speed of Sound
For gases undergoing isentropic process, , so that

Using the ideal gas law, one can write

50
kp
c =
kp E
v
=
kRT c =
Vapor pressure
51
If liquids are simply placed in a container open to
the atmosphere, some liquid molecules will
overcome the intermolecular cohesive forces and
escape into the atmosphere.
If the container is closed with small air space left
above the surface, and this space evacuated to form a
vacuum, a pressure will develop in the space as a
result of the vapor that is formed by the escaping
molecules.
When an equilibrium condition is reached, the
vapor is said to be saturated and the pressure that
the vapor exerts on the liquid surface is termed the
VAPOR PRESSURE, p
v
.
Vapor pressure
Since this depends upon molecular activity, which is a
function of temperature, the vapor pressure of a fluid also
depends on its temperature and increases with it.
If the pressure above a liquid reaches the vapor pressure
of the liquid, boiling occurs; for example if the pressure
is reduced sufficiently, boiling may occur at room
temperature.
52
NOTE: it can be observed that liquids like water
and gasoline will evaporate if they are simply
placed in a container open to the atmosphere
Vapor pressure
Cavitation: when vapor bubbles
are formed in a flowing fluid
they are swept along into regions
of higher pressure where they
suddenly collapse with
sufficient intensity to actually
cause structural damage. The
formation and subsequent
collapse of vapor bubbles in a
flowing fluid called cavitation is
an important transport
phenomena
53
Cavitation Bubbles
Engineering significance of vapor pressure
In a closed hydraulic system, Ex. in pipelines or
pumps, water vaporizes rapidly in regions where
the pressure drops below the vapor pressure.
Cavitations can affect the performance of hydraulic
machinery such as pumps, turbines and propellers,
and the impact of collapsing bubbles can cause
local erosion of metal surface.
Cavitations in a closed hydraulic system can be
avoided by maintaining the pressure above the
vapor pressure everywhere in the system.
54
Surface tension
55
At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or between
two immiscible liquids, forces develop in the liquid
surface which cause the surface to behave as if it were a
skin or membrane stretched over the fluid mass.

Although such a skin is actually not present, this
conceptual analogy allows us to explain several commonly
observed phenomena.
Surface tension
The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known
as surface tension.
The molecules at the surface do not have other like molecules on all sides of them and
consequently they cohere more strongly to those directly associated with them on the
surface.
This forms a surface "film" which makes it more difficult to move an object through the
surface than to move it when it is completely submersed.
The cohesive forces between
molecules down into a liquid are
shared with all neighboring atoms.
56
Surface tension
Wetting fluid: if the adhesion of the molecules to the solid surface is strong compared to the
cohesion between molecules, the liquid will wet the surface and the level in a tube placed in a
wetting liquid will actually be rised

Non-wetting fluid: if the adhesion of the molecules to the solid surface is weak compared to
the cohesion between molecules, the liquid will not wet the surface and the level in a tube
placed in a non-wetting liquid will actually be depressed
57
Surface tension
58
Surface tension: the intensity
of the molecular attraction per
unit length along any line in
the surface and is designated
by the Greek symbol .
The force due to surface tension = The force due to pressure difference
Where p
i
is the internal pressure
and p
e
is the external pressure
Surface Tension Effects
Surface tension effects play a role in many fluid mechanics problems
including the
movement of liquids through soil and other porous media,
flow of thin film,
formation of drops and bubbles, and
the breakup of liquid Jets.

Surface phenomena associated with liquid-gas, liquid-liquid or
liquid-gas-solid interfaces are exceedingly complex.
59
NOTE: THESE COMPLEX
PHENOMENON ARE BEYOND THE
SCOPE OF THIS COURSE
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube
Wettability of fluid: MEASUREMENT
60
A common example of interfacial tension
61
Measurement of Surface Tension
62
Wetting or non-wetting ???
Which one is more wetting/non-wetting
fluid ???
Example: use of surface tension property
Walking on water
63
Typical body length is 0.4 in
Cover 100 body length in 1 sec
It is Surface tension that keeps
water strider
How they propel themselves at
such a high speed???
Each stroke creates dimples on the surface with
underwater swirling vortices sufficient to propel it
forward
It is the rearward motion of the vortices that propels
water strider forward
Water Striders walk on water
Example: use of surface tension property
Spreading of oil spills
64
Oil spills are frequent occurrence and creates a disastrous
environmental problem
Most oils tend to spread horizontally into a smooth and slippery
surface called slick
Spread of oil slick is influenced by size of spill, wind speed-direction
and the physical properties of oil
These properties include surface tension, specific gravity and
viscosity
Higher the surface tension, more likely the spread will remain in the
place
Oil (with Sp Gr less than one), increases its Sp Gr, if the lighter
component evaporates from the oil
Higher the viscosity of the oil, greater the tendency to stay in one place

Oil Rainbow
65
An example of combined effect of Sp. Gr, surface
tension (interfacial tension) and Viscosity
Summary of the lecture 1-2
At the end of these lectures one should be able know the
followings concepts
66
Fluid
Units
Basic dimensions
Dimensionally
homogeneous
Density
Specific weight
Specific gravity
I deal gas law
Absolute pressure
Gage pressure
No-slip condition
Rate of shearing strain
Absolute viscosity
Newtonian fluid
non-Newtonian fluid
Kinematic viscosity
Bulk modulus
Speed of sound
Vapor pressure
Surface tension
Questions to be answered
67
1. Which one is more viscous???
2. Which one is more viscous among water, air,
oil, coal-tar ???
3. Does a fluid deform if there is no shearing
stress???
4.Does the motion of fluid confirms the
deformation
5. If same size balls are dropped in two liquids
with different viscosity, which liquid will show
higher splashes???
Questions to be answered
68
6. Which among wood, steel and glass surface will show higher
wetting by water???
7. Which among water, oil and magma is most compressible
fluid???
8.What is the dimension of specific gravity and specific weight???
9.Which among air, mercury and water is most wetting and most
non-wetting???
10. When is the force that acts on oil kept in a rectangular tank at
rest? Which part of the tank experiences maximum pressure???
11. Which among gasoline, mercury and seawater shows higher
speed of sound???

Basic Prop Fluids

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DEPARTMENT OF CI VI L ENGI NEERI NG

Course: CE F212 Transport Phenomena 3 0 3

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