Journal of Krishi Vigyan Vol.1 Issue 2.

SOCIETY OF KRISHI VIGYAN
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (CEC) President Mukhtar Singh Gill Secretary Manoj Sharma Treasurer N S Dhaliwal Editor Gagandeep Kaur Joint Secretary Gurdeep Singh (Srinagar) (Assam) (Jammu) (Punjab) (Punjab) (Punjab) (Punjab) (Rajasthan) (Arunachal Pradesh) (Gujarat) (Haryana) (Bihar) (Himachal Pradesh)
Member CEC A H Hakeem, PC, KVK, Kupwara Akhil Kr. Deka, PC,KVK, Karbi Anglong Amrish Vaid, PC, KVK, Kathua J S Brar, PC, KVK, Faridkot (Retd.) K B Singh, PC, KVK, Moga Karamjit Sharma, SMS, Ext. Education, KVK, Mukatsar Kuldeep Singh, PC, KVK, Jalandhar Mahendra Kumar, PC,KVK, Nagaur N D Singh, PC, KVK, Dirang P K Sharma, PC, KVK, Kheda R D Kaushik, PC, KVK, Jind Ratnesh Kumar Jha, PC, KVK, Saran S S Paliyal, SMS, Soil Science, KVK, Sirmour Editorial Board Abu Kaushar Hazarika, Guwahati (Assam) Anil Sharma, New Delhi (New Delhi) Badaral Hassan, Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir) D S Dhillon, Ludhiana (Punjab) J S Dhankar, Hissar (Haryana) K S Risam, Jammu (Jammu and Kashmir) Kalyan Singh, Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) P K Sharma, Palampur (Himachal Pradesh) R S Narang, Ludhiana (Punjab) S S Nanda, Bhubaneswar (Odisha)
Anil Dixit, Jabalpur (M P) B K Gupta, Ludhiana (Punjab) Chander Mohan, Ludhiana (Punjab) G S Butter, Ludhiana (Punjab) J S Kular, Ludhiana (Punjab) K Uma Rani, Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) Mukesh K. Gupta, Rourkela (Odisha) P L Maliwal, Udaipur (Rajasthan) S K Acharya, Nadia (West Bengal) U S Urkurkar, Raipur (Chhattisgarh)
Manuscripts: Offered for consideration should be sent to the Editorial Office, hard copy as well as soft copy by Email- editoriskv@gmail.com or secretarykvk2011@gmail.com . Editorial Office : Krishi Vigyan Kendra, J J Farm, Near New Grain Market, PO. Sheikhupur, Kapurthala 144620 (Punjab). Subscription fee: Fee for 1 year -Rs. 1000/-; for 3 years- Rs. 2500/-; for 5 years - Rs. 3500/-; for 10 years- Rs. 5000/General Correspondence: Should be addressed to the Secretary, Society of Krishi Vigyan, J J Farm, Near New Grain Market, PO. Sheikhupur, Kapurthala 144620 (Punjab). Printed and published by Dr. Manoj Sharma, Secretary on behalf of Society of Krishi Vigyan under the able guidance of Dr. M S Gill, President, Society of Krishi Vigyan at M/S Foil Printers, Ludhiana.
LIFE MEMBERS OF SOCIETY OF KRISHI VIGYAN

64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. Anju Ahlawat c/o ECHS Poly Clinic Station HQ, Sadhuwali Cantt. Sriganganagar (Rajasthan). Arjinder Kaur, Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab). Avneet Kaur Ahuja, Subject Matter Specialist, KVK, Kapurthala (Punjab). B. B. Kunjadia, Programme Coordinator, KVK, Amreli (Gujarat). C. K. Timbadia, Programme Coordinator , KVK, Navasari (Gujarat). Gagan Jyot Kaur, Subject Matter Specialist, KVK, Moga (Punjab). Gobinder Singh, Subject Matter Specialist, KVK, Kapurthala (Punjab). Gurpreet Singh, Sr. Marketing Manager, Kheti Dunia, K. D. Complex, Patiala (Punjab). H. C. Chhodavadiya, Subject Matter Specialist , KVK, Amreli (Gujarat). Iqbal Singh, Asstt. Engineer , Deptt Farm Power and Machinery, PAU, Ludhiana. (Punjab). Jagbir Rehal, Subject Matter Specialist , KVK, Moga (Punjab). Minaxi, K. Baria, Subject Matter Specialist , KVK, Amreli (Gujarat). N. S. Joshi, Ph.D. Scholar, KVK, Amreli (Gujarat). Narendra Kumar, Programme Coordinator, KVK, Jairampur (Arunachal Pradesh). Pankaj Kumar, Ph. D Scholar ,Ext. Edu. Deptt of Extension Education, PAU, Ludhiana (Punjab). Rekha Tiwari, Subject Matter Specialist, KVK, Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh). Rima Taipodia, STO, o/o Deputy Commissioner, Dibang Valley, Annini (Arunachal Pradesh). Sanjoy Borthakur, Programme Coordinator, KVK East Kameng , Pampoli (Arunachal Pradesh). Sangita Sood, Professor, CSKHP Agricultural University , Palampur (Himachal Pradesh). Sarabjit Singh Aulakh, Subject Matter Specialist, KVK, Gurdaspur (Punjab). Satbir Singh, Subject Matter Specialist , KVK, Sangrur (Punjab).
CONTENTS
Sr. No. Title 1. A Study of Organizational Structure of an NGO Working in Remote Hills of Uttarakhand. Netrapal Malik Adoption Behaviour and Constraints in Wheat Production Technologies for Higher Wheat Productivity in Hills of Uttarakhand. Ajay Kumar An Analytical Study of Livestock Sector in an Adopted Village. H. K. Bhattacharyya , S. Baruah, A. K. Sarma and A. Barooah Dairy Farming Practices followed by Different Categories of Dairy Farmers in South Western Punjab. Bharat Singh Bhattu, Ajitpal Singh Dhaliwal and Gurdeep Singh Design, Development and Evaluation of Grader for Wild Bitter Gourd. Gagan Jyot Kaur, Jagbir Rehal, Kanwar Barjinder Singh Economics of Different Livestock-Carp Integrated Farming Systems over Traditional Non Integrated Farming System in Terai region of West Bengal. Soma Banerjee and Sudip Barat Effect of Furrow and Bed Transplanted Rice (Oryza sativa L.) with Varying Irrigation Management on Soil Bulk Density and Infiltration Rate on Sandy Loam Soil. Navjot Singh, Krishan Kumar Vashist and S. S. Mahal Effect of Planting Methods and Fertility Level on Growth of Hybrid Maize. Rima Taipodia and N. D. Singh Effect of Soy Flour Supplementation in combating Malnutrition among School Going Girl Child in Malwa Region of Madhya Pradesh . Rekha Tiwari, D. S. Tomar, A. K. Dixit and S. K. Kaushik Extent of Adoption and Reasons for Non-adoption of Selected Resource Conservation Technologies by the Farmers of Ludhiana and Moga Districts of Punjab. D.S. Dhillon, Sukhandeep Singh and V. K. Rampal Impact of KVK Training Programmes on Adoption of Garlic Production Technology. K. C. Meena and I. N. Gupta Impact of Vocational Training Programmes on Broiler Management Practices in District Hanumangar. Satbir Singh, Anoop Kumar and C.S. Sharma In vitro Regeneration of Wild species of Guar (Cyamopsis serrata and Cyamopsis senegalensis). Anju Ahlawat, Hans Raj Dhingra,and Jagbir Singh Dhankar Page No. 1
2.
3.
10
4.
13
5.
17
6.
20
7.
25
8.
29
9.
33
10.
36
11.
41
12.
44
13.
48
Sr. No. Title 14. Mithun Husbandry - Issues and Strategies in Papum Pare District of Arunachal Pradesh. Tilling Tayo, Taba Heli, Bengia Atul and Nabam Gama Pattern of Investment vis--vis Credit Utilization in Dairy sector of Punjab. Arjinder Kaur and R. S. Sidhu Relationship of Rural Womens Characteristics with their Training Needs in Animal Husbandry Practices. M. K. Bariya, Kiran Chandravadiya, N. S. Joshi and G. P. Deshmukh Reliability Analysis of Medium Range Weather Forecasts in Central Plain Region of Punjab. K. K. Gill and Ritu Babuta Preparation and Nutritional Evaluation of Cheese-Whey and Soya-Whey Based Fruit Beverages. Sangita Sood , Sonia Minhas and Suruchi Katoch Technology Transfer Modules of Punjab Agricultural University used for Agricultural Development in Punjab. M. S. Gill, Manoj Sharma and Gagandeep Kaur Using Fruit Plants as Ornamentals: An Innovative Practice for Beautification and Monetary Benefits. T. Mubarak
Page No. 56
15.
60
16.
65
17.
70
18.
74
19.
78
20.
84
MESSAGE
I sincerely greet you all at outset and bring you the second issue of Journal of Krishi Vigyan. Although Indian agriculture has put tremendous efforts to reduce hunger and made remarkable progress, we are still facing the problem that agricultural growth lags behind population expansion. Our population is expected to be 1.4 billion by 2020. The increasing population, coupled with growing income will generate increased demand for food grains and non-food grain crops. In order to ensure food security without compromising environment and social development, we should improve the technological level of agricultural production, economic benefits and ecological efficiency. Speeding up agricultural technology generation is one of the crucial solutions. Since increase in net sown area has flattened out, further increase in agriculture production needs to come through an increase in gross cropped area (multiple cropping), coverage of area under irrigation and improvement in the productivity levels. Indian agriculture also has to diversify into high-value crops, raise productivity, restore soil health and enhance the application of modern technologies including biotechnology. Human resource development of the persons engaged in agriculture is necessary not only to have greater penetration of better technology but also because trained underemployed labour in this sector can get absorbed in other fast growing sectors. Agriculture sector needs well functioning markets to drive growth, employment and economic prosperity in rural areas of the country. To provide dynamism and efficiency into the marketing system, large investments are required for the development of post-harvest and cold chain infrastructure nearer to the farmers fields. The rapid growth of agriculture is essential not only for self-reliance but also for meeting the food and nutritional security of the people, to bring about equitable distribution of income and wealth in rural areas as well as to reduce poverty and improve the quality of life. Growth in agriculture has a maximum cascading impact on other sectors, leading to the spread of benefits over the entire economy and the largest segment of population. This mission cannot be achieved through the work of one person, or one nation, but only through national and global communication and cooperation. In this process, we should expand our knowledge space and integrate research in agricultural and other related scientific fields. The Society of Krishi Vigyan has been formed to promote information exchange among scientists from all fields of agriculture. We are trying to bring out this quality academic journal offering readings into developments in wide foray of agricultural fields. This journal would not have been possible without the support and contributions from our members and friends from all over the country. I call on my colleagues in SKV and friends to work more closely and collaboratively, and to commit to knowledge sharing in this field. With our efforts, I am optimistic that we will upgrade the research level of agriculture and agricultural productivity, and ensure food security in the future. I wish you all the best and success in your future undertaking
(M S GILL)
A Study of Organizational Structure of an NGO Working in Remote Hills of Uttarakhand

Netrapal Malik Krishi Vigyan Kendra (CS Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur) Aligarh-202 122 (U.P.)
ABSTRACT Organizational structure of Central Himalayan Rural Action Group (CHIRAG), a non government organization (NGO) working in hills of Uttarakhand was studied. Data were collected from 132 employees of the organization. It was found that majority of the employees were of middle age and married, having rural background, working at low salary with little career and salary progression. Most of them got the job at young age and have not changed any organization in spite of not getting even a single promotion while having high experience. Medium level of participation was found in decision making about the allocation of resources and organizational polices by majority of the employees of the organization. According to maximum number of employees, CHIRAG was slightly authoritative as far as hierarchy of authority is concerned, complete job description and rule manual existed in the organization and their work is specified. Almost half of the respondents found variety in their work. Majority of the employees of the organization were fulfilling all the qualifications, trainings, experience and expertise required for the position at which they were working. Key words: Organizational structure, Centralization, Formalization, Routine technology, NGO INTRODUCTION An organization is a structured group of interacting people equipped with skills, material, resources, working together with the objectives to fulfill certain need of the society or to provide any service to the society. Every organization has simple or complex structure. Organizational structure can be perceived as the practices being undertaken in an organization with regard to policies, procedures and rules. Two important features of organizational structure are formalization and centralization, which can further be subdivided into four sub-dimensions: decisionmaking, hierarchy of authority, job codification, and rule observation (Hall, 1991). Under the formalization construct, job codification has been defined as the level to which an organization precisely spells out rules and procedures related to jobs in different situations while rule observation refers to the extent to which an organization rigidly adheres to the rules and procedures. In other words, this construct measures how far employees are supervised to ensure that they are not committing any offense against the organizations rules and regulations.
Corresponding author e-mail: netrapalmalik@rediffmail.com
Additionally, centralization deals with the amount of power distributed among employees of various positions. This variable can be perceived in terms of hierarchy of authority and centralized decisionmaking. According to Hage and Aiken (1967), the former examines the level subordinates are reliant upon their supervisors in decision-making while the latter identifies the level of employees involvement in decisions on resource allocation and policy formation. The role of organizational structure as a determinant of various workplace outcomes is evident in many empirical findings. Aizzat et al. (2006) found that formalization has a positive influence on job stress. Tata and Prasad (2004) found stronger relationship between selfmanagement and team effectiveness in the organizations that have a lower level of formalization. Pandey and Welch (2005) reported that a high level of job codification and rule observation had resulted in a high level of work alienation among public servants. Sarros et al. (2002) found that hierarchy of authority exacerbates higher levels of leadership behaviours, which subsequently leads to work alienation.
1
Journal of Krishi Vigyan
It is thus, evident that organizational structure affects significantly the efficiency and progress of the organizational personnel. Despite a rapid growth in academic literature on NGOs and its management, the organizational structure of NGOs remains largely unexplored, while in the present rural development scenario NGOs are playing a vital role. The NGOs with their advantage of nonrigid, locality specific, felt need-based, beneficiary oriented and committed nature of service have established multitude of roles which can affect rural development (Bhaskar and Geethakutty, 2001). Keeping in the view the importance of organizational structure in outcomes and efficiency of its personnel, a study was undertaken on an NGO working in the remote hills of Uttarakhand. MATERIALS AND METHODS The non-government organization Central Himalayan Rural Action Group (CHIRAG) working in Nainital district of Uttarakhand was selected for the study on the basis of its large size, penetration at grass-root level and existence of well-defined hierarchy in the organization. 102 employees working in this organization were interviewed for this study. Different variables selected were age, sex, educational level, background (rural/urban), marital status, age at first job, gross salary of first job, present gross salary, change in organizations, promotions, experience in the organization, total experience, career progression and salary progression. Career progression was calculated by dividing the number of promotions of an employee by the total years of his/her work experience and multiplying by 100. Salary progression was calculated by subtracting the first salary from present salary of an employee and dividing by total years of his/ her work experience. Dimensions of organizational structure taken in study were centralization, formalization, complexity and routine technology. All these dimensions were measured with the help of scale developed by Hage and Aiken (1967). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION General profile of the employees: There were total 102 full time employees working in the organization, out of which sixty
2
were permanent and forty-two were project based. In addition to full time staff, 128 villagers were working as part time staff in the organization as forest caretakers, balwadi workers, environmental education teachers, librarians, community workers, community technicians, community health workers and village dais (mid wives) etc. Amongst the full time staff, beside Executive Director, CHIRAG has adopted four levels of hierarchy viz., team leaders, development associates, development assistants and extension workers. Majority of the employees were of middle age and married. Male: female ratio was 4:1. Overwhelming majority of employees was from rural background working at low salary with low career and salary progression in spite of having high experience. Only few respondents were found to have negative salary progression. One forth employees were educated up to 8th standard and almost similar proportion of employees was under-graduate. Employees with education up to high school and post-graduation were 18.9 and 17.4 per cent, respectively (Table1). Part- time workers of the organization were having less educational level . Employees at middle hierarchy were either graduate or postgraduate. Most of the personnel at upper hierarchy were from urban background and having professional post-graduate qualifications. It was revealed that majority of the employees got their first job at young age (19 to 43 yr.) and they did not change the organization in spite of getting not even single promotion (Table 1) probably due to the reason that most of them were from local villages. Initially, youth from local villages were kept on contract basis without any professional qualification but CHIRAG continued to work with them. Due to long experience in the organization and continuous task specific in-service trainings, these local people became proficient in development work and thus made permanent employees of the organization. It was worth to mention that few of them had been promoted up to the cadre of policy planner. It was thus evident that the strategy of recruiting non-professional local youth and making them proficient in development work through continuous in-service trainings was helpful in employment generation at local level.
Table 1. General profile of organizational personnel.
S. No. Parameter 1.
Number of Percentage Respondents 8 84 40 117 15 90 42 34 25 17 32 23 1 21 97 14 109 14 7 1 1 87 18 16 8 3 127 3 2 112 18 2 98 29 5 110 14 8 50 28 54 6.1 63.6 30.3 88.6 11.4 68.2 31.8 25.8 18.9 12.9 24.2 17.4 0.8 15.9 73.5 10.6 82.6 10.6 5.3 0.8 0.8 65.9 13.6 12.1 6.1 2.3 96.2 2.3 1.5 84.8 13.6 1.5 74.2 22.0 3.8 83.3 10.6 6.1 37.9 21.2 40.9
Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to different aspects of the organization.
S. No. Parameter 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Age Young (below 23) Middle (24 to 43) Old (above 44) Background Rural Urban Marital status Married Unmarried Educational level Upto 8th High School Intermediate Graduate Post Graduate Doctorate Age at first job Very young (below 23) Young (24 to 43) Old (above 44) Change in organization No change One time change Two time change Three time change Four time change Five time change Number of Promotions No promotion One promotion Two promotions Three promotions Four promotions First salary Low Medium High Present salary Low Medium High Career progression Low Medium High Salary progression Low Medium High Total experience Low Medium High
Number of Percentage Respondents
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
7.
8.
Extent of participation in decision making Low 46 34.8 Medium 62 47.0 High 24 18.2 Hierarchy of authority Highly authoritative 28 21.2 Slightly authoritative 72 54.5 Democratic 32 24.2 Presence of job description Complete 82 62.1 Partially complete 40 30.3 Just started 9 6.8 Non existent 1 0.8 Presence of rule manual Complete 88 66.7 Partially complete 26 19.7 Just started 12 9.1 Non-existence 6 4.5 Job codification Specified 94 71.2 Not specified 38 28.8 Rule observation Definitely true 44 33.3 Often true 70 53.0 Often false 8 6.1 Definitely false 10 7.6 Routine technology Routine work 14 10.6 Work with little variety 56 42.4 Work with variety 62 47.0 Complexity Fulfilling all requirements 94 71.2 Fulfilling qualifications, 10 7.6 trainings and experiences but not expertise Fulfilling qualifications 10 7.6 and trainings Fulfilling only qualifications8 6.1 Not fulfilling anything 10 7.6
NGOs mostly depend on time bound projects. Sometimes, NGOs might have been running many projects but may face crisis due to non availability of appropriate projects. During this crisis period if a NGO have not sufficient corpus fund to sustain their potential employees, they might switchover to other organizations. It was found that CHIRAG was recruiting employees at low salary but was sustaining them even after completion of project duration and thus have created a feeling of job security among its employees.
3
Organizational Structure: Centralization Centralization is taken to be a measure of how the power is distributed amongst position. Two features of centralization were taken for the study. a. Participation in decision-making: It refers to the degree to which occupants on various positions participate in decision making about the allocation of resources and organizational polices. Employees were asked to indicate their extent of participation in decision making. It was found that there was medium (47.0%), low (34.8%) and high (18.2%) participation of employees in decision-making. b. Hierarchy of authority: It refers to the extent to which members of the organization are assigned tasks and provided with the freedom to implement them without interruption from superiors. It was observed that the organization was slightly authoritative. Democratic nature of organization was revealed by 24.2 per cent of the respondents followed by highly authoritative (21.2%). c. Formalization: Formalization refers to the degree to which tasks and work processes are uniform and the digression allowed from this constancy. This dimension was further broken up into four sub dimensions namely presence of job description, presence of rule manual, job codification and rule observation. It is a measure of closeness of supervision. It can be concluded from the data (Table 2) that 62.1 per cent respondents reported complete presence of job description, 30.3 per cent described partially complete, 6.8 per cent just started and only 0.8 per cent respondents reported non-existence of job description. Presence of complete rule manual was reported by 66.7 per cent, partially complete by 19.7 per cent, just started by 9.1 per cent and non-existence of rule manual was reported by 4.5 per cent of respondents. It was observed that 71.2 per cent respondents reported that their work was specified whereas 28.8 per cent informed unspecified work. When respondents were asked to report the degree of closeness of supervision, majority of the
4
respondents (53.0%) responded that it is often true that the staff works according to rules manual , Definitely True was responded by 33.3 per cent followed by definitely false (7.6%) and often false (6.1%). Routine technology: Routine technology is interpreted as routine of daily work activities. Data indicated that 47.0 per cent respondents reported variety in their work, 42.4 per cent reported little variety and 10.6 per cent indicated that their work was routine work. Complexity was taken as an aspect of specialization with emphasis on expertise gained by trainings as opposed to the division and systematization of daily routine task. It was analyzed by matching the required qualifications, trainings, experiences and expertise for each position in each project. It was found that the majority of the employees (71.2%) possessed all the required qualifications, trainings, experiences and expertise. There were equal number of employees (7.6%) who were fulfilling qualifications, trainings and experiences but not expertise, fulfilling qualifications and trainings, and not fulfilling anything. Employees who were fulfilling only qualifications was 6.1 per cent. CONCLUSION It can be concluded that majority of the employees were of middle age followed by young and old age and got education only up to 8 th standard followed by graduate employees. Employees at team leader position were post graduate. Most of the employees were from rural background, married and got job in young age with low salary. Present salary of majority of the employees was also low. Maximum number of the employees did not change any organization and did not get even a single promotion, gained low career and salary progression, while they were with high total experience. Medium level of participation was found in decision making about the allocation of resources and organizational polices of the organization. According to maximum number of employees, CHIRAG was slightly authoritative as far as hierarchy of authority is concerned, complete job description and rule manual existed in the organization and their work was specified. Almost half of the respondents found variety in their work. Majority
of the employees were fulfilling all the qualifications, trainings, experience and expertise required for the position at that they were working. There is scarcity of researches on organizational structure of NGOs working in the country. The present study was an attempt to explore the organizational structure of an NGO. Since NGOs have flexibility in changing their organizational structure to cope with dynamic social, cultural, political, economic and technological dimensions of the stakeholders. Hence, there is a need to conduct more studies in Indian context to address the issue of NGOs organizational structure. REFERENCES
Aizzat, M.N., Ramayah, T. and Yeoh, C.B. (2006). Organizational structure and organizational climate as potential predictors of job stress: Evidence from Malaysia, Int. J. Commerce Manag., 16 (2): 116-29.
Bhaskar, Indu and Geethakutty, P. S. (2001). Role of NonGovernmental Organizations in Rural Development: A Case Study, J. Tropical Agri., 39 (1):52-54. Hage, J. and Aiken, M. (1967). Relationship of centralization to other structural properties. Administrative Sci. Quarterly, 7292. Hall, R.H. (1991). Organizations: Structures, processes, and outcomes (5th ed.). Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. Pandey, S. K. and Welch, E. W. (2005). Beyond stereotypes: A multistage model of managerial perceptions of red tape, Administration and Soc., 37 (5):542-75. Sarros, J. C., Tanewaski, G. A., Winter, R. P., Santore, J. C. and Densten, I. L. (2002). Work alienation and organizational leadership. Br. J. Manag., 13 :285-304. Tata, J. and Prasad, S. (2004). Team self-management, organizational structure, and judgement of team effectiveness. J. Managerial Issues, 16(2) :248-65.
Adoption Behaviour and Constraints in Wheat Production Technologies for Higher Wheat Productivity in Hills of Uttarakhand
Ajay Kumar Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Gaina, Pithoragarh -262 530 (Uttarakhand)
ABSTRACT The study was carried out to determine the farmers adoption behaviour on wheat production technologies. The farmers were selected from Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand and were demonstrated production technology during 2008-09 and 2009-2010. It was revealed that 32 per cent farmers fully adopted demonstrated wheat production technology whereas 24.9 per cent farmers adopted partially .The major constraints observed in wheat production was lack of irrigation facility as well as mechanization. In wheat, under irrigated condition yield of 29.8 q/ha was recorded which was 32.4 per cent higher than farmers practice while in rain fed condition demonstrated plot resulted in 16.2 per cent higher yield over farmers practice. The B:C ratio of demonstrated plots under irrigated condition was 1.35 and of farmers practice was 0.90 while under rain fed condition B:C ratio of demonstrated plots was 0.66 and of farmers practice was 0.45. Key Words : Adoption , Wheat production technology, Constraints and B:C Ratio INTRODUCTION Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the second most important food crop in India after rice, both in terms of area and production. India is the second largest wheat producer and produces 12 per cent of the world production. In India wheat is grown between 11oN to 55o N latitude and 72oE to 92oE longitude and at an altitude of more than 3000 m above mean sea level. In Uttarakhand, diverse agro-climatic condition from sub-tropical to temperate exits. In hilly areas of Uttarakhand during the year 201112 wheat was cultivated on 1.96 lakh ha. with production of 2.64 lakh tonne and the average productivity was 13.4 q/ha. On the other hand, the productivity of wheat under plain area was 35.7 q/ha and states average productivity was 23.8 q/ha (Anonymous, 2011). The productivity in the hilly areas is far below the average productivity of the state as well as of nation. The major reasons for this gap in productivity noticed are prevalence of rain fed condition in hills, improper nutrient management, non availability of improved varieties and lack of knowledge of improved agronomical practices. In hilly regions of the state, seed replacement rate is less than 3
Corresponding author e-mail: drajaysrivastava@gmail.com
per cent and fertilizer use is less than 7 kg/ha/yr. During rabi season most of the cultivated wheat is under rainfed condition (>90%), but wherever irrigation sources are available, even there farmers do not timely irrigate the crop due to lack of knowledge. Hence, a study was undertaken with a view to assess the adoption behaviour as well as the various constraints being faced by the farmers of the hilly region regarding wheat cultivation so that KVK can make changes in their mode adopted for technology transfer. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study was undertaken to demonstrate the effect of good quality seed and timely agronomic practices in the enhancement in wheat yield. During the year 2009-10, 57 demonstrations were conducted under rain fed conditions in four villages namely; Kiri, Aincholi, Jakhani and Gaina, while 13 demonstrations were conducted under irrigated condition in three villages namely; Dungri, Jauljibi and Panlot. Selection of the farmers was done randomly. Under irrigated condition, only three irrigations were provided at 35 days, 90 days and around 135-140 days after
sowing. Under farmers practice seed of locally grown varieties was used. Yield under farmers practice was recorded at five farmers field each randomly under both rain fed and irrigated condition from the same villages. The data regarding adoption of technology and constraints experienced by the farmers were collected with the structured interview schedule from selected farmers where wheat demonstrations were laid out. Mean and per cent values were used to classify the data and its analysis. Similarly, the level of adoption of the farmers was classified into three categories viz. low, medium and high. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wheat grain yield under rain fed condition: The average wheat yield obtained under demonstration was 12.2 q/ha which was 16.2 per cent higher over farmers practice (Table 1). The net return was Rs 6,895/- ha. and B:C ratio was 0.67 while under farmers practice net return was Rs 4,540/-ha. and B:C ratio was 0.45. Farmers usually grow tall wheat varieties due to its higher straw yield because there is an acute scarcity of fodder during winter and summer months and thus, extra straw of tall varieties helps in reducing fodder scarcity problem during 2009-10. It was worth to mention that no rainfall occurred during rabi season till the month of February, as a result tillering of wheat crop was reduced under rain fed condition and poor plant growth resulted in low wheat yield both under demonstration and farmers practice. Under irrigated condition: The average wheat yield obtained under irrigated condition was 29.8 q/ha which was 32.4 per cent higher than yield achieved under farmers practice (Table 1).The net profit under demonstration was Rs 25,035/- ha. and the B:C ratio was 1.35 while under farmers practice, net
profit was Rs 16,090/-ha. and B:C ratio was 0.90. In hilly areas, under farmers practice irrigation schedule was not followed properly. Pre sowing irrigation was provided and then irrigation was applied in the month of March and April. Further, no irrigation was applied at crown root initiation stage and other vegetative phases of crop, this reduced the wheat yield as tillering and other development phases of crop were affected adversely. Contrary to the farmers practice in the demonstrated plot irrigations were applied at the recommended time thus recorded an increase of 32.4 per cent over the farmers practice. Adoption behaviour : The farmers involved in the wheat demonstrations were asked questions in order to determine the extent of adoption of demonstrated package of practices. The data (Table 2) indicated that 70 per cent of the respondents had completely adopted the recommended high yielding varieties, 64 per cent proper sowing time and 61 per cent proper dose of farm yard manure. The respondents acknowledged the need of proper FYM application but its availability was the major constraint. About 68 per cent farmers did not adopt seed treatment and 91 per cent did not adopt line sowing due to lack of mechanization, 71 per cent did not follow fertilizer application due to non availability of fertilizer and 81 per cent did not perform any plant protection measure in wheat crop due to non occurrence of any disease and pest. These findings were in agreement with Patel et al, (2003) and Kumbhare et al,( 2011). Constraints perceived: The constraints expressed by the wheat growers have been given in Table 3. Under technological constraints, non-availability of quality seeds (68.6%) of wheat, followed by high weed infestation (57.1%) and non-availability of chemical fertilizer ( 50.0%) were expressed as
Cost of Cultivation Rs/ha 18,590 17,960 10,430 9,960 Gross Net Return return Rs/ha Rs/ha 43,625 34,050 17,325 14,500 25,035 16,090 6,895 4,540 B:C Ratio 1.35 0.90 0.67 0.46 7
Table 1. Yield of wheat under irrigated and rain fed conditions.
Condition
Number of farmers 57 15 13 15
Yield q/ha 29.8 22.5 12.2 10.5
Irrigated Demonstration Farmers Practice Rainfed Demonstration Farmers Practice
Table 2 : Extent of adoption of wheat production technology.
Sr. No. Parameter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 High Yielding Varieties Seed Treatment Sowing Time Recommended Seed Rate Line sowing Time of Irrigation Recommended fertilizer Dose Recommended dose of FYM Proper and effective weed control Plant protection measures Proper and timely harvesting
Extent of Adoption (n=70) Full Adoption Partial Adoption No Adoption 50 (71.4) 10 (14.3) 45 (64.3) 25 (35.7) 01 (01.4) 05 (07.1) 15 (21.4) 43 (61.4) 18 (25.7) 05 (07.1) 30 (42.9) 15 (21.4) 12 (17.1) 15 (21.4) 30 (42.9) 05 (07.1) 08 (11.4) 20 (28.6) 22 (31.4) 22 (31.4) 08 (11.4) 35 (50.0) 05 (07.1) 48 (68.6) 10 (14.3) 15 (21.4) 64 (91.4) 57 (81.4) 35 (71.4) 05 (07.1) 30 (42.9) 57 (81.4) 05 (07.1)
Table 3. Constraints perceived in wheat cultivation.
Constraints Lack of Irrigation Facilities Lack of Mechanization Non Availability of Quality seeds Inadequate Availability of FYM High Weed infestation Inadequate Availability of Chemical Fertilizers Lack of Market Facilities
Number 59 52 48 44 40 35 15
Per cent 84.29 74.28 68.57 62.85 57.14 50.00 21.42
Rank I II III IV V VI VII
Table 4. Suggestion given by the respondents to overcome the constraints in wheat production.
Suggestion Availability of water lifting pumps Availability of low weight power tiller Timely Availability of HYV seed Land Consolidation Adequate support from government agencies Timely availability of fertilizers, weedicide Good Market facilities
Number 56 48 40 37 30 28 17
Per cent 80.0 68.6 57.1 52.9 42.9 40.0 24.3
Rank I II III IV V VI VII
perceived constraints by the respondents. Likewise under resource constraints, 84.3 per cent farmers reported lack of irrigation facilities is major constraint in wheat production followed by mechanization (74.3%). In hilly areas farming is done on bench terraces and moreover entire ploughing is done by bullocks which is time consuming and availability of bullocks even on rent was considered as the constraints by the respondents. 62.9 per cent farmers acknowledged inadequate FYM availability as constraint in wheat production. To overcome these constraints 80 per cent respondent expressed that availability of water lifting pumps are needed to boost the productivity
8
(Table 4), while 68.6 per cent expressed that low weight power tiller are required for better and timely field preparation, 57.1 per cent said that timely availability of HYV seeds need to be ensured and 52.9 per cent reported that land consolidation should be done. In hilly region of Uttarakhand land consolidation till date has not been done and therefore, land holdings are scattered. CONCLUSION It was concluded that if limited irrigation, good quality seeds are provided and proper agronomic practices are followed then wheat yield increased by 32.4 per cent under irrigated
condition and 16.2 per cent under rain fed conditions. Full adoption of wheat production technologies was reported by 32.0 per cent and partially adopted by 17.5 per cent. The major constraint perceived by farmers was lack of irrigation facility followed by lack of mechanization. If these constraints are managed some how then farmers can harvest more yield with the same level of inputs which would definitely improve their socio-economic status.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2011). Agricultural Statistics, 2010-11. Department of Agriculture. Govt. of Uttarakhand. Kumbhare, N. V. and Singh, K. (2011). Adoption behaviour and constraints in wheat and paddy production technologies. Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu., 11 (3) 41-44. Patel, M. M., Chatterjee, A. and Khan, M. (2003). Adoption of wheat production technology. Indian J. Ext. Edu. XXXIX (1&2) 58-62.
An Analytical Study of Livestock Sector in an Adopted Village

H. K. Bhattacharyya, S. Baruah, A. K. Sarma and A. Barooah Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Assam Agricultural University, Dibrugarh 786 010 ( Assam)
ABSTRACT The present study conducted in Phutahola village of Dibrugarh District was an endeavour to know about the livestock profile of the respondents and their knowledge of animal rearing practices. Animals reared by the people are of local or indigenous type having low productivity. Although goat population was found highest (56.9%) in the village, but number of household rearing pigs was higher and most of the people are pig eater. Animals suffer from all common diseases encountered in other parts of the country and the state in particular. The study also revealed that 73.3 and 65.3 per cent of the respondents had knowledge about vaccination and de-worming schedule, respectively. However, other scientific practices of rearing were adopted to a very less extent. Key words: Livestock profile, Adopted village, Dibrugarh, Assam INTRODUCTION Livestock plays a significant role in the rural economy of Assam. Every rural household is associated with livestock rearing but the state still lags behind in production of milk and meat products. In Assam, keeping of livestock is highly livelihood-oriented and is generally owned by small and marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers. The livestock population in the state is very large in numbers but its productivity is very low compared to other parts of the country. As per the livestock census (2003), there was a positive growth in the population of species like cattle (7.6%), goat (3.9%) and pig (16.6%) over the population of previous census whereas the population of buffalo (9.5%), sheep (10.7%) and horses and ponies (8.3%) have shown a negative growth trend over the same period. Goat is available throughout the state as it adapts quickly to harsh environment, has high reproductive efficiency, fair milk yield and excellent meat quality. Pigs are reared predominantly by the tribal and also by other castes. Pork is becoming more popular day by day. There is a tremendous scope of improvement of Desi pigs by crossing with exotic breeds like Hampshire, Berkshire etc. in the region due to the reason that the Desi pigs are poor in productive and reproductive efficiency.
Corresponding author e-mail: drhiranyabh@yahoo.co.in
Keeping in view the different livestock species being kept by the farmers in the region, an effort was made to know the present scenario of different livestock species available with the farmers in the adopted villages so that a comparison can be made after few years of implementation of different scientific interventions by the KVK. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study was conducted in the four selected villages of Dibrugarh district of Assam during the year 2011-12. A total of 150 livestock farmers were selected and interviewed through personal interview method on random basis. The data were collected by using a pre designed interview schedule developed for the purpose. The data were analysed using frequency and percentage in order to draw the inferences. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The average number of cattle, goat and pig in the study area was 2, 6.5 and 2.9 respectively. Out of the total cattle population, 38.3, 44.0 and 17.7 per cent were male , cow and calves, respectively (Table1). These findings with respect to average herd size of cattle were in agreement whereas the population of adult female in the study area was comparatively lesser than the findings of study done in other rural tract of the
10
Table 1. Livestock population.
Species Cow
No. of livestock animals Bull Cow Male calf Female calf Dam Ewe Male kids Female kids Male pigs Sow Male piglets Female piglets 115 132 34 19 224 354 298 100 162 126 87 65 1716
Percentage 38.3 44.0 11.3 6.4 22.9 36.3 30.6 10.2 36.8 28.7 19.8 14.7
Total population covering 150 respondents 300 (17.5%)
Goat
976 (56.9%)
Pig
440 (25.6%)
Total
country (Bhattacharyya et al., 2009). This was mainly due to the reason that in this part of the state, farmers give less emphasis on rearing of animals for milk production but more on meat production which was also evident from the findings of herd size of other species i.e. goat and pig. Although numbers of goat in the selected area was highest but number of respondents rearing pigs were more followed by goat and cattle. Nearly all the household (96.7%) rear few pigs in backyard system of local types. Pigs are generally reared either with goat (24.0%) or with cattle (18.0%) or with both goat and cattle (53.3%) because rearing of pigs under backyard system are generally easier in comparison to rearing of other species and return is also very fast. Moreover, people generally keep bullock for ploughing purpose and carrying load whereas some local cows for getting milk as they do not require extra care for feeding and management. It was also observed that people do not depend
Table 2. Prevalence of common diseases encountered.
on a single income generating activity with the assumption that if ever they fail in one component then loss could be substantiated by one of the other components. The common diseases encountered during the last one year were foot and mouth disease (FMD) in cattle, contagious ecthyma in goat, swine fever in pig and ranikhet and duck plaque in poultry (Table 3). ii.) Knowledge about animal rearing practices: Out of the seven practices selected, 73.3 and 65.3 per cent respondents had knowledge about vaccination and de-worming schedule, respectively but only few of them adopted it and others had no knowledge on vaccination schedule and cold chain maintenance of the vaccine. Similarly, people were not interested in following the recommended de-worming schedule at their own. In case of other package of practices the respondents knowledge was below 50.0 per cent. The respondents had no knowledge about
Prevalence of diseases Cattle FMD Goat Contagious ecthyma Pig Swine Fever Poultry Ranikhet disease Duck Plague
No of respondents (%) 111(74.0) 148 (98.6) 98 (65.3) 150 (100.0) 150 (100.0) 11
Table 3. Knowledge of farmers regarding scientific animal husbandry practices.
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Husbandry practice Balanced feed Preparing silage Artificial Insemination Vaccination Castration Deworming Disposal of animal waste
No. of respondents 0 0 43 110 24 98 11
Percentage 0 0 28.7 73.3 16.0 65.3 7.3
balanced feeding of livestock and silage making mainly due to the reason that the cattle are very low producing and thus farmers do not bother about their upkeep and maintenance. Although 28.7 per cent of the respondents had knowledge on artificial insemination of cattle but only few of them (<10%) practically interested to adopt it. Sixteen per cent people knew about the castration process and its importance. Farmers keeping pigs and bulls adopt the technique of castration because castrated male pigs gain more body weight over uncastrated one and bullocks are used for ploughing and load carriage. Every farmer in the area had constructed a separate shed for their cattle with locally available materials like bamboo, thatch, mud plastering etc and paddy straw is commonly used for feeding during scarcity period. Goat and pigs are reared usually in backyard system by following their
traditional feeding practices i.e. locally available feed stuffs and kitchen waste. CONCLUSION As livestock is less prone to global warming and climate change, it can be considered more reliable than other practices of agriculture. High cost of feed stuffs and medicines has always been a constraint. Due to reduction in grazing areas and pastures the farmers are over dependant on feed that costs them heavily. Therefore, priority should be to develop some low cost feed formulations as livestock has assumed the most important role in providing employment and income generating opportunities. REFERENCES
Bhattacharyya, H. K., Fazili, M. R. and Hafiz, A. (2009). Farm animal rearing in rural Kashmir- some observations. J. Dairying, Foods and Home Sci., 28 (2): 127-29.
12
Dairy Farming Practices followed by Different Categories of Dairy Farmers in South Western Punjab
Bharat Singh Bhattu, Ajitpal Singh Dhaliwal and Gurdeep Singh Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mansa-151 505 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT This investigation was undertaken to study the adoptability of various recommended practices and major constraints faced by dairy farmers in adoption of improved dairy technologies in Bathinda and Mansa districts of Punjab. A total of 78 dairy farmers belonging to small, medium and large categories were selected for the collection of data. It was noticed that that majority of the large dairy farmers and very few small farmers have adopted the recommended package of practices. 80.8 per cent of the small dairy farmers reported lack of knowledge as the major constraint in the adoption of recommended dairy farming practices followed by the nonavailability of improved cattle breeds, buffaloes and breeding bulls. On the other hand, 73.1 per cent of the farmers selected for this study expressed high cost of inputs as the major problem in dairy farming. Similarly, availability of poor quality of feed was the major problem for both the medium as well as large category dairy farmers. Majority of medium category farmers informed about the non availability of improved breeds. Very few small and medium category farmers had adopted cow dung disposal and management practices. Key words: Adoption, Constraints, Feeding, Breeding, Housing, Cow dung management. INTRODUCTION Dairy Farming in Punjab continues to be an integral part of sustainable crop-livestock production system and is being adopted on commercial scale especially by large farmers. Small and marginal dairy units are following traditional practices and are still contributing to the bulk of production. The total milk production in the country for the year 2008-09 was estimated at 108.5 million MT and the demand is expected to be 180 million MT by 2020. To achieve this level, the annual growth rate in milk production has to be increased from the present 2.5 per cent to 5.0 per cent. Thus, there is a tremendous scope for increasing the milk production through profitable dairy farming. Most of the dairy farmers are not adopting recommended technologies which have been developed through considerable quantum of research work carried out by the scientists during the past several decades. Moreover, dairy farmers work in different socio-economic environment and they also differ with respect to extension contact, media exposure and reach to development agencies. Therefore, adoption of different aspect of dairying and constraints faced by them differ
Corresponding author e-mail: gurdeepext@gmail.com
for different categories of farmers. Hence, a need was felt to find out the reasons that why dairy farmers are not adopting the recommended technologies and scientific interventions in dairy production, in order to enhance milk production and milk quality from dairy animals? In fact, the identification of these problems is essential to formulate adequate measures to circumvent the crisis befalling the dairy industry. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to assess the adoption status of recommended dairy farming practices by the dairy farmers and the major constraints faced by them in the adoption of dairy technologies. MATERIALS AND METHODS Area of the study: To undertake this study, all 8 blocks of Bathinda and 5 blocks of Mansa districts were selected. From each block, a cluster of 2-3 villages was selected where dairy farming was highly concentrated. In each block, 6 dairy farmers viz. 2 small farmers (up to 5 milch animals), 2 medium farmers (6 to 20 milch animals) and 2 large farmers (> 20 milch animals) were selected at random. Thus, from 13 development blocks of
13
two districts, a total of 78 dairy farmers were randomly selected for the collection of data (Table1). Collection of data: Data were collected by semi-structured interview schedule. The responses of dairy farmers were collected on a two point continuum viz. adopted and not adopted during the year 2012. Farmers possessing passing marks (33%) in given category were considered as having adopted the recommended practices in the given areas viz; breeding, feeding, housing, disease prevention and control, calf rearing practices and clean milk production practices etc. Thus, a cut list of adopter and non-adopters was prepared. The frequencies of each response/constraint were worked out and expressed in percentage and ranking. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION i.) Milk Production: It was found that the average milk yield of cross bred cows (15.0 l/d) was more than graded buffaloes (12.0 l/d) while average milk yield of
Table-1: Selection of dairy farmers.
local buffalo (10.0 l/d) was more than of local cows (7.0 l/d). Local buffaloes are mainly reared by small and/or landless farmers where as graded buffaloes are reared by large farmers. Further, the commercial dairy units established by large farmers were possessing more numbers of crossbred cows and graded buffaloes while landless families were keeping more numbers of local cows and local buffaloes (Table2). ii.) Adoption status of recommended dairy farming practices: It was noticed that very few number of small farmers had adopted recommended dairy farming practices while more number of large farmers had adopted recommended dairy farming practices. 26.9 per cent of the small farmers had adopted the recommended feeding practices and 23.1 per cent had adopted recommended housing practices whereas, only 0.04 per cent of the small and marginal farmers had adopted the recommended cow dung disposal and management practices. Thus, from the data (Table3), it was evident that adoption of recommended dairy farming practices was very less.
Total number of farmers selected 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 06 78
Name of District Name of Block Bathinda Bathinda Phul Nathana Rampura Maur Talwandi Sabo Sangat Bhagta Bhai Mansa Sardulgarh Bhikhi Budhladha Jhunir
Name of selected villages Goniana Khurd, Goniana Kalan, Haraipur Phul, Mehraj, Dhapali Nathana, Gobindpura, Ganga Rampura, Waliawali, Dikh Maur Khurd, Maur Kalan, Sandoha Talwandi Sabbo, Singo, Lehri Sangat, Kotguru, Bhagwangarh Bhagta, Jalal, Kotha Guru
Mansa
Mansa, Khiala, Burj Dhilva Ahloopur, Fattamaluka Kotra Kalan, Khiva, Kishangarh Pharmahi Budhladha, Fafrebhaike Bajewala, Dasomdia Total
Table 2: Status of dairy farming in south western Punjab
Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 14
Particulars Average milk of local cows (l/d) Average milk of cross bred cows (l/d) Average milk of local buffaloes (l/d) Average milk of graded buffaloes (l/d) Availability of local cows/ buffaloes Availability of cross breed cows/ buffaloes
Existing situation 7.0 15.0 10.0 12.0 Mainly available with small/medium/landless farmers Mainly available with medium/ large farmers
Table 3: Adoption status of recommended dairy farming practices. Sr. No. Particulars Small Farmers Medium Farmers Large Farmers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Feeding practices Housing Practices Diseases control and prevention practices Breeding practices Calf management practices Clean milk production practices Cow dung disposal/management practices 26.9(07) 23.1(06) 19.2(05) 15.4(04) 11.5(03) 07.7(02) 0.04(01) 38.5(10) 34.6(09) 46.2(12) 26.9(07) 30.8(08) 26.9(07) 11.5(03) 61.5(16) 80.8(21) 76.9(20) 69.2(18) 46.2(12) 76.9(20) 38.5(10)
(Multiple responses) (Figures in parenthesis indicate number of dairy farmers)
Among medium category of farmers, majority of the farmers (46.2%) had adopted disease control and prevention practices followed by feeding practices (38.5%), housing practices (34.6%), calf management practices (30.8%) breeding practices (26.9%), clean milk production practices (26.9%) and calf management practices. Very few dairy farmers especially the medium and small category of cattle and buffalo keepers did not adopt the recommended as well as scientific method of animal feeding. Similar findings have been reported by Awasthi et al., (2000) and Intodia (2001) who concluded that the buffalo keepers were not following the scientific practices in case of feeding. In case of small farmers 11.5 per cent of farmers had adopted recommended practices in the area of cow dung disposal and its management practices. Among large category of farmers maximum number of farmers i.e. 80.8 per cent of the farmers had adopted recommended housing practices followed by disease control and management practices (76.9%). High adoption of housing practices among large dairy farmers may be due to their well established and mechanized dairy farms. Similarly, clean milk production practices were also adopted by 76.9 per cent of the large dairy farmers. Less than half i.e. 46.2 per cent of the large dairy farmers adopted calf management practices. The more number of large dairy keepers adopting recommended dairy farming practices in different areas viz., housing, health care and clean milk production was probably due to their better knowledge regarding these practices as well as their good financial position. Chug (1998), Mathur (2001) and Meena et al., (2007) observed that maximum adoption was found in management/housing practices followed by feeding, health care and least in breeding.
iii.) Constraints in the adoption of dairy farming practices: Lack of knowledge: It was found that lack of knowledge was the major reason for non-adoption of recommended practices among small farmers (80.8%) and thus was ranked at number I. They were ignorant about the exact time of removal of placenta and due to lack of veterinary facilities at the door steps of the farmers, they were not in a position to approach any trained person or veterinarian for the problem of anoestrus. These findings were in agreement with those of Mathur (2001) and Walli et al ., (2005) who found that there was poor adoption of improved practices by the cattle owners. Non availability of improved breeds of animals (73.1%) and high cost of inputs (69.2%), non-availability of quality feed materials (57.7%) were the main constraints reported by the small farmers. The availability of mineral mixture and urea molasses mineral block ( UMMB) licks was also a problem. Similarly, majority of the respondents did not adopt the practice of treating of dry fodder with urea to improve its nutritive value. This was due to lack of adequate knowledge regarding quantity of urea required for treatment of straw and fear among the farmers about harmful effect of urea on animal health. b.) Improper feeding practices: Discussion with the farmers regarding feeding practices of dairy animals revealed that all the respondents fed green and dry fodder and majority of them gave concentrate to the milch animals but not in the required quantity. This could be attributed to lack of green fodder availability throughout the year as well as poor economic condition of the respondents.
15
a.)
Table 4: Constraints faced by dairy farmers in adoption of recommended dairy technologies.
Sr. No. Particulars 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Small Farmers Medium Farmers Large Farmers 80.8 (21) 73.1 (19) 69.2(18) 65.4 (17) 57.7(15) 65.4(17) 84.6(22) 53.8(27) 61.5(16) 76.9(20) 19.2(03) 26.9(07) 23.1(06) 16.0(04) 76.9(20)
Lack of knowledge regarding recommended practices Non-availability of improved cow / buffaloes breeds/breeding bulls High prices of inputs Non availability of veterinary facilities in nearby areas Non availability of quality feed
(Multiple responses) (Figures in parenthesis indicate number of dairy farmers)
Among medium farmers category, non availability of quality feed was considered as constraint by 76.9 per cent of the medium category dairy farmers. Use of mineral mixture and salt for animal feeding was not common practice in all categories of farmers and only large dairy keepers were giving it on regular basis to their animals. Non availability of quality feed was a constraint for 76.9 per cent of large dairy farmers and was at ranked I. Labour was not considered as the major constraints by majority of the farmers perhaps due to mechanization in commercial dairy units. This was followed by non-availability of improved animals (26.9%) and high prices of inputs (23.1%). Lack of knowledge of recommended practices was reported as constraint by about one fifth (19.2%) of the large category dairy farmers probably due to the reason that they were getting information through various media viz; television, radio, newspaper ,magazines and internet and were well in contact with the dairy experts. CONCLUSION From the present study, it was concluded that majority of the small farmers were not adopting the recommended dairy farming practices. Lack of knowledge among small dairy farmers was considered as the major constraint in the adoption of the recommended dairy farming practices. Therefore, it is imperative for the training agencies to approach the small and marginal farmers. Poor
quality animals available with majority of small dairy farmers is also cause of concern as still major portion of the milk production is contributed by small farmers in India. The study also revealed that non-availability of improved cow breeds, buffaloes and breeding bulls, high cost and poor quality of inputs were also the major constraints Medium and large category dairy farmers need trainings in the preparation of feed at domestic level as they reported poor quality of compound cattle feed available in the market as major constraint. REFERENCES
Awasthi, H. K., Singh, P. R. and Sharma, R. N. (2000). Knowledge and attitude of dairy farmers towards improved dairy practices. Maharashtra J. Extn. Edu., 19: 290-92. Chug, M. (1998). An exploratory study of dairy farms owned by ex-serviceman in Karnal district (Haryana). M.Sc. Thesis, NDRI, Karnal. Intodia, S. L. (2001). Documentation of farming system in operational area (Udaipur district): A brief survey and analysis. Agriculture perspective of Udaipur district, 103-104. Mathur, P. (2001). Problems and prospects of improved cattle management in Arid Western Plain Zone of Rajasthan. M.Sc. Thesis, Udaipur. Meena, M. L., Sharma, N. K. and Aishwarya, Dudi. (2007). Buffalo Keepers Adoption about Improved Buffalo Production Practices. Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu., 7 (2&3): 6568. Walli, T. K., Joshi, B. K., Shiv Prasad, Mahendra Singh and Singh, R. R. B. (2005). Dairy Farming - A Technical Bulletin on Modern Dairy Farming Practices. National Dairy Research Institute (ICAR), Karnal.
16
Design, Development and Evaluation of Grader for Wild Bitter Gourd

Gagan Jyot Kaur, Jagbir Rehal, Kanwar Barjinder Singh Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Moga-142 001(Punjab)
ABSTRACT A grader for wild bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) was designed on the basis of the dimensional studies of the produce. It was observed that breadth and thickness of the sample ranged from 1.19-2.5 cm whereas the length varied from 1.70-4.0 cm with a sphericity of 0.680.91. On the basis of graphical representation it was found that the produce fell in three discreet sections with an average diameter of less than 1.75 cm, 1.75-2.5 cm, and more than 2.5 cm. A grader was designed with two aperture sizes for the grading of produce. Validation of the designed and fabricated grader was done with the five samples obtained from different fields and evaluated for its efficiency. The grader was economical and efficient for farm level operations. Key Words: Design, Fabrication, Grader, Wild bitter gourd. INTRODUCTION Momordica charantia often called bitter melon, balsam pear, bitter gourd or bitter squash is a tropical and sub-tropical vine of the family cucurbitaceae widely found in Asia, Africa and Caribbean for its bitterest fruits edible fruit. It originated from India and was carried to China in the 14th century. Jhaar Karela ( Momordica charantia var. abbreviata) is a variety of bitter gourd found in wild (Fig 1). Its varieties differ substantially in the shape, size, texture and bitterness. pox(Grover and Yadav, 2004; Basch et al.,2003). The availability of the produce is scanty in the market but due to its medicinal properties its picking up fast and farmers have started its cultivation to get higher returns. As the commercial cultivation has picked up, there is a need for proper handling, marketing and processing of the produce. In WTO scenario grading of horticultural crops is the basic requirement for the national and international marketing system. Grading is an operation carried out after the cleaning to classify the produce in different fractions. The economical returns are dependent on the grade of the produce (Fig 2).
Fig 1. Wild Bitter Gourd (Momordica charantia var. abbreviata)
It is commonly used in the folk lore medicines to cure diabetes, gastro intestinal diseases, nematode worms, preventing and treating malaria, viral diseases such as measles and chicken
Corresponding author e-mail: kaur_jagbir@yahoo.com
Fig2: Classification of the different grades/classes depending upon the quality of produce.
17
Grading is done depending on the physical characteristics of shape, size, weight, color etc. Different grades for the agricultural produce and quality grading have been standardized (Wit, 1984; Murthy et al.,1996; Jaiswal, 2000). Other work reported includes online fruit grader (Leemans et al., 2002), multi fruit grader (More and Saxena, 2003), potato grading machine (Ghanbarian et al., 2010) and grading prototype for fresh Kinnow fruits( Sharma and Ghuman , 2009). No existing grader was found suitable for jhaar karela as the reported grading machines are product specific due to variation in size, shape and color. The present study was carried out with the objective to design and develop a farm level economical grader for grading of wild bitter gourd and to test the performance for grading of produce. MATERIALS AND METHODS Produce: 5 kg of wild bitter gourd were procured from different fields of Western Punjab (N=5) for the year 2012. The respective length (l), breadth (b) and thickness (t) of n (n=200) sample were recorded with the digital vernier calipers (LC= 0.01mm). Design: Sample size of n=200 were analyzed. The produce broadly fell in three different size categories: small (<1.75 cm), medium (1.75-2.5 cm) and large (>2.5cm).Grader was designed with two sieves top and bottom with aperture size of 2.5 cm and 1.75 cm respectively for the produce as shown in Fig 3.Geometric mean diameter (GMD) and the average values of different parameters like sphericity, surface area and unit volume are detailed in Table 1.
Fabrication: Galvanized Iron (GI) sheets are commonly used for the fabrication of grain storage bins was selected due to its durability, strength and inertness. The grader was designed in circular shape which gave a smooth surface thus avoiding the clogged corners and damage to both the produce and operator. The selected apertures were placed in alternate concentric rings keeping the difference between two consecutive rings equal to the size of the aperture. The distance between two consecutive apertures (equidistant from the centre) was equal to the aperture itself. The height of the lower sieve was kept 6 cm to facilitate the easy movement of the produce during the mechanical movement (Fig 4).The grader weighed 3.3 kg and had a capacity to grade 5 kg of the produce in a single operation. It had an interlocking arrangement and the lower grader was provided with two handles to facilitate the mechanical movement (Fig 5).
Fig 4: Set of two sieves with interlocking arrangement
Figure 3: Variation of produce diameter

Table 1: Geometric Properties of the produce
Fig 5: Placement of the apertures in concentric rings t (cm) 1.83 GMD(cm) 2.13 Sphericity (%) 75.12 Surface area (cm2) 15.20 Unit volume (cm3) 61.91
Parameters Values 18
l(cm) 2.85
b(cm) 1.87
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A 5 kg of sample was taken and shaken manually for 2 minutes in the grader. The graded sample was collected in three different groups i.e. over of top sieve (large), over of bottom sieve (medium) and through bottom sieve (small).The breadth/thickness of the produce was measured with the calipers. The breadth/thickness of 90-95% samples were found to be below the size of the aperture. CONCLUSION The grader was designed keeping in view farmers requirement, locally available materials and ease of operation. Performance of the grader was evaluated for grading efficiency with negligible damage to the produce. The efficiency of the grader varied from 90-95 per cent. Single operator was capable of operating it for efficient grading of the bitter gourd to increase the market returns to the farmers. The large produce can be used for seed production while medium and small grades are the most desired and fetch higher price as they are tender, have less number of seeds and can be exploited for value addition. The designed and fabricated grader can be made available in the market at a price of Rs 600-700/-.
REFERENCES
Basch, E., Gabardi, S. and Ulbricht, C. (2003). Bitter melon (Momordica charantia): A review of efficacy and safety. Am. J. Health Syst.Pharm.,60 : 356-59. Ghanbarian, D., Kolchin N. N., HasanBeigi, S. R. and Ebrahimi, R. (2010). Design and development of small potato-grading machine using capron net. J. Food Process. Eng., 33 (6):114858. Grover, J. K. and Yadav, S. P. (2004). Pharmacological actions and potential uses of Momordica charantia: A review. J. Ethnopharmacol., 93: 123-132. Jaiswal,P. K.(2000). Grading and standardization in agricultural food products- a view. Agril. Mktg., 43 (3): 33-34. Leemans, V., Magein, H. and Destain, M. F. (2002). On-line fruit grading according to their external quality using machine vision. Biosystem Engg., 83, 397404. More, P. K. and Saxena, R. P. (2003). Design and development of muti-fruit grader. J. Agril. Mech. Asia, Africa and Latin America, 34 (3):39-52. Murthy, C., Wader, L. K. and Shankaramurthy. (1996). Development of Grade standards for ground nut in Chitradurga district of Karnataka. Indian J. Agril. Mktg., 10 (1): 27-42. Sharma, A. and Ghuman, B. S. (2009). Evaluation of on-farm waxing and grading prototype for fresh Kinnow fruits. Industrial J. Hort., 66 (2). 288-90. Wit, W. D. E. (1984). Quality grading of Agricultural produce and food shafts. Bedrifsunt Wikkeling, 15 (3): 185-88.
19
Economics of Different Livestock-Carp Integrated Farming Systems over Traditional Non Integrated Farming System in Terai Region of West Bengal
Soma Banerjee and Sudip Barat* Krishi Vigyan Kendra (West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences), Jalpaiguri 735 101( West Bengal)
ABSTRACT Economics of different integrated farming systems in Terai region of West Bengal were studied by observing three treatments as T1 (Control): Traditional farming system, T2: Integrated cattle farming with aquaculture and T3: Integrated cattle and ducks farming with aquaculture. The fish and milk production was significantly higher (Pd0.05) in T3 as 27.80.5 kg and 441.381.4 l., respectively followed by T2 as 20.60.3kg and 405.427.8 l., respectively and T1 as 10.70.3kg and 2195.6 l. with addition of 2,93932.0 numbers of eggs in T3. Hence, the profit was significantly higher in T3 (Rs 25,126.8394.0) than T2 (Rs 9,566.8185.7) and T1 (Rs 4,982.2206.1). Key Words Cow-dung, Grass carp, Indian Major Carp, Livestock-Carp Integrated Farming System, Water Quality, Economics INTRODUCTION Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) have received considerable attention in recent years due to the reason that the resources being used under non-integrated farming system are depleting and thus the prevailing farming system is not sustainable in long run resulting threat to the environment. During past three decades great emphasis was given on the incorporation of animal manures as fertilizer and nutrients for promotion of feed and fauna in fish ponds and utilized by the fish . According to Dhawan and Toor (1989) more than 50 per cent of the total input cost in fish culture may be reduced by recycling the animal waste. Hence integrated livestock- carp farming became important to ensure waste management as well as in reducing the production cost (Nnaji et al., 2011) As the integrated farming system seems to be profitable by reducing the input cost and probable solution to meet the increased demand for food stability, the present study was therefore executed to observe the economics of two IFS models, using different existing components such as cow, ducks and fish ponds in Terai region of West Bengal. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area The experiment was carried out during the years 2010 and 2011 at a village Belacoba of Jalpaguri district, situated in the northern region of West Bengal, India having a sub- tropical humid climate at 2658N latitude and 8858E longitude ( 43 m above msl). The soil of the research field was sandy - loam in texture. Experimental design Nine ponds were selected in triplicates for each treatment of same size 0.01 hectare (ha) to carry out the three treatments T1, T2 and T3 (Table 1). Ponds were stocked with Indian Major Carp (IMC) as Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhina mrigala and Exotic Carp Ctenopharyngodon idella, in the stocking ratio of 3:3:3:1 as suggested by Jena et al., (2007). Pond Management under different treatments All the ponds under experiment were seasonal (April to September) from 2010 to 2011 with an average size of 0.01 ha and depth of 1.5 to 2.0 m. During March, ponds were dried and the bottom
* Aquaculture and Limnology Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of North Bengal, District Darjeeling, West Bengal. Corresponding author e-mail: dr.soma@rediffmail.com
20
soil along with aquatic weeds and unwanted fishes were removed. Raw cow-dung at 3 t/ ha was applied as the basal dose 15 days prior to stocking. Lime was applied @250 kg/ha three to four days prior to stocking. The fingerlings were stocked in the month of April @ 10,000 fingerlings/ha in the ponds under T1, T2 and T3. The average weights of the fingerlings were 14-15g. Application of cow dung @ 2600kg/ ha once in ten days was followed for the ponds under T2 and T3. Optional application of lime @ 200kg / ha was done to maintain the pH of the ponds between 6.5 to 8.5. Supplementary feed in the form of Mustard Oil Cake and Rice Bran in the ratio 1:1 was applied after stocking @ 2 per cent of total body weight once a day. The cow-dung was collected everyday and stored for application in the pond after each 10 days. The cow-dung was spread equally covering the whole pond. Starting application of manuring was 10days after stocking of fingerlings. The methology followed was as suggested by Jha et al., 2004 and Jena et al., 2007. Livestock Management under different treatments The livestock considered in this study was non descriptive (local variety with no specific breed character) cows and ducks mostly prevalent amongst small and marginal farmers of this area with the production potentiality of 500 to 800 l./ lactation and 80-120 eggs/year , respectively. In T1 the cattle was reared in extensive system of rearing where, the cow was allowed to graze whole day and at night shelter was provided along with some paddy straw and water. The cow dung was not stocked to integrate with aquaculture. Milking of the cow was done twice a day. The cattle under T2 and T3 were reared in semi-extensive system where the cows were allowed to graze for 6 hours every day considering the climatic condition to avoid stress. In cattle house, the cows were provided concentrate feed @ 1kg /day along with some green grass and paddy straw. The cow dung was collected to integrate with aquaculture. De-worming of the cows were done routinely thrice in a year. Additional twenty ducks were reared in extensive system in T3 along with the cattle. After one month of stocking five months old ducks were brought into use. Ducks were allowed to graze
on the pond from 9.00 am to 5 pm daily and fed with kitchen left overs and agricultural by products @75g/d. The eggs produced were collected in the morning. Sampling of pond water Water samples were collected from different sites of the ponds at bimonthly intervals at a fixed hour of the day (9:00 am). The water quality parameters were analysed following the standard methods as described by APHA (2005). Cost-benefit analysis Cost-benefit analysis of the data was carried out on the basis of current market prices for the investment made as input cost and the total returns of fish harvested , milk and egg produced as gross output from the farm and following the simple procedure as suggested by Jolly and Clonts (1993). Profit = Gross output Total Cost Statistical analyses One-way ANOVA (Gomez and Gomez, 1984) was used for the analysis of data. If the main effect was found significant, the ANOVA was followed by a least significant difference (LSD) using Duncans Multiple Range Test (DMRT). All statistical tests were performed at a 5 per cent probability level using the statistical package SPSS-18. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water Quality It was found that within the treatments i.e., T1, T2 and T3 the values of all physico-chemical parameters except total hardness were significantly different (pd 0.05). Total alkalinity, concentration of chloride, ammonium-N, nitriteN, nitrate-N and phosphate- p were found to be significantly higher (pd0.05) in T2 and T3 than the Control (T1). T3 significantly had the higher (pd0.05) Phosphate- p concentration indicating that duck grazing may have affected the Phosphate- p concentration in pond water. Phosphorus is commonly considered the major limiting nutrient in freshwater, and additions of phosphorus often result in increased primary production in aquaculture systems (Daina et al., 1991).
21
Table 1. Experimental Designs under different Integrated Farming Systems.
Treatment Components of farming Type of farming No. of ponds Average size of pond(ha) Manuring No. of ducks per pond Stocking density of fingerlings/ha Types of fish stocked Stocking ratio Fish feeding schedule (on daily basis) No of Cattle System of cattle rearing Feeding schedule of cow
T1(Control) Fish and cow 3 0.01 No manuring nil 10,000 IMC+Grass carp 3:3:3:1
T2 Fish cum cow 3 0.01 Manuring @ 2600kg/ ha / ten days with cowdung nil 10,000 IMC+Grass carp 3:3:3:1
T3 Fish cum cow cum duck Integrated 3 0.01 Manuring @ 2600kg/ ha / ten days with cowdung 20 10,000 IMC+Grass carp 3:3:3:1
Non-integrated (Traditional) Integrated
@ 2% of total body weight @ 2% of total body weight @ 2% of total body with Mustard oil cake and with Mustard oil cake and weight with Mustard oil Rice Bran (1:1) Rice Bran (1:1) cake and Rice Bran (1:1) 1 Extensive 12 hours grazing with 1 Semi extensive 6 hours grazing and Concentrate feed and green grass along with paddy straw Non descriptive Nil Nil 2008-2011(4 years) Six months 1 Semi extensive 6 hours grazing and Concentrate feed and green grass along with paddy straw Non descriptive Extensive Non descriptive 2008-2011(4 years) Six months
Type of cow System of duck rearing Type of Duck Duration of Study Harvesting of Fish
Non descriptive Nil Nil 2008-2011(4 years) Six months
Table-2: Mean SE of water quality parameters under T1, T2 and T3.
Parameters Temperature (C) pH Dissolved oxygen (mg l-1) Free carbon dioxide (mg l-1) Total alkalinity (mg l-1) Total hardness (mg l-1) Chloride (mg l-1) Ammonium-N (mg l-1) Nitrite-N (mg l-1) Nitrate-N (mg l-1) Phosphate (mg l-1)
T1 29.700.23b 8.170.07b 7.380.08b 11.020.17c 22.640.33a 44.540.62a 17.140.54a 0.040.01a 0.400.02a 0.210.04a 0.240.023a
T2 28.670.20a 8.110.05b 6.720.05a 10.340.13b 23.150.28ab 44.170.59a 24.170.70b 0.080.02b 0.400.03ab 0.490.03b 0.410.03b
T3 28.860.20a 7.740.07a 9.250.15c 9.450.09a 23.970.29b 44.580.76a 29.180.67c 0.080.02b 0.490.03b 0.480.03b 0.590.02c
Different superscripts (a, b and c) denotes significant difference and similar superscripts denote non-significant difference between treatments at 5% level. N=72 for all the parameters.
22
Table 3. Mean SE of different productions of fish, milk and eggs under different Treatments.
Treatments
Catla catla
Labeo rohita
Cirrhina Ctenopharyng mrigala odon idella
Total fish production (kg/six month) 10.670.33a 20.570.33b 27.780.50c
Milk (l/year/cow)
Eggs (no./year)
T1 T2 T3
4.93 0.11a 9.48 0.19b 12.59 0.26c
3.650.22a 0.480.04a 1.610.11a 6.650.14b 1.370.11b 3.070.14b 8.840.17c 2.930.15c 3.420.15b
2195.56a .0000a b 405.4227.81 .0000a b 441.2518.42 293932.41b
Different superscripts (a, b and c) denotes significant difference and similar superscripts denote non-significant difference between treatments at 5% level. N=12 for all the parameters.
Table 4. Mean SE of net income (profit) under different Treatments.
Treatments T1 T2 T3
Total Expenditure (Rs) 1175.5050.70a 2812.5081.48b 3873.00153.03c
Gross income (Rs) 6157.75212.22a 12379.25257.76b 28999.75541.07c
Net Income(profit) (RS) 4982.25206.09a 9566.75185.74b 25126.75393.99c
Different superscripts (a, b and c) denotes significant difference between treatments at 5% level. N=4 for all the parameters and 1$=50 Rupees.
The pH and temperature were found to be within the moderate range maintaining the favourable condition for fish growth (Jana et al. 2012). Biswas, et al. (2006) expressed the values at three different concentration levels of ammonium (a) favourable concentration range : 0.262 to 0.294 mg/ l , (b)growth-inhibiting concentration range : 0.313 to 0.322 mg/ l and (c) lethal concentration range : 0.323 to o.422 mg/ l. In the present study, all the values of ambient ammonium concentration in T1, T2 and T3 remained lower than the threshold concentration of 0.313 mg/ l and, therefore, perhaps favourable for fish culture under waste fed condition. Murad and Boyd (1991) stated that ponds should have at least 20 mg/ l total alkalinity for good fish production. In the present study, the total alkalinity was found to be more than 20 mg/ l in three treatments throughout the experiment where T3 had significantly higher total alkalinity than T2 and T1. Hence, the use of organic inputs may keep total alkalinity at higher levels. T3 has significantly highest dissolved oxygen followed by T1 then T2 indicating that manuring decreases the dissolved oxygen and Duck grazing on pond increases the same. Ammonia is more toxic when dissolved oxygen concentration is low. No significant difference were observed in T2 and T3 regarding total alkalinity, ammonium-N, nitrite-N and nitrate-N. Free carbon dioxide is observed to be significantly higher in T1 followed by T2 and T3, respectively.
Economics Under Different Treatments: Total MeanSE of yearly production during the study period was significantly (pd0.05) higher in T3 (27.8 0.5 kg) followed by, T2 (20.6 0.3kg) and T1 (10.7 0.3 kg) (Table 3). High fish yield were also obtained in Israel, 30 kg/ha/d with cattle manure (Schroeder, 1975), 40 kg/ha/d with duck manure and waste feed (Wohlfarth, 1978) and 20 kg/ha/d with chicken manure (Milstein et al. 1995). It has also been reported that the application of 15,000 kg/ ha of cow manure resulted in an average fish yield of 300 kg/ ha while the control ponds averaged 97 kg/ ha of fish. T3 has significantly highest production of Catla catla (12.60.3 kg); Labeo rohita (8.80.2 kg); Cirrhina mrigala (2.930.2 kg) and Ctenopharyngodon idella (3.4 0.2 kg) followed by T2 then T1. It was also reported by Schroeder (1975), that manures could achieve75 per cent of the yields attained by using supplementary feeding of grains and 60 per cent of the yields possible with protein-rich pellets. Fish yield in properly designed and managed manure loaded ponds can reach 5 to 10 t/ha./yr without any supplemental feeding (Schroeder, 1978). The MeanSE of milk yield was also observed to be significantly higher in T2 (405.4 27.8 lt.) and T3 (441.318.4 l. than T1 (2195.6 l.). This was due to the improved feeding practice followed during the integrated farming systems. T3 had additional production of duck eggs (293932.41 ). Sharma and Olah (1986) and Sharma et al., (1988) observed, that
23
the excreta of 35 to 45 pigs, 200 to 300 ducks and 250 to 300 layer poultry birds or 150 to 200 broiler birds produced 6 to 7 t, 3 to 4 t and 4 t of fish /year, respectively when recycled in one hectare of water area under the polyculture of Indian and exotic fish. Cost benefit analysis was done considering the expenditure incurred on the fingerling (@Rs250/kg) and feed (@Rs14/kg). It was observed, that T3 has achieved significantly (pd0.05) higher profit (Rs 25,126394.0) than T2 (Rs 9,566185.7) and T1 (Rs 4,982.3207.0), indicating that the undigested fraction in animal waste was eaten by fish which may reduce the feeding cost of aquaculture along with the higher zooplankton production which further facilitates the fish growth rate resulting in maximum profit inT2 and T3. Studies of Afzal et al. (2007), Sarkar et al.(2011) and Bhakta et al (2004) on animal wastes revealed that fish yield in ponds fertilised with animal excreta was 5-7 times higher than normal fish pond. Panda (2002) indicated, that the approach of integration of duck farming is profitable and acceptable to the farmers in the developing world for maximum utilization of land and water resources. The droppings of ducks act as a substitute to fish feed and pond fertilizer up to 60 per cent of total feed cost. CONCLUSION It was concluded that integrated farming system responds well when the number of component involved are increased. T3 had ducks as additional component which increased the potentiality of the farming system resulting in highest return (BC ratio 7.5) than T2 and T1. The BC ratio in T2 (4.4) was found to be lower than T1. Hence, in the northern part of West Bengal, integration of livestock-carp and duck can be considered the best integrated farming system model for income generation among the small and marginal farmers. REFERENCES
Afzal, M., Rab, A., Aktar, N., Khan, M. F., Barlas, A. and Qayyum, A. (2007). Effect of organic and inorganic fertilisers on the growth performance of bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) in polyculture system. Int. J. Agric. Biol., 9 (6): 931-33. APHA. ( 2005). Standard methods for the examination of water and Waste Water. 21st Edition. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, DC. Bhakta, J. N., Sarkar, D., Jana, S. and Jana, B. B.( 2004). Optimising fertilizer dose for rearing stage production of carps under polyculture. Aquaculture, 239:125-39.
Biswas, J. K., Sarkar, D., Chakraborty, P., Bhakta, J. N. and Jana, B. B. (2006). Density dependent ambient ammonium as the key factor for optimization of stocking density of common carp in small holding tanks. Aquaculture, 261: 952-959. Daina, J. S., Lin, C. K. and Schneeberger, P. J. (1991). Relationships among nutrient inputs, water nutrient concentrations,primary production and yield of Oreochromis niloticus in ponds. Aquaculture, 92:323. Dhawan, A. and Toor, H. S. (1989). Impact of organic manure and supplementary diet on plankton production and fish growth and fecundity of an Indian major carp Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.) in fish ponds. Biol waste, 29 (4): 289-97. Gomez, K. A. and Gomez, A. A. (1984). Statistical procedures for agricultural research. 2nd edn. Wiley, New York. Jana, B. B., Bag, S. K. and Rana, S. (2012). Comparative evaluation of the fertilizer value of human urine, cow manure and their mix for the production of carp fingerlings in small holding tanks. Aquaculture Intl., 20 (4):735-49. Jena, J. K., Das P.C. and Sarangi, N. (2007). Carp farming; avenues for rural livelihood and entrepreneurship. Indian Farming, 56 (7) : 25-27, 36. Jha, P., Sarkar, K. and Barat. S. (2004). Effect of Different Application Rates of Cowdung and Poultry Excreta on Water Quality and Growth of Ornamental Carp, Cyprinus Carpio vr. Koi, in concrete Tanks. Turkish J. fisheries and Aquatic Sci., 4 : 17- 22. Jolly, C. M. and Clonts, H. A.(1993). Economics of Aquaculture. The Haworth Press, USA. pp 319. Milstein, A., Alkan, A. and Karplus, I. (1995). Combined effects of fertilization rate. Manuring and feed pellet application on fish performance and water quality in polyculture ponds. Aquaculture Res., 26: 55. Murad, H. and Boyd, C. E. (1991). Production of sunfish(Lepomis spp.) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) in acidified ponds. Aquaculture, 94: 381-88. Nnaji, J. C., Uzairu, A., Gimba, C. and Kagbu, J. A. (2011). Heavy metal risks in integrated chicken-fish farming. J. Applied Sci.,11 (12): 2092-99. Panda B. K. (2002). Integration of ducks into fish farming. Indian Farming, 52 (6): 29-33. Sarkar Paria, D., Bag ,S. K., Lahiri (Ganguly), S., Jana, S. and Jana, B. B. (2011). Indian carp polyculture integrated with ducks and poultry: ecological and economic benefits. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 81: 773-80. Schroeder, G.L. (1974). Use of fluid cowshed manure in fish ponds. Bamidgeh. 26(3):84-96 Schroeder, G.L. (1975).Cow manure in fish culture. FAO Aquaculture Bull., 7: 6. Sharma, B. K., Das, N. K. and Das, S. R. (1988). Carp farming integrated with pig raising in India. Environ. Ecol.,6 (1): 159-68. Sharma, B. K. and Olah, J. (1986). Integrated fish-pig farming in India and Hungary. Aquaculture, 54: 135-139 Wohlfarth, G. W. (1978). Utilization of manure in fish farming. Proc. Fish farming and Waste Conf., University of College, London, Janssen Services, pp. 78.
24
Effect of Furrow and Bed Transplanted Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) with Varying Irrigation Management on Soil Bulk Density and Infiltration Rate on Sandy Loam Soil
Navjot Singh, Krishan Kumar Vashist and S. S. Mahal Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana -141 004 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT A field experiment was carried out at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana to evaluate the effect of furrow and bed transplanted rice (Oryza sativa L.); varying irrigation management practices; and weed control on soil bulk density and infiltration rate on sandy loam soil. The experiment consisted of seven planting x irrigation and two weed control treatments. Soil bulk density was higher after harvesting as compared with that before planting. The bulk density at crop harvest, at soil depth of 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm was 1.86 and 1.24 per cent more over the bulk density before sowing in flat plots. Among rice transplanting methods, wet levelling (puddling process) in flat fields increased bulk density compared with unpuddled furrows and beds. The cumulative infiltration rate reduced after land preparation as compared to before sowing. Cumulative infiltration rate reduced by 65.6 per cent in unweeded flat plots as compared to that before sowing whereas the reduction of 63.1 per cent was observed in herbicide treated flat plots. Also, the cumulative infiltration rate was higher in bed and furrow transplanted rice (10.3- 10.8 cm/min) than puddled flat treatments (5.5-5.9 cm/min). Key words: Bed/furrow transplanting, Border method of irrigation, Bulk density, Infiltration rate INTRODUCTION Traditionally rice is grown by manual transplanting of 25-30 day old seedling after puddling (PTR). Puddling is done by extensive tillage in standing water (>300 mm), which creates impervious layer 10-15cm below soil surface. Puddling is done to reduce percolation losses, to control weeds and to makes transplanting operation easier. Puddling, however, has been reported to destroy soil structure, which affects growth and development of succeeding upland crops in the rotation, thereby reducing system productivity (Hobbs et al., 2002). Puddling reduce macropore volume in the upper portion of the soil profile while increasing bulk density in the compacted, anthropogenic horizon that is alternately termed the plough sole or tillage pan (Ghildyal, 1978; Sharma and De Datta, 1985; Adachi, 1990). Excessive pumping of water for
Corresponding author e-mail: navjotbrar11@yahoo.co.in
puddling in peak summers in North West IndoGangetic Plains lead to problem of declining water table. The strength of puddled soil increases rapidly upon drying and may restrict root growth of the secondary crop. As a result, these crops cannot access the considerable amount of water and nutrients that are stored in the subsoil after the prolonged period of inundation during the rice phase. To increase the yield and yield stability of secondary crops after rice, it has been suggested that the effects of adverse soil physical conditions can be minimized by manipulation of soil puddling during land preparation for rice (Sharma and De Datta, 1985; Utomo et al ., 1985). It is important that any manipulation of the puddling intensity should not affect the growth and yield of the primary rice crop.
25
Thus the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effect of furrow and bed transplanted rice (without puddling) with varying irrigation management on soil bulk density and infiltration rate on sandy loam soil MATERIALS AND METHODS The field investigation was carried out at students farm, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (30 0 56 N latitude with 75 0 52' E longitude, 247 m mean sea level). The soil texture of the experimental site was sandy loam, the percentage of sand, silt and clay in 0-15 cm depth was 76.9, 7.8 and 15.3 whereas, at 15-30 cm, the values were 73.8, 9.8 and 16.4, respectively. The physicochemical properties of the soil are given as below: Nursery of pre-germinated seed of var. PR 116 was sown during first fortnight of May to have 30-35 days old seedlings. Uprooted seedlings were transplanted on during first fortnight of June as per treatments keeping the plant population constant i.e. 33 hills/m2. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with four replications. The experiment comprised of 14 treatment combinations resulting from seven planting methods + irrigation treatments and two weed control treatments. The details of treatments were as given below: Two weed control treatments i.e. (i) Unweeded control [-UWC] (ii) Use of pretilachlor @ 0.75 kg/ha and metsulfuron @ 0.015 kg/ha [Herbicide].
Depth(cm) 0-15 15-30 S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ph(1:2) 7.15 7.11 Treatment Flat (BM) 2R/F (Inun. B+F) 2R/B (Inun. B+F) 2R/B (Inun. B) 2R/B (Inun. B) 2R/F (F) 2R/B (F) EC (mmhos/cm) 0.12 0.25
Pretilachlor was mixed with sand and applied at 2 days after transplanting and Metsulfuron was sprayed 22 days after transplanting. The nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium at the rate of 125, 30 and 30 kg/ ha were applied through urea, diammonium phosphate and murate of potash. Whole of phosphorus, potassium and one-third nitrogen was applied before last puddling. Zinc sulphate was also applied at the time of puddling @ 62.5 kg/ ha. The remaining N was applied in two equal splits at three weeks interval. Irrigation water was applied daily for the initial two weeks after transplanting and subsequent irrigations were applied two days after the ponded water has infiltrated in to the soil. For determination of bulk density, soil samples of undisturbed soil were taken before sowing and after the crop harvest by using a 5 cm long scoop having 2.5 cm internal diameter. The samples were taken from 0-15 and 15-30 cm soil depth from the top in bed transplanted treatments and furrow base in the furrow transplanted treatments. The soil samples were oven dried and bulk density was expressed as g/cm 3 (Blake, 1965). The infiltration rate was measured before sowing and after the crop harvesting from the top in bed transplanted treatments and furrow base from furrow transplanted treatments with the help of double ring infiltrometer of 34 and 40 cm diameter and 28 cm height as specified by Black (1965) from all the experimental plots representing different treatments.
Available N (Kg/ha) 210 182 Available P (Kg/ha) 18.9 17.8 Available K (Kg/ha) 185 140
Organic Carbon (%) 0.27 0.21
Description[Planting method x (Irrigation Method)] Transplanting puddled flat (Border method of irrigation) Transplanting 2 rows/furrow(Irrigation inundating beds during establishment phase and in furrows thereafter) Transplanting 2 rows/bed (Irrigation inundating beds during establishment phase and in furrows thereafter) Transplanting 2 rows/furrow (Irrigation inundating beds throughout after transplanting) Transplanting 2 rows/bed (Irrigation inundating beds throughout after transplanting) Transplanting 2 rows/furrow (Irrigation in furrows throughout after transplanting) Transplanting 2 rows/bed (Irrigation in furrows throughout after transplanting)
26
In order to test the significance of results, the data were subjected to statistical analysis of variance according to method given by Cochran and Cox (1967). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. Bulk density The data on bulk density of soil profile up to 30 cm depth at harvest is presented in Table 1. Bulk density of different depths of soil profile was higher at harvest as compared to start of the experiment, in all the treatments. The per cent increase in bulk density at harvest in 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm soil depth under both UWC and Herbicide Flat (BM) was 1.86 and 1.24 over the bulk density determined before sowing. The slight increase in bulk density in Flat (BM) can be attributed to the puddling operation done at the time of transplanting in these treatments. As puddling forms compact layer due to deposition of dispersed clay which leads to higher value of bulk density. In other treatments, the bulk density at harvest in 0-15 and 15-30 cm soil depth was 1.24 and 0.62 percent more over the bulk density determined before sowing but lower than Flat (BM). Though there is no puddling operation in
these treatments but the more number of irrigation throughout crop season might have resulted in temporary compaction of soil layer in furrow and bed transplanting method which resulted in slight increase in bulk density over unsown soils. 2. Infiltration rate The data on infiltration rate (Table 1) shows that it was lower in both UWC and Herbicide used conditions under Flat (BM) conditions as compared to other treatments of rice transplanting in unpuddled field. UWC, Flat (BM) and Herbicide Flat (BM) resulted in 65.6 per cent and 63.1 per cent reduced cumulative infiltration rate over cumulative infiltration rate determined before sowing. The considerable reduced infiltration rate might be due to the fact that puddling formed a compact layer and reduced porosity, which results in lower rate of infiltration. However, the slight reduction in infiltration rate also observed in other furrow and bed transplanted treatments i.e. in range of 38.1 to 32.5 per cent over the cumulative infiltration rate determined before sowing although the puddling operation was not done in these treatments. The irrigation throughout the crop season might have resulted in temporary compaction of soil layers in furrow and bed
Infiltration rate (cm) Time interval (minutes) Grain Yield (qha-1) 30 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.5 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 1.4 60 120 Cumulative 0.8 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.5 0.9 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.4 2.6 1.2 2.3 2.1 2.0 2.1 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.1 1.8 2.0 3.3 5.5 10.5 10.8 10.3 10.7 9.9 10.4 50.3 28.5 26.1 39.4 35.8 21.9 21.4
Table 1: Effect or different treatments on soil bulk density & infiltration rate of water at harvest and grain yield.
Treatments
Bulk Density (gcm-3) Depth of soil layer (cm) 0-15 15-30 1.64 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.64 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.62 1.63 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.63 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.62 1.61 2 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 1.2 2 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.8 1.1 5 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.1
Unweeded Flat (BM) 2R/F (Inun. B+F) 2R/B (Inun. B+F) 2R/F (Inun. B) 2R/B (Inun. B) 2R/F (F) 2R/B (F) Chemically weeded Flat (BM) 2R/F (Inun. B+F) 2R/B (Inun. B+F) 2R/F (Inun. B) 2R/B (Inun. B) 2R/F (F) 2R/B (F) Initial
5 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.9
10 0.3 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.8 1.3
10 0.2 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 1.0
20 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.6 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.1
20 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.0
5.9 55.7 10.4 54.1 10.3 54.5 10.8 56.9 10.5 54.9 10.4 45.1 10.8 44.7 16.0 CD (5 %) 3.5 27
transplanting method as is supported by bulk density data. 3. Grain yield Grain yield is the ultimate outcome on the basis of the cumulative effect of various treatments on the different yield attributing characters. The data on grain yield given in Table 1 reveals that when averaged over unweeded control and herbicide use conditions, the yield reduced significantly in bed and furrow transplanted rice under all the irrigation methods in comparison to recommended practice. Weed management through herbicide use helped to register a significant increase (64.0%) in grain yield over unweeded control. Irrespective of the planting technique, whether beds or furrows or flat, the different irrigations methods had significant effect on grain yield. Under unweeded control conditions, the grain yield was significantly superior in plots irrigated with BM (border method of irrigation) followed by Inun. B (Irrigation inundating beds throughout cropping season). The grain yield was minimum in furrow irrigated plots. The trend was similar in case of herbicide treated plots, however, the difference in grain yield under Inun. B+F (Irrigation inundating beds during establishment phase and in furrows thereafter), Inun. B (Irrigation inundating beds throughout after transplanting) and BM (Border method) was nonsignificant. Among the herbicide treated plots, the treatment 2R/F, Inun. B+F (when irrigation water was allowed just to pass over the bed for first 15 days after transplanting with subsequent irrigation in furrows) yielded at par with recommended
practice (Flat, BM). At the same time water use of rice was lower on raised compared with crop sown on the flat. The raised beds received less irrigation water than the flat layouts resulting in lower water use. Thus, it resulted in 23.9 per cent saving in terms of net water expense and 27.7 per cent increase in net water-expense-efficiency. Thus raised beds may lead to water saving without any loss in grain yield. REFERENCES
Adachi, K.( 1990). Effects of rice-soil puddling on water percolation. In: Transactions of the 14th International Congressof Soil Science, Kyoto, Japan, I, pp. 146-51. Black, C. A. (1965). Soil Plant Relationship. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York. Blake, G. R. (1965). Bulk density. In: Methods of soil analysis part I. Physical and mineralogical properties. Eds. Black et al, American soc of Agron, Inc. Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Cochran, W. G. and Cox, G. M. (1967). Experimental Designs. Asia Publishing House, New Delhi, India. Ghildyal, B. P.( 1978). Effect of compaction and puddling on soil physical properties and rice growth. In : Soil Physics and Rice. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines. Hobbs, P. R., Singh, Y., Giri, G. S., Lauren, J. G. and Duxbury, V.( 2002). Direct-seeding and reduced-tillage options in the rice-wheat systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia. In: Direct seeding: research issues and opportunities. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Direct Seeding in Asian Rice Systems: Strategic Research Issues and Opportunities, 25-28 January 2000, Bangkok, Thailand. P201218 Sharma, P. K. and De Datta, S. K., 1985. Effect of puddling on soil physical properties and processes. In: Soil Physics and Rice. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines, pp. 217-234. Utomo, W. H., Islami, T. and Murdoko, B.( 1985). The effect of tillage method on the growth and yield of lowland rice. Paper presented at the National Congress of Indonesian Soil Science Society, Bogor, Indonesia
28
Effect of Planting Methods and Fertility Level on Growth of Hybrid Maize

Rima Taipodia* and N. D. Singh Krishi Vigyan Kendra West Kameng, Dirang-790 101 (Arunachal Pradesh)
ABSTRACT A field study was conducted to assess the growth behaviour of hybrid maize variety Allrounder under different planting methods and nutrient levels. The treatments comprised of three planting methods i.e. flat sowing in single row at 70 cm spacing, in double-rows on strips of 105 cm wide and on ridges at 70 cm spacing. The nutrient levels tested were 250 kg N, 250 kg N + 150 kg P, 250 kg N + 150 kg P + 100 kg K, 250 kg N + 150 kg P + 100 kg K + 15 kg S, 250 kg N + 150 kg P + 100 kg K + 15 kg Mg and 250 kg N + 150 kg P + 100 kg K + 15 kg S + 15 kg Mg/ ha. Leaf area index (LAI) of 4.21, dry matter (DM) of 1377.61 g/ m2, crop growth rate (CGR) of 30.11 g /m2 /day and net assimilation rate (NAR) of 7.08 g /m2 /day were found significantly higher (P<0.05) in crop sown on ridges than on flat surface. The effect of application of sulphur was significant on growth parameters of maize as LAI, DM, CGR and NAR were higher in treatments where 15 kg S was applied along with 250 -150 kg NP than NP alone. The effect of application of S or Mg or both S + Mg to NPK 250--150-100 kg/ha was significant in terms of increase in growth of maize than NPK alone. Key Words: Hybrid maize; Planting methods; Nutrient management, Sulphur, Magnesium INTRODUCTION Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal crop and ranked third in production after wheat and rice. It has great nutritional value as it contains about 72 per cent starch, 10 per cent protein, 4.8 per cent oil, 8.5 per cent fiber, 3 per cent sugar and 1.7 per cent ash Chaudhary (1983). In most of the developing countries, about 50 to 55 per cent of the total maize production is consumed as food. Requirement of about 305 MT of food grains is anticipated for 1.4 billion population of India and the anticipated demand for individual food grains has been expected to about 120 MT for rice, 95 MT for wheat, 25 MT for maize and 2426 MT for pulses by the year 2025 Tiwari (2001). Due to higher yield potential, short growing period, high value for food, forage and feed for livestock, poultry and a cheaper source of raw material for agro-based industry, it is increasingly gaining an important position in the cropping system. Among the many reasons for low productivity, mismanagement of plant nutrition and agronomic practices are considered to be the major ones. Hence, for getting higher maize production of better quality, there is a need to improve these two major components of the production technology. Planting technique is of considerable importance among the agronomic practices, as appropriate adjustment of plants in the field not only ensures optimum plant populace but also enables the plants to exploit the land and other input resources more efficiently and definitely towards growth and development. Maize planted on paired ridges performed better than that grown in single-rows (Khaliq et al., 1988; Ahmad et al., 2 000). For increasing crop production and its quality, balanced nutrition plays a significant role and is an essential component of nutrient management. The presence of nutrient elements like N, P, K, S, Mg etc. in balanced form is essential for the major processes of plant development and yield formation. The present study was, therefore, planned to assess the effect of different planting methods and
* STO O/o Deputy Commissioner, Dibang Valley, Annini, Arunachal Pradesh Corresponding author e-mail: rtaipodia@yahoo.com
29
nutrient management on various agronomic traits of hybrid maize variety Allrounder under the agroecological condition of Dirang, West Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh. MATERIALS AND METHODS The experiment was conducted at the KVK farm, Dirang, West Kameng, on a sandy clay loam soil having 0.053% total N, 1 ppm available P and 135 ppm available K. The treatments comprised three planting methods: M1: Flat sowing at 70 cm spaced single rows, M2: Flat sowing at 105 cm spaced double-row strips (35/105 cm) M3: Sowing at 70 cm spaced ridges and seven nutrient levels as given under :
Sr. No. Name of Treatment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N0P0K0 N1P0K0 N1P1K0 N1P1K1 N1P1K1 S N1P1K1 Mg N1P1K1 SMg N 0 250 250 250 250 250 250 Dose (kg/ha) P 0 0 150 150 150 150 150 K 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 S 0 0 0 0 15 0 15 Mg 0 0 0 0 0 15 15
Crop growth rate: Crop growth rate (CGR) was calculated as per the formula given by Beadle (1987) W2 - W1 CGR = - t2 t 1 Where W2 = DW m-2 land area at second harvest W1 = DW m-2 land area at first harvest t2 = time corresponding to second harvest t1 = time corresponding to first harvest Net assimilation rate: Net assimilation rate (NAR) was determined using the formula given by Beadle (1987). TDM NAR = -------LAD Where, TDM = Total dry matter LAD = Leaf area duration Leaf Area Duration (LAD) was calculated by the formula of Beadle (1987). LAD = (LAI1 + LAI2) x (t2 t1)/2 Where, LAI1 = Leaf area Index at t1 LAI2 = Leaf area index at t2 t1 = time of first observation t2 = time of second observation RESULTS AND DISCUSSION At a particular growth stage, the leaf area index (LAI) of the crop indicates its photosynthetic potential or the level of its dry matter accumulation. Increased DMA potential of the crop was due to more LAI, and vice versa. The two years average data showed that LAI of crop
The plot size was 4.20 x 7.5 m. with a split plot arrangement, keeping plantation methods in main plots and nutrient levels in subplots using three replications, the experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Plant growth analysis: Leaf area index (LAI) was calculated as the ratio of total leaf area to land area as: Leaf area (m2) LAI = x 100 2 Land area (m ) Dry matter accumulation (DMA): Five plants were taken from each treatment at 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 days after sowing for calculating DMA. Each plant was chaffed, mixed thoroughly and then sun dried. The samples were placed in an oven at 70C5C to dry the plant material to their constant dry weight. The dry weight per plant was calculated and converted into dry matter per unit land area (m2).
30
was very low in the beginning (30 DAS) but effect of different plantation methods and the fertilizer treatments was significant in both years. It increased progressively and reached the maximum at 75 DAS and thereafter declined at 90 DAS with the progression of the growth period. As evident from Table 1, at 75 DAS, the average LAI was significantly (P<0.05) higher (4.21) in the crop planted at 70 cm spaced ridges (M3) than that recorded in M 2 (4.19) and M 1 (4.02) which were also statistically different from each other. These results substantiate the findings of Irshad (1987) and Khaliq et al., (1988) who observed that higher LAI in the crop sown on ridges was probably due to more availability of nutrients and moisture in ridges. The different nutrient levels also affected the LAI significantly. The non-significant differences among N1P1K1 S, N1P1K1 Mg and N1P1K1SMg suggest that S or Mg or both S + Mg along with NPK had no effect on LAI. The observations are in line with findings of Keerio and Singh (1985) and Colomb et al., (2002). The effect of planting method on DMA was statistically significant. At 75 DAS, the maximum DMA (1377.61g/m 2) was recorded in the crop planted on 70 cm spaced ridges followed by crop
planted at 105 cm spaced double-row strips (M2) and 70 cm spaced single-rows (M 1 ) which produced dry matter of 1332.02 g/m2 and 1232.74 g/m2 respectively. Higher DM accumulation in M3 can be attributed to more interception of solar radiation because of better orientation of the crop plants as compared to M2 and M1. The results were in corroboration with findings of Khaliq et al., (1988) and Anonymous (1995). Among various nutrient levels, in N1P1K1 S, N 1 P 1 K 1 Mg and N 1 P 1 K 1 SMg treatments, differences in DM production were non-significant indicating that application of Mg along with NPK over NPKS did not affect the DM production. However, significant increase in DM in N1P1K1treatment plots over N1P1K0 and N1P1K1 +S over N1P1K1 respectively can be attributed to K and S application. The crop growth rate at (30-75) DAS was significantly higher in the crop planted on 70 cm spaced ridges (M3) than that grown either in 105 cm spaced double- row strips (M2) or in 70 cm spaced single-rows (M1). The finding are contrary to those of Khan et al., (1994) who reported that CGR of maize crop grown in 105 cm spaced double row strips was significantly higher than that grown on ridges.
Table 1. Growth analysis of maize as influenced by planting methods and nutrient management.
Treatments
Leaf area index (LAI) at 75 DAS 4.02 c 4.19 b 4.21 a 0.01 2.47 e 3.79 d 4.32 c 4.56 b 4.61 a 4.61 a 4.62 a 0.02
Dry matter Crop growth accumulation at rate (CGR) g/ m2 75 DAS (g/m2) /day (30--75) DAS 1232.74 c 1332.02 b 1377.61 a 2.82 716.23 f 1199.63 e 1361.21 d 1452.97 c 1490.42 ab 1479.42 a 1498.99 a 14.49 26.96 c 29.14 b 30.11 a 0.06 15.94 f 26.20 e 29.74 d 31.77 c 32.54 ab 32.28 a 32.69 a
Net assimilation rate (NAR) g/m2 /day at (30-75)DAS 6.57 c 6.88 b 7.08 a 0.02 5.73 f 6.68 e 6.91 d 7.06 c 7.18 ab 7.12 bc 7.23 a 0.07
Plantation methods M1 = 70 cm spaced single rows M2 = 105 cm spaced double row strips M3 = 70 cm spaced ridges LSD at 5% Nutrient levels N0P0K0 N1P0K0 N1P1K0 N1P1K1 N1P1K1 S N1P1K1 Mg N1P1K1 SMg LSD at 5%
31
Although the CGR was the highest in the crop fertilized with N1P1K1 S Mg among the fertilizer treatments, yet it was statistically on a par with N 1P 1K 1 S. In principal, CGR was significantly (P<0.05) higher in the fertilized crop than the unfertilized crop. This type of growth rate variation was also reported by Mohsan (1999) who reported an increase in CGR of maize crop with the application of nitrogen over control. Similarly, Biagovestra (1981) reported an increase of CGR by addition of P to N alone. These results also corroborate the finding of Mahmood et al., (1999). During the period of 30-75 DAS, the highest NAR (7.08 g/ m2 /day) was recorded in the crop planted on 70 cm spaced ridges (M3) against 6.88 and 6.57 in M2 and M1, respectively as per the recorded assimilation rate (NAR) . NAR increased significantly with addition of more elements in fertilizers i.e. up to N1P 1K 1 S and obtained the maximum (7.23 g/ m2 /day) in N1P1K1 S Mg, yet, the difference between N1P1K1 S Mg and N1P1K1 S was found no significant. It indicated that application of S or Mg did not show any effect on NAR of the crop. Mohsan (1999) also reported variation in NAR as a result of different levels of fertilizers. CONCLUSION It can be concluded that hybrid maize performed better when sown on ridges. The growth indicated by LAI, DM, CGR and NAR were found significantly higher with addition of 15 kg S and /or 15 kg Mg to NPK. Hence, for analyzing crop performance in response to agronomic treatments, the results suggested that crop growth analysis is a valuable tool.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, G., Qureshi, Z. and Ullah, H.(2000). Effect of different sowing methods on the performance of sunflower. Pakistan J. Bio. Sci., 3 :182930 Anonymous.( 1995). Flat versus ridge sowing. Annual Report, 1994-95 MMRI, Yousafwala, Pakistan. Beadle, C.L. ( 1987). Plant Growth Analysis. In: Coomlos, J.D.O., S.P. Long and J.M.O. Scurlock (Eds.). Techniques in Bioproductivity and Photosynthesis, 2nd Ed., pp: 21-3. Pergamon press, Oxford, New York. Biagovestra, S. T.(1981). Rate and ratios of mineral fertilizers for maize under irrigation on the leached chernozem smolnits a poil of the Yambal region Bulgaria ii) Effect of fertilizer application on maize growth and development. Rastenieved Nauki, 18: 94-102. Chaudhary, A.R. (1983). Maize in Pakistan, Punjab Agri. Res. Coordination Board, Univ. Agric., Faisalabad. Colomb, B., Kiniry, J. R. and Debacke, P. (2000). Effect of soil phosphorus on leaf development and senescence dynamics of field grown maize. Agron. J., 92: 42835. Irshad, J. (1987). Effect of different planting methods on growth, yield and quality attributes of maize cv. Akbar. M.Sc. (Hons.) Agri. Thesis, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, FaisalabadPakistan. Khaliq, A., Munir, M. and Asif, J.(1988). Effect of different planting methods on some agronomic and physiological traits of maize. Pakistan J. Agric. Res., 9: 14548. Khan, H., Khan, M. Q. and Nazir, M. S. (1994). Yield and yield components of spring maize as affected by planting geometry and associated legume cultures. Gomal Univ. J. Res., 14: 1221. Keerio, H. K. and Singh, S. P.(1985). Effect of intercropping on yield of hybrid sorghum under different nitrogen levels. Pakistan J. Agric. Res., 6 : 2633. Mahmood, T., Saeed, M., Ahmad, R. and Ghaffar, A.(1999). Water and potassium management for enhanced maize (Zea mays L.) productivity. Int. J. Agri. Biol., 1 : 314-17. Mohsan, S. (1999). Population dynamics and nitrogen management effects on maize productivity. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, FaisalabadPakistan. Tiwari, K.N. (2001). Phosphorus need of Indian soils and crops. Better Crops Int.,15 (2): 6-10.
32
Effect of Soy Flour Supplementation in combating Malnutrition among School going Girl Child in Malwa Region of Madhya Pradesh
Rekha Tiwari, D. S. Tomar, A. K. Dixit and S. K. Kaushik Krishi Vigyan Kendra, (Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya) Ujjain - 456 010 (Madhya Pradesh)
ABSTRACT In the present study, total 15 school going girl child aging between 3-6 years were selected from the adopted cluster of villages. In the daily diet, soy flour was added in the wheat flour in the ratio of 1: 9 respectively. The experiment was conducted for one year in order to get the appropriate results. The observations taken were height, weight and BMI. It was observed that height was positively and significantly co-related with the consumption of soy flour (0.67**). Similarly, BMI was also positively increased in the experiment group over the control group i.e. 0.199 and 0.076, respectively. Key Words: Malnutrition, fortified soy flour, height and weight, BMI. INTRODUCTION Malnutrition is one of the most devastating problem worldwide and is inextricably linked with poverty. Each individual requires a minimum amount of nutritious food to keep him healthy. When this minimum requirement is not met the human body becomes weak and susceptible. Malnourishment paves the way for a number of diseases like fever, vomiting, measles, diarrhoea etc. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 300 m. children throughout the world suffer from growth retardation due to protein-energy malnutrition. Additionally, children with protein-energy malnutrition have a 40.0 per cent mortality rate due to increased susceptibility to infections. In Madhya Pradesh, about 57 lakh children are malnourished. The States with more than 50.0 per cent children under five years of age underweight are Madhya Pradesh (60.0 %), Jharkhand (56.5%) and Bihar (55.9%). The rural India is witnessing more malnutrition among children aging below 5 years as higher percentage of stunted, wasted and underweight children were reported from rural areas (Anonymous, 2012). Protein-energy malnutrition caused by low intake of both protein and calories is especially common in children because children require more amount of protein per kilogram of body weight than adults to support the rapid growth and
Corresponding author e-mail: rekhaup_2007@rediffmail.com
development that occurs during childhood. Hence, it is very important to make the diet of child protein rich in order to meet the required levels of protein in each meal. Soybeans contain all the three essential macro nutrients required for good nutrition, protein (40.0 %), carbohydrate (18.0 %), fat (18.0 %) and moisture (9.0 %) apart from vitamins and minerals (5%), including folic acid, calcium, potassium and iron Singh et. al., 2009). Soybean protein is an excellent complement to lysine-limited cereal protein (Hegstad, 2008). Keeping in view these facts, an experiment was conducted to assess the socio economic status of the selected group and to assess the effect of soy flour supplementation on the height, weight and BMI on the girl children of the selected group. MATERIALS AND METHODS Preparation of soy flour: The soybean seeds were processed into flour using the method of IITA (1990). The process ensures effective removal of most anti-nutritional factors. Soybean seeds were sorted and roasted until light brown. The roasted seeds were boiled for 20 min. Thereafter, seeds were drained and dried at 100-120C for 3h. The dried seeds were milled into flour. The flours were screened through a 0.25 mm sieve and stored at 4C in a refrigerator to prevent spoilage.
33
Selection of target group: The most common group affected with malnutrition were the girl children. Hence, 15 girls of 3-6 years age were randomly selected from the village Akasoda as an experimental group and another 15 girls from the same village as a control group. Technology tested: Fortified soy flour was provided by the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ujjain (M.P.) for incorporating in the daily diet of children through wheat chapatti. Soy flour and wheat flour was mixed in the ratio of 1: 9. The soy flour was added only in the mid day meal so that the protein is available to the child from all the different sources of food items consumed during the whole day. The study was conducted for one complete year and all the related data were measured before and after the completion of the research. Observations recorded: Height of the concern girl was measured in terms of cm. before and after the study. Measuring tape was used for measuring the height of particular group. Weight was measured in terms of Kg. before and after the completion of study by using bathroom weighing balance. Body Mass Index (BMI) is totally dependent upon the height and weight of an individual. The BMI was calculated before and after the study by using the following formula
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Social status: It was noticed that in both the groups 20.0 to 26.7 per cent girl children were from joint and big families and 73.0 to 80.0 percent girls were from nuclear as well small families. The background of the family was also assessed by the type of house they have constructed. It was found that in the villages the traditional kachha houses were existing in which majority ( 80.0%) of the families were residing. Only one girl child from each selected group was from pucca house. Economic condition of the family is one of the important factors which affect the nutritional status of the family. Maximum (60.0 to 66.0 %) number of families from both the groups were having an annual income between Rs.75,000/- to Rs.1,00,000/- whereas, 20 per cent families were having annual income more than Rs.1,00,000/-. Rearing of livestock helps in enhancing the economic condition besides providing the nutritional security to the family. It was observed that rearing of cows and buffalos were still in practice but to a small extent, only 20.0 to 33.3 per cent families were keeping cows and buffaloes. This indicates that there is a wide scope in disseminating the information about the
Table 1. Social status of the selected group of girl children.
BMI=
Weight (Kg.) Height 2(cm.)
Sr. Particular No. 01 Type of family Joint Nuclear 02 Family Size Big Small 03 Type of House Kuchha Semi pucca Pucca 04 Annual Income (Rs.) 50,000/75,000/75,000/1,00,000/Above 1,00,000/05 Live stock Buffalo Cow Goat Any other
Control Experimental
x 100
04(26.7) 11(73.3) 04(26.7) 11(73.3) 12(80.0) 02(13.3) 01(6.7) 02(13.3) 10(66.7) 03(20.0) 05(33.3) 04(26.7)
03(20.0) 12(80.0) 03(20.0) 12(80.0) 11(73.3) 03(20.0) 01(6.7) 03(20.0) 09(60.7) 03(20.0) 04(26.7) 03(20.0)
Feed back: A simple questionnaire was prepared for assessing the acceptability of the fortified soy flour by covering the four main aspects viz. appearance, texture, taste and digestibility. For getting the right answer questions were put up to the mother of particular child because mother is the only member in the family who can describe the food habits of the family members as well as likes and dislikes about the food stuffs. Feedback was taken at the end of the research experiment. A small three point scale was used for assessing the feedback in which questions related to the soy bean were asked to the mother of concerned girls viz. Like (03), Neutral (02) and Dislike (01).
34
Table 2. Effect of feeding soy flour on physiological parameters of girl children.
Particular
Initial Age (yr.) (Mean + SD) 3.7+0.52 3.8+ 0.48
Height (cm.) (Mean + SD) Initial Final 91.33+0.02 10.3+1.53 89.06+0.02 10.4+1.64
Weight (Kg.) (Mean + SD) Final Initial
BMI (Mean + SD) Final Final
Control group Experimental group
12.16 +1.17 12.82+1.78 13.43 +1.36 94.93+0.03 12.33 +1.39 13.14+1.85 13.64 +1.43 95.06+0.02
adoption of subsidiary occupations like dairy farming amongst the poor farming community. Effect of feeding soy flour on the physiological parameters: The mean age was 3.7 + 0.52 yrs. in control and 3.8 + 0.48 yrs. in the experimental group. Height, another important physiological factor was measured with the help of un-stretchable measuring tape for the accuracy of the data. At the end of the experiment, it was observed that height was slightly increased in case of experimental group (6.0 cm.) as compared to the control group (3.6 cm.). Increase in weight was 1.93 kg. and 1.86 Kg. in experiment and control groups , respectively. Similarly, BMI also increased because BMI depends upon the height and weight parameters. It was observed that 66.7 per cent respondents appreciated the appearance of the soy flour but only 13.3 per cent disliked the appearance. In case of texture, 80.0 per cent liked the texture of soy chapatti whereas 20.0 per cent were unable to describe it. Taste was preferred by 60.0 per cent and 40 per cent were neutral about the taste and only 2 girl children disliked the taste of the soy chapatti. CONCLUSION From the above findings, it was evident that addition of soy flour with wheat flour in the ratio
of 1:9 in daily diet definitely improves the health status of school going children. It helped in increasing the height, weight and BMI of the children. In Madhya Pradesh Soybean is the main Kharif crop but people are not aware about the right method of consuming soybean. Hence, it can be said that there is a great scope in minimizing the malnutrition amongst children and women by making use of soybean in daily diet particularly for the vegetarians after its heat treatment. To achieve this wide scale awareness needs to be created as soybean is the cheapest amongst all the pulses available to the rural gentry and is a excellent source of protein for minimising the malnutrition problem among the girls and womens. REFERENCES
Anonymous (2012). A report on CHILDREN IN INDIA 2012A Statistical Appraisal. Social Statistics Division Central Statistics Office Ministry of statistics and Programme Implementation Government of India. Hegstad, H. G. (2008). Nutritional and Health benefits of Soybean. Soy Protein Quality Evaluation Report, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Food and Nutrition Paper No. 71, Rome, Italy. IITA. ( 1990). Soybeans for good health: How to grow and use soybeans in Nigeria. IITA Publ. 23 36. Singh, A. K., Kadam, D. M., Saxena, M. and Singh, R. P. (2009). Efficacy of Defatted Soy flour Supplement in Gulabjamun. African J. Biochem. Res., 3 (4); 130-135.
35
Extent of Adoption and Reasons for Non-adoption of Selected Resource Conservation Technologies by the Farmers of Ludhiana and Moga Districts of Punjab
D. S. Dhillon, Sukhandeep Singh and V. K. Rampal Department of Extension Education Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT The present study was conducted to know the extent of adoption and reasons for non-adoption of selected resource conservation technologies by the farmers. A total sample of 180 respondents was taken from 12 villages of two selected districts for the present investigation. The data were collected with the help of interview schedule. The findings revealed that around half of the respondents adopted laser land leveler, but the extent of adoption of tensiometer, leaf colour chart and bed/ furrow/ ridge planting was low. Area wise extent of adoption of laser land leveler was also high i.e. 60.5 per cent. About 71.0 per cent of the respondents were willing to increase the area but only 7.5 per cent wanted to decrease the area under selected resource conservation technologies. The major reasons expressed by the respondents for non-adoption of laser land leveler were high cost and its non-availability whereas for non-adoption of tensiometer and leaf colour chart were their non-availability in the local market and lack of awareness. Keywords: Resource conservation technologies, Extent of adoption, Leaf colour chart, Tensiometer. INTRODUCTION The Punjab state is the major contributor to national food production and food grain reserves. The increase in production of cereals is due to the adoption of recommended agricultural practices followed by over exploitation of the natural resources. Presently, the major problems of agriculture in Punjab are depletion of water table, environmental pollution and deterioration of soil health. To combat with these problems, many resource conservation technologies have been developed by the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana but these are not being adopted to the desired level by the farmers of Punjab. It may be due to the lack of knowledge and awareness about these technologies among the farmers, socio economic factors of the farmers and the factors related to technology itself. So there was a need to study the extent of adoption of these resource conservation technologies, reasons for their nonadoption. Hence, the present study was conducted to know the extent of adoption and reasons for non-adoption of selected resource conservation
Corresponding author e-mail: daljitsdhillon@hotmail.com
technologies by the farmers of Ludhiana and Moga districts of Punjab. MATERIALS AND METHODS The adoption of some resource conservation technologies included use of tensiometer for irrigation scheduling in paddy, use of laser land leveler, use of leaf colour chart for judicious use of nitrogenous fertilizers in paddy and bed/furrow/ ridge planting of crops. Twelve villages were selected to undertake this study and from each village 15 farmers were selected randomly to make a total sample of 180 farmers. The research instrument constructed for the present study consisted of two parts. The first part consisted of questions to measure the extent of adoption of selected resource conservation technologies adopted by the farmers. The second part contained structured and open-ended questions and statements to study the reasons for non-adoption of these technologies. The research instrument was pre-tested on 20 non-sampled respondents. Pre-testing was done with the
36
objective to remove any ambiguities and to overcome the difficulties faced with respect to clarity and understanding of questions asked in the questionnaire. The data were collected from the respondents with the help of personal interview approach. The data were analyzed with the help of appropriate statistical tools such as frequencies, percentages, mean scores, and cumulative frequency cube root method. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. Adoption of selected resource conservation technologies: The data (Table 1) indicated that 49.4 per cent of the respondents used laser land leveler while 16.7, 15.0 and 8.3 per cent of the respondents used leaf colour chart in paddy, tensiometer for applying irrigation in paddy and bed/furrow/ridge planting of crops, respectively. However, 10.6 per cent of the respondents used none of the selected resource conservation technologies. 2. Experience of the respondents in using resource conservation technologies: The data (Table 2) indicated that 43.5 per cent of the respondents had 2-4 yrs. of experience, 11.2 per cent had experience of 1-2 yrs. and only 0.6 per cent had 4 yrs. and above experience in using the laser land leveler. Likewise, 13.0 per cent of
the respondents had experience of 1-2 yrs. of using leaf colour chart, while 5.6 per cent had experience of 2-4 yrs. As far as the use of tensiometer was concerned, 8.7 per cent had experience of 1-2 yrs. whereas, 7.5 and 0.6 per cent respondents had experience of 2-4 yrs. and 4 yrs., respectively. Similarly, for raising crops on bed/ furrow/ ridge farmers were possessing experience of 2-4 yrs. (4.4 %) ,1-2 yrs. (3.7 %) and about 4 yrs. (1.2 %). It was thus concluded that most of the respondents had 2-4 years of experience in using laser land leveler. 3. Area under selected resource conservation technologies: The data (Table 3) indicated that 18.0 per cent of the respondents used laser land leveler in 5-10 acres of area, 14.9 per cent of the respondents used laser land leveler in 10-15 acres of area, 13.0 per cent used it in 15 acres and above area and only 9.3 per cent of them used it in area less than 5 acres. As far as the tensiometer is concerned, 8.7, 3.7, 1.9 and 2.5 per cent of the respondents used tensiometer in the area less than 5 acres, 510 acres, 10-15 acres and more than 15 acres, respectively. Similarly, 9.3, 4.4, 3.1 and 1.9 per cent of the respondents used leaf colour chart in area less than 5 acres, 5-10 acres, 10-15 acres and
Table 1. Distribution of the respondents according to the adoption of resource conservation technologies.
Sr. No. Name of the Resource Conservation Technology I. II. III. IV. Tensiometer for irrigation in paddy Laser land leveler Leaf colour chart in paddy Bed/Furrow/Ridge planting of crops Total Adopters Non-Adopters
Adopters Frequency Percentage 27 89 30 15 161 19 15.0 49.4 16.7 8.3 89.4 10.6
Table 2. Distribution of the respondents according to their experience in using resource conservation technologies.
Sr. No Experience in Years I. II. III. 1-2 years 2-4 years 4 years and above
Tensiometer F 14 12 1 27 % 8.7 7.5 0.6 16.8
Laser Land Leveller F 18 70 1 89 % 11.2 43.5 0.6 55.3
Leaf Colour Chart F 21 9 0 30 % 13.0 5.6 0.0 18.6
Bed/Furrow / Ridge F 6 7 2 15 % 3.7 4.4 1.2 9.3
Total F 59 98 4 161 % 36.6 60.9 2.5 100.0
F - Frequency
37
Table 3. Distribution of the respondents according to the area under resource conservation technologies.
Sr. No Experience in Years I. II. III. IV.
Tensiometer % 8.7 3.7 1.9 2.5 16.8
Laser Land Leveller F 15 29 24 21 89 % 9.3 18.0 14.9 13.0 55.3
Leaf Colour Chart F 15 7 5 3 30 % 9.3 4.4 3.1 1.9 18.6
Bed/Furrow / Ridge F 7 3 3 2 15 % 4.4 1.9 1.9 1.2 9.3
Total F 51 45 35 30 161 % 31.7 28.0 21.7 18.6 100.00
F Below 5 acres 14 5-10 acres 6 10-15 acres 3 15 acres and above 4 27
F - Frequency
more than 15 acres, respectively. The values for bed/ furrow/ ridge planting of the crops sown on area less than 5 acres ( 4.4 %), 5-10 acres (1.9 %), 10-15 acres ( 1.9 %) and more than 15 acres (1.2 %). 4. Area wise extent of adoption of selected resource conservation technologies: It was observed that the extent of adoption of laser land leveler w. r. t. area was found to be maximum i.e. 60.5 per cent followed by use of tensiometer (55.2 %), leaf colour chart ( 49.6 %) and bed/ furrow/ ridge planting (40.5 %) (Table 4). 5. Distribution of the respondents according to the future use of resource conservation technologies: It was evident from the data (Table 5) that majority of the respondents i.e. 70.8 per cent were
willing to increase the area under the selected resource conservation technologies while 21.7 per cent wanted to keep that area constant and only 7.5 per cent of the respondents were willing to decrease the area under the selected resource conservation technologies. 6. Reasons for non-adoption of selected resource conservation technologies: The data presented in Table 6 pointed out that high cost was the main reason of 57.1 per cent of the respondents for non-adoption of Laser Land leveler. While 27.5, 24.2, 19.8 and 18.7 per cent of the respondents didnt adopt Laser Land Leveler due to want of technical guidance, lack of finance, lack of availability and lack of knowledge respectively. However, 17.6, 9.9 and 6.6 per cent respondents reported hard work, ignorance and lack of awareness as the reasons
Extent of Adoption (%) 55.2 60.5 49.6 40.5
Table 4. Area wise extent of adoption of selected resource conservation technologies. Resource Conservation Area under the Total Sampled Technology Resource Conservation Area under the (acres) Crop (acres) I. II. III. IV. Use of Tensiometer for irrigation in paddy Use of Laser Land Leveler Use of Leaf Colour Chart in paddy Bed/Furrow/Ridge planting of crops 308 988 234 60 558 1634 472 148
Table 5. Distribution of the respondents according to the future use of selected resource conservation technologies.
Sr. No Experience in Years I. II. III.
Tensiometer % 9.3 1.2 6.2 16.8
Laser Land Leveller F 73 5 11 89 % 45.3 3.1 6.8 55.3
Leaf Colour Chart F 19 2 9 30 % 11.8 1.2 5.6 18.6
Bed/Furrow / Ridge F 7 3 5 15 % 4.4 1.9 3.1 9.3
Total F 114 12 35 161 % 70.8 7.5 21.7 100.0
F Willing to Increase 15 Willing to Decrease 2 Willing to keep 10 constant 27
38
Table 6. Distribution of the respondents according to the reasons for non- adoption of selected resource conservation technologies. Sr. No. Reasons for Non-Adoption Frequency* Percentage A i ii iii iv v vi vii viii B i ii iii iv v vi C i ii iii iv v vi vii D i ii iii iv v vi vii Laser Land Leveler n=91 Lack of finance Lack of availability Lack of Knowledge Lack of awareness Need of technical guidance Requires hard work High Cost Ignorance Tensiometer n=153 Lack of availability Lack of Knowledge Lack of awareness Need of technical guidance Ignorance Unwillingness to adopt Leaf Colour Chart n= 150 Lack of availability Lack of Knowledge Lack of awareness Need of technical guidance Requires hard work Ignorance Time consuming Bed/ Furrow/ Ridge planting n= 165 Lack of Knowledge Need of technical guidance Requires hard work High Cost Ignorance Labour intensive Time consuming 22 18 17 6 25 16 52 9 40 33 37 19 43 24.2 19.8 18.7 6.6 27.5 176 57.1 9.9 26.1 21.6 24.2 12.4 28.1
45
42 38 35 44 25 51 18 8 12 34 18 9 58
29.4
28.0 25.3 23.3 29.3 16.7 34.0 12.0 4.85 7.27 20.6 10.9 5.5 35.2
42
25.5
*Multiple responses
for non-adoption of laser land leveler. As far as Tensiometer was concerned, 29.4 per cent showed their unwillingness to adopt while ignorance was the reason of 28.1 per cent respondents for non-adoption of this technology. The other reasons as reported by 26.1, 24.2, 21.6 and 12.4 per cent of the respondents included lack of availability, lack of awareness, lack of knowledge and need of technical guidance respectively. Similarly, 34.0 per cent respondents cited ignorance as the reason for non-adoption of Leaf Colour Chart, need of technical guidance and lack of availability were the other reasons for nonadoption reported by 29.3 and 28.0 per cent of the respondents. However 25.3, 23.3, 16.7 and 12.0 per cent of the respondents didnt adopt leaf colour chart due to the reasons of lack of knowledge, lack of awareness, hard work and time consuming, respectively. It was interesting to note that 35.2 per cent of the respondents did not adopt bed/ furrow/ ridge planting because of labour intensive, 25.5 and 20.6 per cent reported time consumption and hard
39
work as the reason for non-adoption of this technology. While 10.9, 7.3, 5.5 and 4.9 per cent of the respondents did not adopt bed/ furrow/ ridge planting due to high cost, need of technical guidance, ignorance and lack of knowledge respectively. CONCLUSION It was concluded that about half (49.4%) of the respondents used laser land leveler, while 16.7, 15.0 and 8.3 per cent of them used leaf colour chart in paddy, tensiometer for irrigation in paddy and bed/furrow/ridge planting of crops respectively. However, 10.6 per cent of the respondents used none of the selected resource conservation technologies. More than 43.0 per cent of the adopters of laser land leveler had 2- 4 years experience, whereas this figure was found to be minimum for Bed/ Furrow/ Ridge planting of crops and use of Tensiometer and leaf colour chart. The extent of
adoption of laser land leveler with respect to area was maximum i.e. 60.5 per cent followed by the adoption of tensiometer, leaf colour chart and bed/ furrow/ ridge planting of crops. Majority of the respondents were interested to increase the future use of laser land leveler technology, whereas the farmers were least interested to increase area under use of tensiometer and leaf colour chart and bed/ furrow/ ridge planting. The reasons for non- adoption of these resource conservation technologies were mainly lack of knowledge and awareness about the benefits of the selected resource conservation technologies among the farmers. Majority of them lacked proper guidance in using these technologies. The major reasons for non-adoption of laser land leveler at field level were high cost, non-availability of credit, difficulty in getting subsidy and cumbersome and lengthy loan procedure.
40
Impact of KVK Training Programmes on Adoption of Garlic Production Technology

K. C. Meena and I. N. Gupta Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Anta-Baran Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur - 325 205 (Rajasthan)
ABSTRACT The study was carried out in Anta block of Baran district of Rajasthan. The Anta block was purposively selected because of large number of farmer participation in KVKs training programme. The data regarding gain in knowledge and adoption level about improved garlic production technologies were recorded under two heads like; knowledge before training and knowledge after training. The findings of the study revealed that farmers had gained knowledge about garlic production technology ranging from 11.7 per cent of land preparation to 80.0 per cent of seed treatment after training programmes. The study shows that the none of farmers were following the improved practices of garlic production like soil testing, soil treatment seed treatment and seed rate and spacing before training programme whereas, after training programme they were adopting seed treatment (68.3%), seed rate and spacing (65.0 %), soil testing (51.7 %) and soil treatment (36.7 %). The study also revealed that they were adopting the garlic production technologies ranging from 10.0 per cent of storage practices to 75.0 per cent of high yielding variety after training programmes. Key Words: Training; Garlic production technology; Impact; Knowledge; Adoption INTRODUCTION To find out the success of any training programme a periodic appraisal and evaluation of what is being done is essential, so that suitable changes can be made to make training programme more effective. The concept of vocational training in agriculture through KVK grew substantially due to greater demand for improved agricultural technology by the farmers. They not only requires knowledge and understanding of the intricacy of technology but also progressively more and more skills in various complex agriculture operations for adoption at their farms. The training programmes were designed to impart the latest knowledge to the farmers through work experiences by applying the principles of Teaching by doing and Learning by doing. India is the second largest producer of garlic. The major garlic producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Orissa, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Bihar. It is exported on a large scale but a significant amount of garlic is also used for domestic
Corresponding author e-mail: meena_kvkanta@yahoo.com
consumption both as food and medicine. The disease and disorders in which it is claimed to have positive effects are heart disease, atherosclerosis, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, improves immunity, help in fighting common cold and regulates blood sugar level. Keeping in view of an effective extension approach of trainings for dissemination of technology, it was thought to assess the impact of trainings organizing by KVK, Anta-Baran. Therefore, the present study was undertaken with the specific objective to find out the extent of knowledge and adoption of garlic production technology by the KVK trainees. MATERIALS AND METHODS Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Anta-Baran since, its establishment has directed its effort towards agricultural development in the district and bringing about entrepreneurship and skills among practitioners of agriculture and rural with a view to ensure livelihood security. The study was carried out in Anta block of Baran district of Rajasthan. The Anta block was purposively selected because of large number of farmer participation in KVKs training programme. For
41
the selection of respondents, a list of garlic trainees of KVK during preceding three years (2008-09 to 2010-11) was prepared. Out of 183 trainees list, only 60 farmers were randomly selected from KVK adopted villages of anta block. The data were collected through personal contacts with the help of well structured interview schedule. The gathered data were processed, tabulated, classified and analyzed in terms of percentage in the light of objectives of the study. Total twelve practices were selected to find out the extent of knowledge and adoption of garlic production technologies. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Gain in knowledge: It is assumed that the knowledge of a farmer to a large degree depends upon the extent of exposure given to him about the technology. The gain in knowledge by the respondents about improved package of practices of garlic was measured in term of percentage. The data regarding gain in knowledge about improved garlic production technologies were recorded under two heads i.e. knowledge before training and knowledge after training. The data in the table 1 depicts that the beneficiary farmers of garlic production training programmes were gained highest knowledge about seed treatment (80.0 %), followed by high yielding variety (70.0 %), seed rate and spacing (65.0 %), weed management (63.3 %), nutrient management (55.0 % ), plant protection measures (46.7 %), irrigation management (45.0 %), storage and marketing (40.0 %), harvesting (35.0 %),
Table 1: Impact of training on change in knowledge level.
sowing time (33.3 %) and land preparation (11.7 %). The findings of the study also revealed that they had gained knowledge ranging from 11.7 per cent of land preparation to 80.0 per cent of seed treatment after training programmes. These findings were in agreement with Joseph (2008) who reported that the knowledge levels were found to be increased for weeding, fertilizer application, plant protection measures and harvesting practices of maize after attending the training programmes. This might be due to the fact that they were convinced through training programmes about garlic production technology by KVK which were designed to import latest knowledge through work experience. Extent of adoption: The data presented (Table 2) revealed that the none of the farmers were following the improved practices like soil testing, soil treatment seed treatment , seed rate and spacing before acquiring training whereas, after attending training programme they adopted seed treatment (68.3 %), seed rate and spacing (65.0 %), soil testing (51.7 %) and soil treatment (36.7 %). Over 81.7 per cent farmers were practicing land preparation before training programmes and the remaining 18.3 per cent began after training programmes. Regarding high yielding variety 25 per cent farmers were using before training while after training programmes all the farmers started to grow high yielding variety of garlic crop on their farms. They were following improved practices of garlic production like irrigation scheduling (36.7 %), harvesting (28.3 %) plant protection measures
Technology Land preparation Soil treatment Seed treatment High yielding variety Sowing time Seed rate and spacing Irrigation management Weed management Nutrient management Plant protection measures Harvesting Storage and marketing *Figure in parentheses indicates percentage. 42
Before Training 53 (88.3) 00 (00.0) 03 (05.0) 18 (30.0) 37 (61.7) 09 (15.0) 29 (48.3) 17 (28.3) 13 (21.7) 15 (25.0) 19 (31.7) 11 (18.3)
After Training 60 (100.0) 29 (48.3) 51 (85.0) 60 (100.0) 57 (95.0) 48 (80.0) 56 (93.3) 55 (91.7) 46 (67.7) 43 (71.7) 40 (66.7) 35 (58.3)
Gain in Knowledge 07 (11.7) 29 (48.3) 48 (80.0) 42 (70.0) 20 (33.3) 39 (65.0) 27 (45.0) 38 (63.3) 33 (55.0) 28 (46.7) 21 (35.0) 24 (40.0)
Table 2: Change in adoption level of the respondents regarding garlic production technologies.
Technology Land preparation Soil testing Soil treatment High yielding variety Seed treatment Seed rate and spacing Irrigation scheduling Weeding Fertilizer application Plant protection measures Harvesting Storage *Figure in parentheses indicates percentage
Before Training 49 (81.7) 00 (00.0) 00 (00.0) 15 (25.0) 00 (00.0) 00 (00.0) 22 (36.7) 13 (21.7) 11 (18.23 15 (25.0) 17 (28.3) 09 (15.0)
After Training 60 (100.0) 31 (51.7) 22 (36.7) 60 (100.0) 41 (68.3) 39 (65.0) 50 (83.3) 49 (81.7) 35 (58.3) 40 (66.7) 38 (63.3) 15 (25.0)
Gain in Knowledge 11 (18.2) 31 (51.7) 22 (36.7) 45 (75.0) 41 (68.3) 39 (65.0) 28 (46.7) 36 (60.0) 24 (40.0) 25 (41.7) 21 (35.0) 06 (10.0)
(25.0 %), weeding (21.7 %), fertilizer application (18.3 %) and storage (15.0 %) before training programmes while other farmers were started adopting the improved practices like; weeding (60.0 %), irrigation scheduling (46.7 %), plant protection measures (41.7 %), fertilizer application (40.0 %) and harvesting (35.0 %) for garlic production after training programmes. Only 10 per cent farmers started storage practices for garlic bulb after receiving training. It was due to lack of storage structure at farmers level. Farmers were adopting the production technologies ranging from 10.0 per cent for storage practices to 75.0 per cent for high yielding variety. This might be due the fact that increase in knowledge, skills and confidence level of farmers through training programmes on different production technologies like high yielding variety, seed rate and spacing, seed treatment, soil testing, soil treatment, weeding, plant protection measures, irrigation scheduling, fertilizer application and harvesting has helped farmers to improve the yield of garlic crop. CONCLUSION The findings of the study revealed that farmers
had gained knowledge about garlic production technology ranging from 11.7 per cent of land preparation to 80.0 per cent of seed treatment after attending training programmes organized by the KVK. The study showed that none of the farmers were following the improved package of practices of garlic production like soil testing, soil treatment, seed treatment, seed rate and spacing before acquiring the training whereas, after attending the training programme they adopted seed treatment (68.3 %), seed rate and spacing (65.0 %), soil testing (51.7 %) and soil treatment (36.7 %). The study also revealed that they started adopting the garlic production technologies ranging from 10.0 per cent for storage practices to 75.0 per cent for high yielding variety after attending training programmes. Thus, it can be concluded that training programme conducted by the KVK is one of the important tool for dissemination of knowledge and technical skills to the farmers. Meanwhile, conductance of short duration trainings is playing an important role in motivating the farmers for adoption of improved agricultural technologies, thus resulting in their increased yields and profits. REFERENCES
Joseph, R. (2008). Impact of krishi vigyan kendra training programme on maize production. Evaluation capacity building in rural resources management: A Manual. Indian Agriculture Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi.
43
Impact of Vocational Training Programmes on Broiler Management Practices in District Hanumangar

Satbir Singh*, Anoop Kumar and C. S. Sharma Krishi Vigyan Kendra Sangaria, Hanumangar 335 063 (Rajasthan)
ABSTRACT The present study was conducted to ascertain the impact of vocational training courses on the average adoption rate of poultry farming amongst the trainees who acquired trainings from the KVK, Hanumangar during the last 6 years. It was observed that initial average adoption rate 44.0 per cent declined to 27.9 per cent and unemployed rural youths (56.2%) showed keen interest in poultry farming. The knowledge level of the respondent before and after training for feeding, health care and management was 46.4, 30.6, 57.5 and 86.3, 68.7 and 89.9 per cent, respectively. Key words: Adoption rate, Broiler, KVK, Training. INTRODUCTION The Farm Science Centre known as Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVKs) are functional in various districts of India for imparting vocational training to different clientele groups. The main aim of KVK is to develop entrepreneurship amongst the rural people especially the farmers, farm-women, rural youth and the entrepreneurs in different areas of agriculture, poultry farming, dairying, horticulture, agro-forestry, bee-keeping and home science for enhancing productivity, increasing income and employment for the welfare of human beings. KVK, Hanumangar conducted various needbased and skill-oriented training programs for different target groups to enhance production in their mixed farming system of crop and poultry farming with a special emphasis on scientific broiler farming, which has immense potential for increasing income and employment in the rural areas. While designing the courses, the entire concept of farming system approach is taken into consideration to make the vocation economically viable and sustainable for the farm families. After training, follow up extension programs are undertaken. In the present study, an attempt has been made to analyze the impact of vocational training programmes conducted particularly on
*Subject Matter Specialist, KVK, Sangrur (Punjab) Corresponding author e-mail: satsingh09@gmail.com
scientific poultry farming with the objectives to know the change in knowledge of trainees, broiler management practices and economic benefits gained by the trainees. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sample Selection: An in depth survey of respondents was conducted who acquired specialized vocational trainings on poultry farming during the years 2007 to 2012. Farmers were interviewed in order to assess the impact of training courses organized by the KVK, Sangaria (Hanumangar). A total of 315 farmers were imparted vocational training of 5 to 15 days duration during these years. These trainees were interviewed personally for the study purpose. Method of data Collection: The method used was face to face interviews with the trainees. The semi-structured interview schedule was developed to know change in knowledge about different aspects of poultry farming before and after the training. To assess the gain in knowledge, knowledge score of the trainees by pre training test and post training test were compared.
44
Training programs conducted for farmers: A total number of 315 farmers of Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan were given practical training on poultry farming from 2007 to 2012, which was conducted by the Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sangaria. The trainings were imparted on skill development regarding care and management of the birds, better housing and balanced feeding, vaccination schedule and development of linkages with banks/ financers and local veterinary dispensary etc. The farmers were trained to work for vertical expansion of the poultry production taking into account of the limited resources of the farmers to keep the operational cost to minimum. Status of farmers: A survey proforma was developed comprising general information, background of the farmers such as their age, education, occupation, land holding, sex etc. Poultry farming practices like status of housing, feeding and vaccination schedule were also included. Various sources of information were also studied. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. Adoption level: Out of 315 farmers and rural youths, initially 175 farmers (55.5%) had adopted the scientific farming practices but at present only 88 poultry farms are functioning (27.9%). The reason for closing /non-functioning of poultry farms may be the more fluctuation in market and adoption of other enterprises. The interest of rural youth of the area is more in government/cooperate sector jobs than self employment. The banks/ financers are also not taking keen interest in financing the poultry farming. The farmers are taking more loans on kisan credit cards (KCC) due to lesser interest rate as compared to others. That is why
Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Total Number of Trainings 2 2 2 2 2 2 11
the number of poultry farms is continuously decreasing. Rate of adoption was higher in the year 2011 (30.0%) because the rates of meat and meat products were found to be higher, whereas the rate of adoption was lowest in the year 2008 (21.8%). Average rate of adoption from the year 2007 to 2012 was 27.9% (Table 1). Data revealed that unemployed rural youths (56.2%) showed keen interest in poultry farming followed by cultivation (36.8%) and labourers. However when respondents were classified on the basis of sex, it seemed to be an arena of males (100.0%) (Table 2). However females perform more work in rural areas of this district as far as poultry operations were concerned. These findings were in agreement with the observations of Rangnekar (1992). Normally the batch size of broiler ranged less than 2500 birds. The respondents opinioned that increasing the batch size also increased the income but finance and labour problem were the main constraints. It was very difficult to maintain the large batch using family labour and resources. Most of the participants were below 30 years age and educated. Since the land holding of most of the participants is less than 5 acres and they have to grow crops for their livelihood, therefore it is very difficult for them to rear more number of birds per batch. The data Table 3 depicts that the most of the respondents had constructed the permanent shed with brick floors. As far as feeding is concerned, most of the participants used broiler feed which is available in the market. Farmers had adopted it as a regular practice. Vaccination was performed regularly. 2. Source of information: It was noticed that respondent got the information mostly from the television followed by radio among the mass media group. However
Table-1. Number of training programs on organized and its adoption .
Number of Trainees 25 55 59 64 50 52 315
Number adopted 11 (21) 12 (27) 14 (36) 18 (38) 15 (26) 18 (27) 88 (175)
Adoption (%) 44.0 21.8 23.7 28.1 30.0 34.6 27.9
In parentheses are the figures of total adoption
45
Table- 2. Socio-personal profiles of trainees.
Variables Age (yr.) Less than 25 25-30 years 30 years and above Education Illiterate Up to 10th class 10+2 Graduates Occupation Unemployed youth Cultivation Laborers Broiler Batch Size More than 5000 birds 2500-5000 birds 1000-2500 birds < 1000 birds Land Holding >5 acre 2-5 acre <2acre Landless Sex Male Female
Table- 3. Status of farming practices.
Number of trainees 180 105 30 20 58 159 78 175 118 22 16 54 124 121 94 172 31 18 315 0
Percent of trainees 57.1 33.3 09.5 6.4 18.4 50.5 24.8 55.6 37.5 7.0 5.1 17.1 39.4 38.4 29.9 54.6 09.8 05.7 100.0 0.0
S. No. 1
Particulars Poultry Shed Permanent Temporary
Number of farmers 295 20 35 280 315 0
Percentage 93.7 6.4 11.1 88.9 100.0 0.0
Feeding Homemade feed Broiler Feed Vaccination Followed Not Followed
at institutional level, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Sangaria played a vital role to disseminate the scientific knowledge among the poultry farmers through vocational trainings, campaigns, expert lectures at village level, kisan sammelans and goshthis followed by poultry farmers, government agency and bank officials. At the personal level neighbours were the main source of information. This observation was in agreement with the earlier observations of Kadian and Kumar (2000).
46
3. Knowledge level: It was found in the periodically conducted surveys in the district Hanumangarh that a large number of poultry farmers have the knowledge level in areas of broiler farming like feeding, health care and management as 46.4, 30.6 and 57.5 per cent, respectively whereas, the extent of knowledge level after poultry farming training was 86.3, 68.7 and 89.9 per cent in these areas, respectively.
Table-4. Source of technical information.
S. No. 1
Sources Mass Media Radio Television News paper Personnel cosmopolite KVK Govt Agency Bank personnel Broiler farmers Personnel localities Neighbours Friends Relatives Other family members
Often (No. and %) 168 (53.3) 229 (72.7) 156 (49.5) 255 (81.0) 143 (45.4) 29 (9.2) 155 (49.2) 166 (52.7) 92 (29.2) 88 (27.9) 126 (40.0)
Sometimes (No. and %) 49 (15.6) 54 (17.1) 84 (26.7) 42 (13.3) 88 (27.9) 82 (26.0) 68 (21.6) 118 (37.5) 65 (20.6) 66 (21.0) 98 (31.1)
Never (No. and %) 98 (31.1) 32 (10.2) 75 (23.8) 18(5.7) 84 (26.7) 204 (64.8) 92 (29.2) 31 (9.8) 158 (50.2) 161 (51.1) 91 (28.9)
Table- 5. Impact of the training programmes on broiler farming practices.
Practices Feeding Health Care Management
Knowledge level before Training (%) 46.4 30.6 57.5
Knowledge level after Training (%) 86.9 68.7 89.9
CONCLUSION It was found that after attending the 11 training programmes, there was gain in knowledge level of the beneficiaries. After adoption of the newer technologies learnt by the entrepreneurs, they got more income and employment. It is recommended that various KVKs should tailor and organize need based vocational training programs for entrepreneurship development so that the rural people are benefited. The government should take imitative to support the poultry sector as done in case of dairy sector. The banking system should be more supportive to the poultry farmers. It is imperative that the poultry farming being an integral component under the mixed farming system need be strengthened in the shuttle cities
of different states and in blocks around the major towns of India. This will help in achieving the sustainable production and in turn will increase the income and employment in the rural areas. It is also recommended that through such training programs organized by KVKs, socio-economic conditions of the rural farm families could further be improved through poultry farming. REFERENCES
Kadian, K. S. and Kumar, Ram. (2000). Multivariate Analysis of information seeking pattern of Diary farmers of Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Dairy Sci.,53 (5): 375-80. Rangnekar, S. D. (1992). Women in livestock production in rural India. Proceedings, 6th AAAP Animal Science Congress held on 23-28 November, Bangkok, Thailand.
47
In vitro Regeneration of Wild species of Guar (Cyamopsis serrata and Cyamopsis senegalensis)
Anju Ahlawat, Hans Raj Dhingra and Jagbir Singh Dhankar Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004 (Haryana)
ABSTRACT Wild relatives of Cyamopsis i.e. C. serrata is an early maturing (40-50 days), slow growing and branched species, while the other species i.e. C. senegalensis is a slow growing annual herb and matures in 120-130 days. Both these wild relatives possess some desirable attributes like drought resistance , photo-and thermo-insensitivity and disease resistance. Seedling explants like cotyledon, cotyledonary node and hypocotyl taken from 7-10 d old aseptically grown seedlings and immature embryos (10-12 d after pollination) were cultured on MS medium with B5 vitamins and fortified with different concentrations of growth regulators. Maximum callus induction from cotyledon explant was evident in C. serrata and C. senegalensis on MS medium with B5 vitamins and supplemented 2, 4-D (2mg/l). Hypocotyl explants of both the tested species of Cyamopsis showed very good callus induction response in media supplemented with 2, 4-D @2mg/l. BAP at concentrations of 0.5 and 2.0 mg/l supported indirect multiple shoot regeneration via callusing in C. senegalensis whereas 1 mg/l BAP supported direct multiple shoot regeneration. On the other hand, BAP induced differentiation of multiple shoots in C. serrata and the number of shoots per hypocotyl explant increased with the increasing concentration of BAP. Indirect shoot regeneration from hypocotyl explants was evident in C. serrata at MS medium supplemented with 1mg/l each of NAA and BAP, whereas NAA (2mg/ l) with BAP(1mg/l) and NAA(2mg/l) with BAP(2mg/l) showed callusing in both the wild species. Cotyledonary node explant was the most responsive explant for plant regeneration in both the wild species of Cyamopsis under investigation. Indirect shoot regeneration in C. serrata was observed in MS medium supplemented with NAA alone and response increased at 2mg/l. NAA induced only callusing from cotyledonary nodes in C. senegalensis. 2,4-D (1mg/l) induced callusing and indirect shoot regeneration in C. serrata and C. senegalensis while its higher dose (2mg/l) induced callusing only from cotyledonary node explant in both the species tested. Supplementation of MS medium with BAP alone lead to indirect shoot regeneration via callusing and its frequency decreased with increasing its concentration for 0.5 mg/l to 2.0 mg/l. Interestingly, 2mg/l BAP supported multiple shoot formation from cotyledonary explants in C. serrata. Supplementation of 1.0 mg/l BAP to the medium containing 2.0 mg/l NAA lead to indirect shoot regeneration in C. senegalensis while it induced only callusing in C. serrata. The frequency of shoot regeneration however, decreased with the increase in concentration of BAP to 2mg/l. Half strength of MS with 0.1 mg/l and 0.5 mg/l IBA supported best rooting in C. senegalensis and C. serrata, respectively and plantlets were successfully transferred to paper cups. Key words: Callus induction, Cluster bean ( Cyamopsis tetragonoloba ), Differentiation, Regeneration. INTRODUCTION Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba ( L.) Taub.) is one of the most important kharif legume and is well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions of the world. However, one of its wild relatives i.e. C. serrata is an early maturing (40-50 days), slow
Corresponding author e-mail: ahlawatanju19@gmail.com
growing and branched species, while the other species i.e. C. senegalensis is also slow growing annual herb and matures in 120-130 days. Both these wild relatives possess some desirable attributes like drought resistance (Menon, 1973), photo-and thermo-insensitivity and disease
48
resistance (Orellana, 1966). The crop is mainly grown in the dry habitat of Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab and to limited extent in U.P. and M.P. Guar is important source of guar gum (guar galactomanans) which is used as viscosity enhancer for both food and non-food purposes. Galactomanans are the major storage food reserve of endosperm of guar seeds and endosperm constitutes about 30-35 per cent of the whole seed. The application of tissue culture technology as a central tool or an adjunct to other methods is at the vanguard in plant modification and improvement of agriculture (Brown et al., 1995). Efficient regeneration protocol is a pre requisite for use of tissue culture technology and is lacking in legumes. Legumes, in general, are considered as recalcitrant (Kaviraj et al., 2006; Chakarbarti et al. , 2006). Very few studies have been conducted on tissue culture in guar till date. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present plant tissue culture investigations were aimed to optimize medium recipe and cultural conditions for plant regeneration in wild Cyamopsis species viz. C. serrata and C. senegalensis. Seedling explants like cotyledon, cotyledonary node and hypocotyl taken from 710 d old aseptically grown seedlings and immature embryos (10-12 d after pollination) were cultured on MS medium with B5 vitamins and fortified with different concentrations of growth regulators i.e. naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), 2, 4dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2, 4-D) and 6benzyl aminopurine (BAP) alone and in combinations. Seeds of C. serrata and C. senegalensis were washed thoroughly with tap water containing a drop of teepol for 5-10 minutes. Subsequently the seeds were surface sterilized with 70 per cent alcohol for 1 min and then with 0.1 per cent mercuric chloride solution for 5 min. The seeds were then washed thoroughly three to four times in sterile distilled water on the hood of laminar flow to remove all traces of mercury. These sterilized seeds were germinated on germination medium containing 3 per cent sucrose, 8 per cent agar under asceptic conditions initially under dark condition until germination and then shifted to light conditions. Different explants measuring 4-
5mm obtained from asceptically grown seedlings were inoculated on the surface of culture medium. Embryo explants were excised from surface sterilized 10 day old green pods taken from net house and three explants per flask were cultured. Inoculated flasks were kept in culture room at 251C temperature, under photoperiod of 16h light and 8h darkness. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Cotyledon explants: It was observed that NAA (1mg/l) failed to induce any morphogenic response from cotyledons while its higher dose (2mg/l) induced rooting directly from the explant which was coupled with callus formation in C. serrata and C. senegalensis (Table 1). 2, 4-D and BAP on the other hand, induced callusing from cotyledons in both the species of Cyamopsis (Fig1) while NAA (1 and 2 mg/l) in combination with BAP (0.5-1 mg/l) induced only swelling of explant uncoupled with callusing. The maximum callus induction was evident in C. serrata and C. senegalensis on a medium supplemented with 2, 4-D (2mg/l) and the callus was yellowish white in color. Regeneration of shoots however, could not be achieved from callus on any of the medium tried from cotyledonary explants. Hypocotyl explants: Hypocotyl of all the tested species of Cyamopsis showed very good callus induction response in the medium supplemented with 2, 4D (Table 2). BAP at concentration of 0.5 and 2.0 mg/l supported indirect multiple shoot regeneration via callusing in C. senegalensis whereas 1 mg/l BAP supported direct multiple shoot regeneration. On the other hand, BAP induced differentiation of multiple shoot in C. serrata and the number of shoots increased with the increasing concentration of BAP. Combination of 2,4-D and NAA with BAP induced good callusing in C. serrata and C. senegalensis except NAA(1mg/l) + BAP (1mg/l) which induced shoot regeneration from hypocotyls of C. serrata . Cheema and Bawa (1991) reported de novo formation of shoot buds from hypocotyl explants of pigeonpea on the medium containing BAP and IAA.
49
Table 1. Morphogenic response of cotyledons taken from 7-10 day old aseptically grown seedlings of wild species of Cyamopsis to plant growth regulators.
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Adjuvants to MS Medium MS basal medium NAA (1 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) 2,4D (1 mg/l) 2,4D (2 mg/l) BAP (0.5 mg/l) BAP (1 mg/l) BAP (2 mg/l) 2,4D( 2 mg/l) + BAP (0.5 mg/l) 2,4D (2 mg/l) + BAP (1 mg/l) NAA( 1 mg/l)+ BAP (1 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) + BAP (0.5 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) + BAP (1 mg/l) NAA( 2 mg/l) + BAP (2 mg/l)
Morphogenic Response C. serrata C. senegalensis No response No response Callusing + adventious root formation from explants Callusing (+) Callusing (+++) Callusing (+) Swelling of explants Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Swelling of explants Swelling of explants Callusing (++) Callusing (+ + + ) No response No response Callusing + adventious root formation from explants Swelling of explants Callusing (+++) Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Callusing (++) Callusing (++) Callusing (+) Swelling of explants Swelling of explants Callusing (++) Callusing ( + + + )
+ = Low(10-30% Callusing), ++ = Medium(40-60% Callusing), +++ = Good (70-90% Callusing)
Table 2. Morphogenic response of hypocotyls taken from 7-10 day old aseptically grown seedlings of wild species of Cyamopsis to plant growth regulators.
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Adjuvants to MS Medium MS basal medium NAA (1 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) 2,4D (1 mg/l) 2,4D (2 mg/l) BAP (0.5 mg/l) BAP (1 mg/l) BAP (2 mg/l) 2,4D (2 mg/l) + BAP (0.5 mg/l) 2,4D( 2 mg/l) + BAP (1 mg/l) NAA( 1 mg/l)+ BAP (1 mg/l) NAA( 2 mg/l) + BAP (0.5 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l)+ BAP (1 mg/l) NAA( 2 mg/l) + BAP (2 mg/l)
Morphogenic Response C. serrata C. senegalensis No response Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Callusing Callusing (+++) Callusing + multiple shoot formation Multiple shoot formation Callusing + multiple shoot formation Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Callusing + shoot regeneration No response Callusing (++) Callusing (++) No response Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Callusing (+++) Callusing + multiple shoot formation Multiple shoot formation Callusing + multiple shoot formation Callusing (++) Callusing (++) Callusing No response Callusing (++) Callusing (+++)
+ = Low(10-30% Callusing), ++ = Medium(40-60% Callusing), +++ = Good(70-90% Callusing)
Cotyledonary node explants: Indirect shoot regeneration in C. serrata was observed in MS medium supplemented with NAA alone and response increased at 2mg/l NAA. NAA, on the other hand, induced only callusing from cotyledonary nodes in C. senegalensis. 2, 4-D (1mg/l) induced callusing and indirect shoot
regeneration in C. serrata and C. senegalensis while its higher dose (2mg/l) induced callusing from explant in both species tested (Table 3). The callus was yellowish green in C. serrata and C. senegalensis . Supplementation of MS medium with BAP alone lead to indirect shoot regeneration via callusing and its frequency decreased with
50
Table3.
Morphogenic response of cotyledonary nodes taken from 7-10 day old aseptically grown seedlings of wild species of Cyamopsis to plant growth regulators.
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Adjuvants to MS Medium MS basal medium NAA (1 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) 2,4D (1 mg/l) 2,4D (2 mg/l) BAP (0.5 mg/l) BAP (1 mg/l) BAP (2 mg/l) 2,4D( 2 mg/l) + BAP (0.5mg/l) 2,4D (2 mg/l) + BAP (1 mg/l) NAA( 1 mg/l)+ BAP (1 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) + BAP (0.5 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) + BAP (1 mg/l) NAA( 2 mg/l) + BAP (2 mg/l)
Morphogenic Response C. serrata C. senegalensis No response Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing (++) Callusing + multiple shoot formation Callusing + multiple shoot formation Multiple shoot formation Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing (+++) Callusing + shoot regeneration No response Callusing (++) Callusing (++) Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing (++) Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing (+) Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing + shoot regeneration
Fig1: In vitro response of cotyledons of Cyamopsis seneglensis (A) and C.serrata (B) to 2,4D and BAP X = 2mg/l 2,4-D + 0.5 mg/l BAP, Y = 2mg/l 2,4-D +1mg/ l BAP
Fig 2: Morpogenic response of cotyledonary nodes of C.serrata (A)and Cyamopsis seneglensis (B)to different concentrations of BAP (X=0.5mg/l, Y=1.0mg/ l, Z=2mg/l)
51
Table-4. Morphogenic response of immature embryos excised 10-12 days after anthesis (DAA) in wild species of Cyamopsis to plant growth regulators and other adjuvants.
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Adjuvants to MS Medium MS basal medium NAA (0.5 mg/l) NAA (1 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) 2,4D (0.5 mg/l) 2,4D (1 mg/l) 2,4D (2 mg/l) BAP (0.5 mg/l) BAP (1 mg/l) BAP (2 mg/l) NAA (0.5 mg/l) + BAP (1 mg/l) NAA (0.5 mg/l) + BAP (2 mg/l) NAA (1 mg/l) + BAP (0.5mg/l) NAA (1 mg/l) + BAP (2 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) + BAP (0.5 mg/l) NAA (2 mg/l) + BAP (1 mg/l) CH (500mg/l) NAA (0.2 mg/l) + BAP (0.2 mg/l) + CH (500 mg/l) NAA (0.2 mg/l) + BAP (0.001 mg/l) + CH (500 mg/l)
Morphogenic Response C. serrata C. senegalensis No response Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing (+) swelling of cotyledons Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Root formation Callusing (+++) Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing (++) No response Callusing (++) No response Callusing + adventious root formation from explant Callusing (+) swelling of explant Direct shoot formation No response Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Callusing (+) No response No response No response No response Callusing No response Callusing (+++) Callusing + shoot regeneration Callusing (+) Callusing (+) Callusing (+) No response swelling of explants No response No response
Direct shoot formation + root formation

Table 5. Combination of growth regulators used for rooting and flowering in wild species of Cyamopsis.
S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Medium MS MS MS + IBA 0.1 mg/l MS + IBA 0.5 mg/l MS + IBA 1 mg/l MS + IBA 1.5 mg/l MS + IAA 1 mg /l MS + NAA 2mg/l + IAA 1mg/l MS + NAA 2 mg/l MS + IBA 0.1 mg/l MS + IBA 0.5 mg/l MS + IBA 1 mg/l MS + IBA 1.5 mg/l MS + IAA 1 mg /l MS + NAA 2mg/l + IAA 1mg/l MS + NAA 2 mg/l MS + NAA 0.2 mg/l + BAP 0.001 mg/l + 500 mg/l CH.
C. serrata -, Flowering + + +
C. senegalensis -, Flowering + +, Flowering -, Flowering -, Flowering -
= Nil + = Rooting
52
increasing its concentration from 0.5 mg/l to 2.0 mg/l (Fig2). Interestingly 2mg/l BAP support multiple shoot formation from cotyledonary node explants in C. serrata. Supplementation of 1.0 mg/l BAP to the medium containing 2.0 mg/l NAA lead to indirect shoot regeneration in C. senegalensis while it induced only callusing in C . serrata . The frequency of shoot regeneration however, decreased with the increase in concentration of BAP (2mg/l). Lower concentration of BAP (0.5mg/ l) with 2mg/l NAA induced indirect shoot regeneration through callusing in both the species of Cyamopsis studied. Shoot regeneration from cotyledonary node has also been reported in other legumes on BAP supplemented medium like Cajanus cajan (Prakash et al., 1994), Phaseolus vulgaris ( Mc Clean and Graftan, 1989 and Mohamed et al., 1992), V. radiate (Mathew, 1987 and Gulati and Jaiwal, 1992, 1994) and chickpea (Subhadra et al., 1998). Surekha and Arundhati (2007) also observed regeneration from cotyledonary node of peanut cultured on BAP and in combination with kinetin. Immature embryo explants: NAA induced callusing in C. serrata and C. senegalensis except 0.5mg/l NAA which induced indirect shoot regeneration from callus in C. serrate (Table 4 ). Similarly, indirect shoot regeneration was delayed until 60-70 days of inoculation in MS medium supplemented with 1 mg/l NAA. On the other hand, indirect regeneration was observed at NAA 0.5 mg/l in C. senegalensis and callus formation was found at NAA 1mg/l after 60-70 days of inoculation. Like NAA, 2,4-D also induced callusing in C. serrata. Immature embryos of C. senegalensis did not respond to 2,4-D. Immature embryos however, responded best at 2.0 mg/l BAP which induced callusing and differentiation of shoot from callus in C. serrata. Callus growth of C. serrata was highest on MS medium adjuncted with 1mg/l BAP (Fig3). Culturing of immature embryos 10-12 DAP, yielded callus in both the species of Cyamopsis on MS medium adjuncted with NAA (0.5 mg//l) + BAP (1 mg/l). Callus showed differentiation of shoot in C. serrata in medium supplemented with
NAA (0.5 mg/l) + BAP (1 mg/l) after 45-50 DOI . MS medium supplemented with 0.2 mg/l NAA+0.001mg/l BAP+500 mg/l CH showed direct plant regeneration from embryo with very good rooting after 30 days of inoculation in C. serrata. Culturing of the nodal and inter-nodal segments of the above regenerated shoots produced multiple shooting after 20-25 days of inoculation on the above described medium. Prem et al. (2005) reported shoot regeneration in guar using embryo as explants via somatic embryogenesis on BAP and NAA supplemented medium. Rooting of shoots: For rooting of in vitro generated shoots, different rooting media were tried. Shoots rooted on a strength MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l and 1.0 mg/l IBA showed rooting in wild species. C. serrata also shows good root formation in A6 medium (MS + 0.2 mg/l NAA + 0.001 mg/l BAP + 500 mg/l CH) (Fig4). Prem et al., (2003) observed rooting response of regenerated shoot of cotyledonary node explants in guar on MS medium supplemented with 4.9 M IBA. Flowering was observed from nodal segments in strength MS medium alone in C. serrata while C. senegalensis it was evident in both strength and strength MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/l IBA, 1mg/l IBA. C. senegalensis flowering was also observed from hypocotyl explants in MS medium supplemented with 2,4D (2mg/l) and BAP (0.5 mg/l) after longer period of inoculation (explant was shifted to the new medium of same concentration after every 2-3 weeks of inoculation for providing longer period of inoculation to get flowering) (Table 5 )(Fig5). Hardening, acclimatization and field transfer: The plantlets with sufficient rooting were taken out of the medium and washed properly with tap water. These were then transferred to small cups or pots containing sterilized dune sand and farm yard manure in 3:1 ratio. These were irrigated with strength MS nutrient solution, covered with polythene bags to maintain high humidity and maintained in culture room at 262C (Fig 4). Potted cups were irrigated with nutrient solution from time to time.
53
Fig 3: Morphogenic response of immature embryos (10-12 DAA) of C.serrata atBAP1mg/l(A), BAP 2mg/l (B), NAA 0.5mg/l(C) and C.senegalensis atNAA 0.5 mg/l + BAP 1mg/l (D), NAA 0.5 mg/l + BAP 2mg/l (E).
Fig 4A,B: Rooting of shoots on strength MS supplemented with 0.5mg/l IBA (C.senegalensis)(A) and MS+0.2mg/l NAA+0.001mg/l BAP+ 500mg/l CH (C.serrata)(B) C,D : Acclimation of rooted plants of C.senegalensis and C.serrata Fig 5 : Rooting and flowering of shoots on strength MS medium supplemented with 0.1mg/l IBA in C.senegalensis (A) and 0.5 mg/l IBA in C.serrata (B). F=Flowering , R=Rooting
54
CONCLUSION In the present study the cotyledon produced only callusing on all the medium tried. BAP at concentrations of 0.5 and 2.0 mg/l supported indirect multiple shoot regeneration via callusing in C. senegalensis, whereas 1 mg/l BAP supported direct multiple shoot regeneration from hypocotyl. On the other hand, BAP induced differentiation of multiple shoots in C. serrata and the number of shoots per hypocotyl increased with the increasing concentration of BAP. Similar indirect shoot regeneration from hypocotyl was evident in C. serrata in medium supplemented with 1mg/ l each of NAA and BAP. Whereas NAA (2mg/l) with BAP(1mg/l) and NAA(2mg/l) with BAP(2mg/ l) showed callusing. Cotyledonary node explant was the most responsive explant for plant regeneration in both the species of Cyamopsis under investigation. Interestingly, 2mg/l BAP supported multiple shoot formation from cotyledonary nodes in C. serrata. Medium containing 1.0 mg/l BAP + 2.0 mg/l NAA supported indirect shoot regeneration in C. senegalensis. Immature embryos (10-12 DAP) of C. serrata showed indirect regeneration at 0.5mg/ l NAA after 25 days of inoculation. MS with 0.1 mg/l and 0.5 mg/l IBA supported best rooting in C. senegalensis and C. serrata, respectively. Plantlets were successfully transferred to paper cups. REFERENCES
Brown, D. C. W., Finstad, K. I. and Watson, E. M. (1995). Somatic embryogenesis in herbaceous dicots. In: In vitro embryogenesis in plants. Thorpe, T.A. (ed.) Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.pp.345-415. Chakarbarti, D., Anindya, S. and Sampa. (2006). Efficient and rapid in vitro plant regeneration system for Indian cultivars of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult., 86 : 117-23. Cheema, H. K. and Bawa, J. (1991). Clonal multiplication via multiple shoots in some legumes (Vigna unguiculata and Cajanus cajan). Acta.Hortic., 289: 93-94.
Gulati, A. and Jaiwal, P. K. (1992). In vitro induction of multiple shoots and plant regeneration from shoot tips of mung bean (Vigna radiate L.) Wilczek). Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult., 29: 199-205. Gulati, A. and Jaiwal, P. K. (1994). Plant regeneration from cotyledonary node explants of mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek). Plant Cell Rep., 13: 523-27. Kaviraj, C. P., Kiran, G., Venugopal, R. B., Kishor, P. B. K. and Srinath, R. (2006). Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from cotyledonary explants of green gram [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilezek.] - A recalcitrant grain legume, In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology Plant, 42(2):134-38. Mathew, H. (1987). Morphogenetic response from in vitro cultured seedling explants of mung bean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek). Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult,. 11: 233-46. Mc Clean, P. and Graftan, K. F. (1989). Regeneration of dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) via.organogenesis. Plant Sci.,60: 11722. Menon, U. (1973). A comprehensive review of crop improvement and utilization of cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L).Taub.]. Monograph Series-2, Deptt. of Agric. Rajasthan., pp: 51. Mohamed, M. F., Read, P. E. and Coyne, D. P. (1992). Plant regeneration from in vitro culture of embryonic axis explants in common and tepary beans. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.,117 :332-36. Orellana, R. G. (1966). A new occurrence of tobacco ring spot of guar in the united states. Plant Dis., 50: 7-10. Prakash, N. S., Pental, D. and Sarin, N. B. (1994). Regeneration of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) from cotyledonary node via multiple shoot formation. Plant Cell Rep., 13 : 623-27. Prem, D., Singh Subhadra, Gupta, P. P. , Singh, J. V. and Kadyan, S. P. S. (2005). Callus induction and denovo regeneration from callus in guar ( Cyamposis tetragonoloba). Plant Cell Tiss.Org. Cult., 80: 209-14. Subhadra Singh, Vashishat, R. K., Chowdhary, J. B., Singh, M. and Sarin, P. K. (1998). Multiple shoots from cotyledonary node explants of non-nodulating genotypes (ICC435M) of chick pea, Cicer arietinum (L.) Indian J. Exp. Biol., 36: 1276-79. Surekha, C. H. and Arundhati, A. (2007). Induction of multiple shoots via organogenesis and plant regeneration from cotyledons of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L). J. Phytological Res., 20 (1):23-27.
55
Mithun Husbandry - Issues and Strategies in Papum Pare District of Arunachal Pradesh
Tilling Tayo, Taba Heli, Bengia Atul and Nabam Gama KVK-Papum Pare, Nirjuli-791 109 ( Arunachal Pradesh)
ABSTRACT Mithun (Bos frontalis) is pride of Arunachal Pradesh and one of the major single most problems in mithun husbandry is ownership dispute, apart from crop raid, wild beast and other being viral, bacterial and parasitic infestation. To overcome the ownership dispute microchip implantation on the left side of neck region (anterior to the point of shoulder), while Lura system to mitigate crops raids, special training to mithun to come inside protected enclosure at night to curve out wild beast menace, followed by vaccination, antibiotic and anthelmantic drugs respectively for viral, bacterial and parasitic infestation have been suggested to the farmers of the area. Key words: Micro-chip, Lura system, Mithun, FMD, Thelazia. INTRODUCTION Arunachal Pradesh has the highest Mithun (Bos frontails) population in the world followed by Nagaland, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur and Mizoram. Mithun locally called as sabe, subu, and sobo in Nyshi, Apatani and Galo tribes, respectively have an intimate relation with sociocultural life of the tribal people and is the oldest known domesticated animal being reared by the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh under wild and semiwild conditions.These animals are allowed to move freely in the jungle after notching the ear with sharp knife for identification. The owner or care taker look after them by just spotting the animal in jungle through its ear notching mark and feeding hand full of common-salt by calling ALLE-ALLE, LALLAE-LALLAE and AHA-AHA in Nyshi, Apatani and other tribes, respectively as per their convenience since their forefather. They are reared until used for food on festive occasions, victory celebration, marriage feasts, for barters purpose and rituals scarification. However, as per the world Conservation Union, this species is vulnerable to extinction. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to know the problems at grassroot level in mithun rearing faced by the farmers of Papum pare district through personal interview and self observation method and to advise them to follow the suitable corrective measures.
Corresponding author e-mail: tilling.tayo@gmail.com
MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was carried out in Papum Pare district of Arunachal Pradesh during the year 201112 in Doimukh block. Three villages namely Mani, Cheputa and Midpu were selected and from each selected village, twenty five Mithun farmers were selected randomly to make a sample size of 75 respondents. Through interview and selfobservation methods mithun farmers were inquired regarding the grassroot level problems in mithun husbandry and the answers were recorded in each individual respondents sheet and data were generated. The data were analyzed with the help of frequencies and percentages. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Ownership dispute A majority of farmers (92 %) reported that ownership dispute is one of the major problem in mithun husbandry (Table 1). Traditionally ear notching system was being practised by the farmers for identification but could not be considered as a fool proof system because ear mark of animal can be easily altered by sharp knife without injuring the animal much. As a matter of fact many mischievous people tend to notch the ear of animal in their own style, though that has been already notched or the young ones that have not yet notched by real owner. These animals are reared in semi-wild conditions so, in the very vast
56
forest area often it is very difficult to spot the animal once in a month. By this time the freshly notched ear had been already healed and problems starts now. The real owner will identify his mithun by its body coats, whereas fraud owner will stick to the ear mark. These often leads to the saying might is right and it is very difficult tusk for the village leader give a judgement either in favour of them and number of times result in bloodshed between the real and fraud owner.
Table1. Problems in Mithun husbandry faced by the farmers.
et al., (2008). It prefers to browse and move around the forest in search of selective forages but number of occasions animal enters the agriculture field thereby damaging and eating up the crops grown over it. However it is not the fault of animal, if the alleged field is not well protected with fence or wall. The animals entered in the field are caught and imposed heavy fine to the owner or harm the animals with gun, spear, arrow and sword which is an unethical practice. As per the respondents view the extent of economic loss caused by mithun is roughly estimated to be 5-17 per cent of the total agriculture output. It has been observed that the common practise to prevent the crop raid was that every farming family puts fencing along with his portion of boundary of the cultivated area and animal are made to roam freely. Fences are made up of locally available material such as bamboos and woods, barbed wire is effective but due to its high cost it is not generally affordable by the villagers. This practices is laborious, time consuming, ineffective and generally small area can be brought under protection. Suggestions: Crop raid can be mitigated by adopting lura system commonly practised by Adi and Galo community of East and West Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh. Lura refers to a demarcated area within a village community forest especially earmarked by the community as the best area with its natural conditions for rearing mithun in its natural habitat (Fig.1).The purpose is to rear mithun population of the village together, irrespective of individual ownership. This captivity is to be synchronized with the cultivation season of the slash and burn practice of the land use system prevalent in the area. This will serve as an effective measure to protect land under agriculture use by all the farming community of villagers (Heli, 2009). C. Wild beast Wild beast viz., wild dogs, tigers and leopards are main menace in free range system. All the respondents reported that especially during calving season, numbers of attack by wild dog and leopards were found to be increased because newly born calf becomes soft target of wild beasts.
57
Sr. No. Problem 01 02 03 04 05 06
Frequency Percentage(%) 69 75 75 63 12 75 75 27 52 92 100 100 84 16 100 100 36 69
Ownership dispute Crop raid Wild beast Viral disease (FMD) Bacterial disease (HS) Parasitic infestation i) Tick and mites ii) Leach iii) Maggot infestation iv) Eye worm (Thelazia)
Suggestions: This ownership dispute can be resolved by use of micro-chip implant bearing unique 15-digit code which posses a character of tissue friendly, lifelong duration and tempered proof. Micro-chip can be implanted in animal body by injecting between the left side of neck and point of shoulder as shown in figure 2. One micro-chip is to be allotted to only one mithun, the 15-digit code is recorded and maintain in the forest department in their official register under the owner name of said animal and same number is retained by the animal owner for future investigation and identification. At the time of conflicts on the ownership of the Mithuns, the microchip reader machine can be brought from the authority and the micro-chip number can be read by placing the reader near to the site of implantation of the micro-chip. This will annihilate any confusion about the identity of animal. B. Crop raid Unequivocally cent percent respondents said crop raid by mithun was the most common dayto-day problem in agriculture (Table 1). Basically, Mithun thrives on the jungle forages, tree fodders, shrubs, herbs and other natural vegetations Das
On the other hand, hunting and killing of wild animals has been strictly prohibited by the forest department so mithun farmer had no option to mitigate this problem. More over it is against the ethics to eliminate wild beast from the same ecosystem. Suggestions: Wild beast attack mostly during night hours, therefore in order to tackle this problem there should be a community participatory approach made by barricading fencing with barbed wire or locally available materials and mithun should be trained to remain inside the enclosure at night by calling them or making some sound such as ringing bell at evening and offering handful of salt to each animal as the mithun have extra urge for salt. Similarly,the enclosure gate should be opened in the morning for free rang grazing purpose. D. Viral Disease Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease affecting mostly cattle, swine, sheep, goats and many species of wild ungulates (Brooksby, 1982). Majority of farmers (84 % ) reported that FMD creates havoc in mithun husbandry practices in sporadic manner (Table 1). It has been observed that compared to other domesticated animal mithun are more susceptible to attack of FMD due to its semi-wild nature sharing the grazing area with other wild animals like deer and wild pigs. In case of mithun, the rate of morbidity is very high and mortality may go up to 60 per cent and above.
The virus exists in the form of seven serologically and genetically distinguishable types viz. O, A, C, Asia1, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3, but the prevalent strains of FMD virus found in the state of Arunachal Pradesh is type O, A and Asia-1(Sharma, 2010). Out of which type O is more prevalent and often causing havoc to the Mithun population almost every year. It is hypothesized that the transmission of the FMD virus is mostly brought by the ploughing bullocks from Assam especially during cultivation season (Kharif), though the animal may not show the symptom but act as a carrier of FMD virus. Suggestions: To curb the FMD outbreak a routine Ring vaccination in the areas bordering Assam state and the rest of the animals has to be covered by Barrier vaccination in endemic area twice a year. E. Bacterial disease Haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) is a contagious bacterial disease caused by two serotypes of Pasteurella multocida, B2 and E2. Few farmers (16%) reported that HS is one of the hurdle in mithun husbandry but the disease is often under go unnoticed and unattended (Table 1). The diseased animal often exhibits the symptom of dyspnoea, salivation, subcutaneous swelling and die within 2 to 3 days. The onset and course of the disease is generally rapid and leave little time to seek veterinarian help which is not possible due to their semi-wild nature and hilly terrain of their dwelling area.
Lura system
Eye worm(Thelazia )
58
Suggestions: In endemic areas best way to prevent the occurrence of this disease is to follow up an immunization programme before the onset of monsoon every year. However, antibiotics such as sulphonamides, penicillin and tetracycline can be used successfully for treatment in the early stages. F. Parasitic Disease. All the respondents reported that ectoparasites like ticks, mites, leaches and biting flies are commonly found over the body of mithun due to semi wild nature of rearing system, causing constant irritation by biting and sucking blood which leads to dull, depressed, anaemic and stunted growth . Use of Ivermectin @ 0.15mg/kg body weight twice a year and dipping animal in Taktik (Amitrazin) solution @ 4ml/ litter of water for at least 2 minute every four month will reduce the burden of ecto-parasitic infestation. 36 percent of farmer said maggot infections were more evidence in calf as compared to adult animal. Navel of newly born calf were the soft target for maggot infection apart from any lacerated or cut wound mark in their body by thorn or sharp object during the course of grazing. Suggestions: Maggotic wound can be ruled out by clipping the entire hair around the wound and plugging with turpentine oil for few hours followed by thoroughly irrigated with 2 per cent potassium permanganate solution then manually remove the dead maggot with use of forceps, tropically a fly repellent (Topicure) must apply in order to prevent the further visit of fly in the affected area. A dose of antibiotic should be followed for at least 5 days to check secondary bacterial infection. Eye worm infestatiion A majority (69.0 %) of farmers said eye worm infestation was one of the major concerns because parasite present in the eye ball cause constant irritation that leads to lacrimation, opacity and ultimately blindness and in number of occasion result in death due to starvation or fall from cliff. Similar outbreak was reported from west siang
district (Panor, 2010). It is caused by the genus Thelazia species and transmitted by different species of muscids. These worms live in the conjunctival sac (eyelid) of the eye . The worms measures up to 2.5 cm long and are thin and white in colour. (Fig. 2) This can be treated by manual removal of adult worm after application of 2 per cent lignocane (anasthesia) in eye with the use of forceps but animal need to be restrained properly followed by thoroughly irrigated with aqueous solution of 2 per cent boric powder with concurrent use of Ciplox-D (Ciprofloxacin and Dexamethasone ) and Ivermectin injection @ 0.15mg/kg body weight Kennedy and Phillips (1993). CONCLUSION Mithun husbandry practices can be significantly improved amongst the mithun rearing farmers through the blend of traditional practices and scientific methods suggested. There is a large scope for creating awareness regarding scientific package of practices of mithun rearing because most of the farmers are still following the methods learnt from their fore father. Similarly, mithun needs be reared under intensive farming system rather than under semi wild conditions as practiced in the region which results in ownership dispute amongst the farmers. This species needs to be well taken care of in order to prevent its extinction. REFERENCES
Brooksby, J. B. (1982). Portraits of viruses: foot-and-mouth disease virus. Intervirology, 18: 1-10. Das. K. C., Prakash, B. and Rajkhowa, C, (2008). Nutrition and Feeding of Mithun (Bos frontalis) in Hill Livestock Farming System. Indian J. Anim. Nutr., 25. 1-10. Heli, T. (2009). Lura system of mithun management- A sustainable agriculture in Arunachal Pradesh. Sirki-Denggo, souvenio., 11-13. Kennedy, M. J. and Phillips, F. E. (1993). Efficacy of doramectin against eyeworms (Thelazia spp.) in naturally and experimentally infected cattle. Veterinary Parasitology, 49(1): 61-66. Panor, J. (2010). Mithun: The ATM. Biological Park, Itanagar. http://arunachalnews.com/mithun-the-atm.html. Sharma, A.K. (2010). Foot and Mouth Disease in livestockCombat and Management (Seminar, Itanagar). http:// www.worldvet.org/node/7270.
59
Pattern of Investment vis--vis Credit Utilization in Dairy Sector of Punjab

Arjinder Kaur and R. S. Sidhu* Department of Economics and Sociology Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004
ABSTRACT This study was undertaken to assess the role of credit and investment pattern in dairy sector under Punjab conditions. It was found that on an average 28.9 per cent of per farm income comes from dairying in the state. For the state as a whole, Rs. 5,612/- farm were taken as loan for purchase of cattle and Rs. 9,641/- farm for construction of cattle shed. Out of total loan availed by sampled households in the state for investment purposes in agriculture between 2002-2007, it was just 2.2 per cent for cattle purchase and 3.7 per cent for construction of cattle shed. Utilization of credit is as important as credit availability to enhance productivity. Diversion of credit leads to indebtedness and depleting financial position of the farmers. The average investment on cattle in the state was found to be Rs. 9,175/- farm. Borrowed funds accounted for 61.2 percent of invested funds. The diversion of borrowed funds for this purpose is found to be 3.0 per cent. Thus actual share of loan amount utilized as investment on cattle was found to be 59.3 per cent investment on cattle On the other hand, Rs. 18,206/- farm were invested on cattle shed in the state. 53.0 per cent of this investment was accounted for by borrowed funds. In fact, the actual utilization of credit for total investment came to be 49.5 per cent as 7.0 per cent of the borrowed funds were found to be diverted for other purposes. Thus, development of dairying in state should be further encouraged in a big way through concessional credit along with subsidized cattle insurance, quality control on animal feed and systematic milk marketing etc. Key Words: Investment, Credit, Dairy. INTRODUCTION Dairy production and consumption has a long historical tradition and has been an integral part of agricultural systems .Growth in dairy sector in Punjab is more related to expanding supply to match the rising consumer demand, fundamental changes in economic growth and the value of resources. It is also defined by public policies, intervention and investment decisions. In the wake of all these positive parameters, dairying has become an important subsidiary occupation in Punjab. However, no economic activity is possible without a resource-base i.e. capital. This is more important as dairying has transformed from a subsistence sector to a commercial one. To run the dairy on commercial scale, investment is required in one form or the other. With the coming of new aspects in livestock production technology, nutrition of animals, new breeds &
* Dean, Colleg eof Basic Sciences and Humantities Corresponding author e-mail: arjkaur@yahoo.com
breeding techniques etc. channelizing of resources is must in dairying. These resources can be selfowned or borrowed. This study was aimed at to assess the role of credit in investment pattern related to dairying. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was based on primary data collected from stratified sampling technique. At first stage of sampling four districts were randomly selected, one each from sub-mountainous zone ( Zone 1) and south-western zone ( Zone III) and two from the central plain zone (Zone II ). From each district, two blocks were selected and from each selected block, two villages were selected in a random manner. Three hundred twenty households were selected on the basis of probability proportional technique from five standard categories of operational holdings i.e. marginal, small, semi-
60
medical, medium and large. In this study, two main dairying assets were taken i.e. cattle and cattle sheds. These two are important items of investment due to the durability and cost involved. Simple statistical techniques like ratios and percentages were used to analyze the data. Some ratios were also calculated from the primary data such as: i. Amount borrowed/Amount invested x 100 to account for the share of loans in investment.
ii. Amount utilized/Amount invested x 100 to highlight the actual utilization of borrowed funds in total investment. iii. Amount diverted/ Amount borrowed x 100 to highlight the rate of diversion of borrowed funds. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Effect of farm size on income from dairying: Dairying has emerged as a major source of income in the State. The zone-wise analysis reveals that average share of income from dairying is maximum in Zone-II (29.5%) and minimum in Zone III (27.8%) but otherwise it is contributing a higher proportion in small and marginal farm categories of Zone III (36.9 % and 40.5%) as compared to other zones. As the Zone III is mainly cotton belt of the state and the collected data comprised of two years of cotton crop failure. This can be the reason for higher proportion of dairying in small marginal farmers in the zone. The higher proportion of income from dairy section in Zone II can be attributed to resource use efficiency is considered i.e. central plain zone, also having better breed of animals. For the State as a whole, 28.9 per cent of farm household income is coming from dairy sector (Table1) .
Table 1. Income from dairying on different farm size (Percentage to total income).
Source of loan availed: The perusal of data (Table 2) revealed that sampled farmers were tapping both the sources of finance i.e. institutional as well as noninstitutional for investment in the above said assets of dairy sector. Rs.3,574/-farm have been borrowed by the farm households from institutional sources for the purchase of cattle and Rs.2,038/-farm is the amount borrowed from noninstitutional sources for the same purpose. This accounts for 63.7 per cent share of institutional sources and 36.3 per cent of non-institutional sources for the state as a whole. However, for Zone-I, the amount borrowed for purchase of cattle was nil from institutional sources. In Zone II, Rs.7,918/-farm was the borrowed amount for the same purpose and out of it 68.9 per cent was the share of institutional sources, whereas the rest is of non-institutional ones. In Zone-III, the amount borrowed for purchase of cattle was Rs.6,463/-farm. Out of borrowed funds, the institutional sources were found to be contributing 52.2 per cent and that of non-institutional sources is 47.8 per cent. Thus, it was found that per farm loans availed were maximum in Zone-II as well as the share of institutional sources was highest in this zone.
Table 2. Source of loan taken for investment in dairy (Rs/ farm).
Zone
Institutional Sources
NonInstitutional Sources 187 588(8.9) 2457(31.0) 1738(22.1)
Total
I Cattle Cattle Shed II Cattle Cattle Shed III Cattle Cattle Shed State Cattle Cattle Shed
6038(91.1) -5461(69.0) 6113(77.9)
187 6626 7918 7851
Zone
Farm Size Medium Small Semi- Medium Large Average medium 28.3 31.8 36.9 31.9 33.8 33.2 40.5 34.4 27.1 31.8 25.2 29.1 30.0 26.9 29.9 28.5 28.3 28.7 24.4 27.3 28.9 29.5 27.8 28.9
3374(52.2) 8897(54.7) 3574(63.7) 6790(70.4)
3089(47.8) 7372(45.3) 2038(36.3) 2851(29.6)
64631 6269 5612 9641
I II III State
The average amount of loan availed for the construction of cattle shed was found to be Rs.6,626/-farm in Zone-I and out of which 91.1 per cent was availed from institutional sources and the rest from the non-institutional sources. In zone
61
II, the average amount borrowed was Rs.7,851/farm and source of finance was 77.9 per cent and 22.1 per cent as institutional and non-institutional, respectively. Maximum amount borrowed was in Zone III i.e. Rs. 16,269/- and source of finance was 54.7 per cent and 45.3 per cent as institutional and non-institutional, respectively. In this zone institutional funding was found to be least. For the State as a whole, average amount borrowed comes out to be Rs.9,641/-farm and 70.43 per cent of this amount is being contributed by institutional sources and rest of the amount by non-institutional sources of finance. Proportion of loan used for dairy farming purpose: As the dairy enterprise is assuming importance more so in the central and south western zone of the State, it is being getting commercialized. The proportionate share of dairy loans in total amount borrowed by sampled farm households for investment purpose over the last five years is given in Table 3.
Table 3. Proportionate share of dairy loans in total amount borrowed (Percentage)
cent is the share of non-institutional sources. In Zone-II, the loans availed by sampled households for the purchase of cattle is 2.9 per cent of the total loans availed by them for farm investment during the past five years. 2.8 per cent of it is being contributed by institutional sources and 3.2 per cent by non-institutional sources of finance. For the purpose of cattle sheds construction, it was 2.9 per cent of total investment loan availed by the sampled farmers. Here the contribution of institutional sources was 3.2 per cent, whereas 2.3 per cent is being contributed by non-institutional sources of finance. The loan amount was 2.6 per cent of total loans availed by sampled farm holdings of Zone-III for the cattle purchase. 2.4 per cent of it was being supplied by institutional sources of finance and 2.8 per cent from the informal sources of finance for the said purpose. For the cattle shed, sampled farmers of this zone have availed 6.5 per cent of the total farm investment loan. 6.4 per cent of it has been provided by formal sources while 6.6 per cent by the non-institutional sources of finance. For the state as a whole, the share of loans for cattle purchase stands 2.2 per cent in the total loans availed by the sampled households. 2.9 per cent of it is being provided by non-institutional sources while 1.9 per cent is the contribution of formal sources of finance. The proportion of other item head i.e. for cattle sheds, was found to be 3.7 per cent in the total farm investment loan availed by sampled farm holdings for the state as a whole. 4.0 percent of this proportion is being provided by non-institutional sources of finance whereas formal sources are contributing 3.6 per cent. Thus, it was evident that dairy loans do not form a high proportion in the total loans availed by the farmers of the state for investment purpose. Also the share of non-institutional sources of finance is found to be higher in the loans availed by the sampled households. Proportion of loans for cattle sheds was found to be higher in ZoneIII, while proportion of loans for cattle purchase was found to be maximum in Zone II. The extent of borrowing and utilization of borrowed funds in the investment of cattle by the sampled households has been discussed in Table 4. On an average Rs.9,175/-farm have been invested on the purchase of cattle over the last
Zone
Institutional Sources
NonInstitutional Sources 1.3 4.1 3.2 2.3 2.8 6.6 2.9 4.0
Total
I Cattle Cattle Shed II Cattle Cattle Shed III Cattle Cattle Shed State Cattle Cattle Shed
2.6 2.8 3.2 2.4 6.4 1.9 3.6
0.1 2.7 2.9 2.9 2.6 6.5 2.2 3.7
For the purpose of cattle purchase, the proportion of loan availed is just 0.1per cent on an average in the total amount borrowed in ZoneI. With no contribution of institutional sources, the share of non-institutional credit is 1.3 per cent. For the construction of cattle sheds, the sampled households of Zone-I have availed 2.7 per cent of the total loan availed by them over the last five years. The institutional sources have contributed 2.6 per cent of the total loans availed and 4.1per
62
five years in the State. In the farm size wise analysis, the amount invested was maximum on small farms and minimum on large farm, amount invested was found to be decreasing. For this investment a loan of Rs.5,612/-farm was availed on an average. Share of loans in the amount invested was found to be 61.2 per cent. However, whole of the borrowed amount was not utilized for the said purpose. Rs.173/-farm were found to be diverted from the borrowed amount thus a 3.0 per cent rate of diversion was found for the State. Hence, amount utilized as a percentage of amount invested for the purchase of cattle came to be 59.3 per cent in Punjab, Thus, per farm investment was highest in Zone-II and minimum in Zone-I, but utilization of borrowed funds for the said purpose was maximum in Zone-III and minimum in ZoneI. Thus a very low rate of diversion was found in the loans availed for cattle purchase. Diversion was found to be highest in medium category of farm households and found to be nil in marginal category as well as large farm category. A similar analysis was carried out for cattle sheds. On an average of Rs.18,206/-farm were invested for this purpose in the State as a whole. Here the amount invested was found to be increasing with the farm size category Rs.97,641/ -farm was the amount borrowed for this investment on average basis. The borrowing was maximum on medium farm category followed by semimedium farms. It was minimum on marginal category of farms. This comprised 53.0 per cent
of investment on cattle sheds on the sampled farms. However, rate of diversion though observed only in two categories i.e. medium and semimedium was found to be 7.0 per cent of the amount borrowed for the said purpose. This led to actual utilization of loans to 49.5 per cent for the investment purpose. Diversion was found to be nil in other farm categories causing 100 per cent utilization of borrowed funds for the said purpose. On an average Rs.628/-farm were diverted for other purposes out of the borrowed funds for cattle sheds. Diversion was found to be maximum in Zone-III and minimum in Zone II of the State. Utilization of credit amount is as important as credit availability to enhance productivity. Diversion of credit especially for non-productive purposes does not lead in income generation and affects the repayment capacity of the borrowers. This can became the cause of indebtedness and depleting financial position of the farmers. Out of the total sample size 28.4 per cent of the households were found to be indulging in diversion of borrowed funds. Various reasons were given by the farmers for this trend. Maximum diversions (45.0%) were taking place for the construction of dwelling house. Consumption purpose needs has emerged as another reason (30.0%) leading to diversion of borrowed funds. 28.0 per cent of the sampled farmers have diverted the borrowed funds for social and religious ceremonies. Medical expenses as well as
Table 4. Investment, borrowing and utilization of credit on cattle (Rs/farm)
Particulars Invested Amount Borrowed Funds Diverted Amount Diversion as % age of borrowed Borrowed as % age of Invested Utilized
Medium 10,394 7,789 0.0 74.9 74.9
Small 14,305 10,250 164 2.0 71.7 70.5
Semi-medium 9,005 5,778 232 4.0 64.2 61.6
Medium 5,767 3,337 291 9.0 57.9 52.8
Large 7,717 1,302 0.00 0.0 16.9 16.9
Average 9,175 5,612 173 3.0 61.2 59.3
Table 5. Investment, borrowing and utilization of credit on cattle sheds. (Rs/farm)
Particulars Invested Amount Borrowed Funds Diverted Amount Diversion as %age of borrowed Borrowed as %age of Invested Utilized
Medium 6,421 5,790 0.00 90.2 90.2
Small 8,047 6,203 0.0 77.1 77.1
Semi-medium 13,070 11,163 590 5.0 85.4 80.9
Medium 21,161 11,745 1,744 15.0 55.5 47.3
Large 46,157 10,826 0.00 23.5 23.5
Average 18,206 9,641 628 7.0 53.0 49.5 63
installation of submersible pumps have caused the diversion of 18.0 per cent diversion respectively. 8.0 per cent of the sampled farmers have diverted the money for repayment of old debt and 5.0 per cent have utilized for the purchase of car. 2.0 per cent of sampled households have used the amount to get fresh loans. Therefore, dairy loans being subsidized are diverted to small extent for other purposes for which either there is no provision of credit or for which rate of interest charged is high. Problems faced by farmers in arranging loans from Govt. Institutions: As it has been discussed that sampled households borrow from different sources of finance i.e. institutional as well as non-institutional sources. Governments have been taking several steps to reduce the role of non-institutional sources from time to time as these are considered as exploitative in nature. Despite the various efforts of the government, it has not been able to eliminate the role of informal sources. So, sampled households were discussed with their problems especially related to institutional sources of finance. 39.0 per cent of the respondents quoted difficulty in getting land record to apply for the loans from institutional sources. 31.5 per cent of the respondents felt that loan procedure is lengthy in these institutions i.e. the processing of application is delayed. 29.7 per cent found the loan amount insufficient for the purpose. 26.0 per cent farmers responded that the cost of borrowing is high in these institutions as they have to fulfill so many formalities which involves many trips to institutions and so many documents are to be attached with the application form, long time gap involved between loan application and sanction of loan, follow up of the loan case etc. adds to be transaction cost of the loan on the part of the borrower. 10.3 per cent of the respondents doubt the working of the institutions and felt that it is not transparent. Also 11.9 per cent of the farmers felt that institutions give lesser details about loan process, thus leading to more number of trips and high cost of borrowing. 23.0 per cent of the
respondents felt that some contact is needed to hasten the loan processing with the institutions. 9.0 per cent of the farmers showed their lack of awareness about the loan schemes launched by different institutions. These problems were based on personal experiences of the sampled farmers or their associates, but some were mere perceptions of them about the institutions. The formal atmosphere of institutions or lack of knowledge or low level of literacy can be the root cause of majority of these problems. CONCLUSION To tackle these difficulties some policy measures are recommended viz., more credit disbursal should be through cooperative institutions due to their easy access, personal rapport with the farmer and low transaction cost. Secondly, dairy being an allied activity of agriculture, thus falls in priority sector should be having simple rate of interest on the credit provided. Also some regulated measures should be imposed on non-institutional sources of finance regarding their system of lending, rate of interest etc. Some measures like computerized land records, simplified loan performa, transparency in the working of institutions could go a long way in increasing the confidence of borrowers in institutions. Along with this, community education programmes should be launched against decreasing expenditure on construction of houses, social/religious ceremonies to check the diversion of loans. As we have seen that there is good share of dairying in farm income, dairy loans should be further strengthened by subsidized cattle insurance, quality control on animal feed, facilities for profitable milk marketing and by providing germ plasm of high yielding milch cattle to the beneficiary farmers. All these efforts will boost the investment in dairy sector leading to higher milk production and milk yields in the state as well as ensuring higher income and good standard of living for the households involved in dairying.
64
Relationship of Rural Womens Characteristics with their Training Needs in Animal Husbandry Practices
M. K. Bariya, Kiran Chandravadiya*, N.S. Joshi and G. P. Deshmukh Krishi Vigyan Kendra, (Junagadh Agricultural University) Amreli - 364 601 (Gujarat)
ABSTRACT The present study was carried out on relationship of the selected characteristics of rural women with their training needs to animal husbandry practices in Junagadh district of Gujarat state. It was envisaged that the extent of association between two variables (independent and dependent) provided the strength and direction and effects of one variable on the other variable and independent variables, which were included in the study. Attempts were made to ascertain the extent of association between the variables and their direction. The variables like mass media exposure, attitude towards dairy farming and area under fodder crop had positive and significant correlation while age and dairying experience were having negative and significant relationship with the training needs of rural women. The variables viz., caste, family type, family size, land holding, annual income, social participation, herd size and milk production were failed to establish any significant relationship with the training needs of rural women. Key words: Rural women, Training, Animal husbandry practices INTORDUCTION Women in the present age are facing the most challenging situation of performing their role in and outside the home for their social and economic development. The rural women play a great role in decision making process on farm matter, perform many of the farm operations and undertake many responsibilities concerning care and management of farm animals. India needs to increase milk production which is possible by narrowing down the gap between the existing technology and its adoption. This undoubtedly requires a technological breakthrough in the areas of animal sciences, veterinary and dairying, and much depends upon the rate and speed of dissemination of information to dairy enterprises. The hope for solving problem of rural poverty and unemployment lies in the agricultural based industries i.e. agro-industries. Dairy farming is one of such industries. Milk production has been the single major activity to supplement as well as to provide income to the rural households, the majority of them are landless and small or marginal farmers. After acquiring training, the rural women not only learn about the improved animal husbandry practices but also opt them into practices (Sharma
Ph.D. Scholar Corresponding author e-mail: minaxibariya@gmail.com
et al., 2012). Keeping in view the above facts, the present study was carried out with the objectives to study the socio-economic and psychological characteristics of the rural women and to study the association between the socioeconomic and psychological characteristics of the rural women with their training needs. MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study was conducted in Junagadh district of Gujarat state as the district is famous for Zaffarabadi buffalo and Gir cow. Two talukas were selected randomly out of sixteen talukas of the Junagadh district. Out of which, five villages from each taluka were selected having highest women-membership in co-operative milk society. After obtaining an authentic list of all the women members of the co-operative societies using proportionate random sampling technique, twenty per cent members from each of the village cooperative milk societies were chosen. Total 105 rural women were selected for this study in order to find out relationship between dependent and independent variables. The data were collected with the help of interview schedule by conducting personal interview. Pearsons product moment method of computing correlation coefficient which
65
provided generally accepted means for measuring the relationship was used. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Age: The data presented in Table 1 shows that majority of the respondents (60.0%) were in the middle age group who can physically look after their animals. It was found that age had significant but negative relationship with the training needs of rural women (P < 0.01). This implies that young rural women were in high need of training as compared to old women probably due to having less experience of dairy farming and lack of knowledge about animal husbandry practices. Education: Majority of the respondents (65.7%) were illiterate while 28.6 percent were educated up to primary level. Only one respondent each was found under the category of middle level education and high school level education. On the other hand, only four women were found educated up to college level. Unavailability or less transportation facilities as well as certain social customs do not permit the women to leave the home to attend the school. This might be the reason of illiteracy among rural women. It was noticed that the education had significant (P < 0.01) positive relationship with training needs of rural women. Education opens the faculty of thoughts and knowledge which intern helps in grasping ideas, forming favourable attitude and also in explaining the ideas to the others. This may be the reason of higher training needs demanded by the educated women. Caste: A perusal of the data (Table 1) revealed that 87.6 percent women belonged to intermediate caste whereas, very few women were found belonging to higher (8.6%) and lower caste (3.8%). In the Saurashtra region, Ahir and Karadia communities are famous for animal husbandry occupation. Majority of dairy co-operatives were found established in these villages. The relationship between the caste and training needs of the rural women was found to be nonsignificant as majority was from the intermediate caste.
66
Family type: It was found that 69.5 per cent respondents were from nuclear family and 30.5 per cent from joint family. This might be due to their interest in independent living and / or life-style, handingover of responsibility by elders to the youngers, construction of small size and kaccha living accommodation which prevents joint family type and urbanization, industrialization and certain psychological factors like individual enterprises, which lead to self-centredness. The co-efficient of correlation showing the relationship between family type of rural women and their training needs was found to be non-significant. Family size: The data (Table 1) indicated that the majority of the respondents (57.1%) belonged to medium size family followed by large family (28.6%) and small family (14.3%). The probable reason for medium and large family size might be the unawareness of family planning methods among the rural people. It was observed the relationship between the family size of rural women and training needs was found to be non-significant. The traditional outlook of the aged person in family may be the probable reason of this nonsignificant association because most of the decisions rest on the elder person of the family and all other members have to follow it. Land holding: Higher percentage (43.8%) of rural women was possessing medium size and 26.7 percent small size of land holding. Nearly one-fourth rural women had large size of land holding. It was interesting to note that none of them were landless because their main occupation was rearing the animals and thus, were cultivating the land. The co-efficient of co-relation between the landholding and the training needs was found to be non-significant. Dairying experience: It was revealed that 63.8 per cent of rural women had medium experience in dairying. Nearly 19.0 per cent women had low experience whereas, 17.2 per cent had high experience in dairy practices. As majority of the respondents were from the middle age group and therefore, their dairying experience was medium. It was
noticed that experience in dairy farming practices was having significant but negative relationship with the training needs. The women with high experience in dairy farming might have developed expertise in the various aspects of animal husbandry and the young women on the other hand, with less experience might be lacking in knowledge and skills. This may be the reason of negative and significant (P < 0.01) relationship of farming experience with training needs of rural women. Annual income: It was apparent that majority of rural women (90.5%) were from medium annual income (Rs.6500/- to Rs. 34000/-) and only 9.5 per cent from high annual income (> Rs. 34000/-). Their main occupation is animal husbandry therefore, a part of land is used for fodder growing and remaining for cultivation of other food crops, which obviously results in medium income. It was found that annual income had no significant relationship with the training needs of rural women. This showed that rural women need training regardless of their annual income. Social participation: A perusal of the data (Table 1) revealed that 93.3 per cent of the respondents had membership only in one organization, whereas, 5.7 per cent women were the members of more than one organization. Only one respondent was found holding position in one of the social organization. Lack or low level of social participation might be due to the prevailing illiteracy and absence of the basic social organizations in the studied villages. The data (Table 2) clearly indicated that social participation of rural women had non-significant relationship with their training needs. Irrespective of the training need, majority of the women were found having low social participation. They were having membership only in the dairy co-operative milk union. As a result, no variation was observed among the women with respect to their social participation. Mass media exposure: Majority of the rural women either had mass media exposure (46.7%) or low exposure (45.7%) whereas, only 7.62 per cent rural women had high mass media exposure. The women have to play
the multipurpose role of wife, mother, farm women, etc. Their full engagement in the above roles could not permit them to listen to the radio or to see the television programme etc. This might be the reason for their low exposure. The relationship between the mass media exposure and training needs of rural women was found to be positive and significant (P < 0.01). The probable reason for this might be that higher mass media exposure helps the rural women in getting more information about animal husbandry practices. Herd size: About 77.1 per cent of the rural women had 3 to 7 milch animals, while 17.1 per cent were possessing up to 2 milch animals. The herd comprising of more than seven milch animals was possessed by a low percent (5.7%). Majority of the women selected were found belonging to the particular communities of Ahir and Kardia. The main source of livelihood of this community is animal husbandry and hence majority women were found possessing more than 2 animals. It was found that the relationship between the herd size and the training needs was found to be nonsignificant. Therefore, it can be inferred that size of herd of animals had no relationship with the training needs. Milk production: It was evident from the data (Table 1) that there were only five women (4.8%) getting annual milk production up to 3,300 l from their animals. On the other hand, the milk obtained by majority (82.9%) of the respondents was medium i.e. 3,300-9,600 l/year. Only 12.4 per cent women were found getting higher milk production from their animals. Medium milk production by the animals might be due to the lack of adoption of recommended animal husbandry practices by the respondents. Area under fodder production: The data (Table 1) indicated that a large population (81.9%) of rural women were cultivating fodder crops for green fodder in an area of 0.5 to 2.0 ha. and only 11.4 per cent and 6.7 per cent rural women cultivated fodder crops in an area of small size land (0.5 ha.) and large size land (above 2.0 ha.). Farmers were cultivating fodder crops only for the purpose of providing the fodder to their animals. The herd size of the
67
Table 1: Distribution of the respondents according to their characteristics.
Sr. No. Characteristics 11.
Number Percentage 17.1 77.1 5.7
Sr. No. Characteristics 1.
Number Percentage 21.9 60.0 18.1 65.7 28.6 0.9 0.9 3.8 8.6 87.6 3.8
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Age Young (up to 30 years) 23 Middle (31-45 years) 63 Old (above 45years) 19 Education Illiterate 69 Primary education 30 Middle Education 1 High School Education 1 College Education 4 Caste Status Higher caste 9 Intermediate caste 92 Lower caste 4 Family Type Joint 32 Nuclear 73 Family Size Small (up to 4) 15 Medium(5-8) 60 Large (above 8) 30 Land Holding Landless 0.00 Marginal (up to 1 ha.) 5 Small (1.01 to 2.0 ha.) 28 Medium (2.01 to 4.0 ha.) 46 Large (above 4 ha.) 26 Dairying experience Less experience 20 (up to 12 years) Medium experience 67 (13 to 29 years) High experience(above 29) 18 Annual Income Medium Income 95 (Rs. 6,500-34,000/-) High Income 10 (above Rs. 34,000/-) Social Participation Membership in one 98 organisation Membership in more 6 than one organization Office holder 1 Mass Media Exposure Low exposure (up to 1) 48 Medium (2-5) 49 High (above 5) 8
12.
13.
14. 30.5 69.5 14.3 57.1 28.6 0.0 4.8 26.7 43.8 24.8 19.0 63.8 17.2 90.5 9.5
Herd size Small 18 (up to milch animals ) Medium 81 (3-7 milch animals) Large 6 (above 7 milch animals ) Annual Milk Production (litres) Low (up to 3300 l.) 5 Medium (3301 to 9600 l.) 87 High (above 9600 l.) 13 Area under fodder crops Small (up to 0.5 ha.) 12 Medium (0.51 to 2.0 ha.) 86 Large (above 2.0 ha.) 7 Attitude towards dairy farming Favourable 11 (more than 28 scores) Neutral (24-28 scores) 83 Unfavourable 11 (less than 24 scores)
4.8 82.9 12.4 11.4 81.9 6.7 10.5 79.0 10.5
majority of respondents was medium therefore, the area under fodder crop was also found to be medium. Attitude towards dairy farming: It was evident that majority of rural women (79.0%) had a neutral attitude towards dairy farming, while equal number of women (10.5 %) had favourable and unfavourable attitude towards dairy farming. Relationship between training needs of rural women with respect to animal husbandry practices : The individual variables viz., education, mass media exposure and area under fodder crop were found having positive and significant (P < 0.01) relationship with the training needs of rural women, while attitude towards dairy-farming was related with training needs of the rural women at 5 per cent level of significance. Age and dairying experience were found having negative and significant(P < 0.01) relationship with training needs of rural women. The variables viz., caste, family type, family size, land-holding, annual income, social participation, herd size and milk production failed to establish any significant (P < 0.01) relationship with the training needs of rural women.
93.3 5.7 0.9 45.7 46.7 7.6
68
Table 2. Relationship between the selected characteristics of the rural women with their training needs.
Sr. No. Name of the independent variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Age Education Caste Family type Family size Land holding Dairying experience Annual income Social participation Mass media exposure Herd size Milk production Area under fodder crops Attitude towards dairy farming
r value -0.6242** 0.5450 0.0886 0.1184 0.0405 0.0574 -0.6303** 0.0159 -0.0905 0.3488** 0.1052 0.0906 0.6397** 0.2289
The value at 0.05 level of significance = 0.1917, The value at 0.01 level significance = 0.2540 * significant at 0.05 level of significance, ** significant at 0.01 level of significance
CONCLUSION It was concluded that training needs of rural women were dependent on their age, education, dairying experience, mass media exposure and area under fodder crop, attitude towards dairy farming, while, caste, family type, family size, land-holding, annual income, social participation, herd size, milk production were not significantly related with their training needs. It was evident from the findings that KVK should make training programmes more effective and should be based on the felt needs. The training programme which is not need based have little impact on bringing
desired change in the clientele system. However, while organizing the training programme, it is also necessary that time, venue, duration of training and choice of teacher-trainer etc. should be as per the convenience of the rural women. This will help in arousing the interest of women to attend such training programme. REFERENCES
Sharma P. K., Shekhawat, B. S. and Chaudhary, M. K. (2012). Knowledge of Dairy Farmers about Improved Animal Husbandry Practices in Kheda District of Gujarat. J. Krishi Vigyan, 1: 49-53.
69
Reliability Analysis of Medium Range Weather Forecasts in Central Plain Region of Punjab
K. K. Gill and Ritu Babuta Department of Agricultural Meteorology Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT Weather and climatic information plays a major role before and during the cropping season and if provided in advance can be helpful in inspiring the farmers to organize and activate their own resources in order to reap the benefits. In India, direct application of computerized information systems to the farmers is not feasible in the present conditions. Therefore, India Meteorological Department (IMD), the only nodal agency in India issues biweekly forecast to the different centers to prepare agro-advisories for the benefit of farmers. Medium range weather forecasting of different weather parameters viz., rainfall, temperature and cloud cover during seven-year period (April 2000 to March 2007) for Ludhiana station were verified and their reliability and utility were assessed for two years (2004-06) for Ludhiana region. In the farm activities the accuracy for rainfall is about 80 per cent except during SW monsoon season (69.0%). For rainfall, the ratio score (RS) ranged between 58 to 96 per cent and Hanssen and Kuipers (HK) score was 0.12 to 0.54. Per cent mean values of accuracy for rainfall, cloud cover, maximum and minimum temperature were 80.9, 49.8, 54.4 and 47.1, respectively. The utility of the medium range weather forecast indicated 5 to 7 per cent economic benefit in rice, wheat, mustard and maize in central plain agroclimatic zone of Punjab. Key Words: Weather Forecast, Rainfall, Cloud Cover, Temperatures INTRODUCTION Agriculture is largely weather and climate sensitive. Weather should be taken as one of the input in agricultural planning as well as operations in various facets of agricultural production. Advance information on weather parameters influencing crop growth and development is vital for remunerative agriculture. Weather cannot be modified except on limited scales but agricultural operations can be planned according to the three to seven days advance weather forecasts. Advance intimation on impending weather can gainfully utilized to advise farmers to take advantage of those aspects of weather conditions which are favourable to their activities as well as to take preventive actions to minimize the damage to agricultural production which may be caused directly or indirectly by adverse weather. The utility of forecast depends upon their accuracy and applicability at micro level. Medium range weather forecasts have made significant contribution in agriculture (Das and Sindhu,
Corresponding author e-mail: kgill2002@gmail.com
2001). The ultimate aim of weather forecasting should be to avoid subjectivity. Medium range weather forecast can greatly contribute towards making short term adjustments in daily agricultural operations which minimize input losses resulting from adverse weather conditions and can markedly improve the yield and quality of agricultural products. Hence, an attempt was made to verify the medium range weather forecast for central plain agro climatic zone of Punjab. The agrometeorological advisory service (AAS) has helped to develop and apply operational tools for weather related uncertainties through agrometeorological applications for efficient agriculture in rapidly changing environments (Singh, 2011). Under AAS, district agro-met advisory bulletins are prepared for the farmers of the districts. This contains advisories for all the weather sensitive agricultural operations from sowing to harvest. These weather based advisories are disseminated to the farmers through mass media dissemination, Internet etc as well as
70
through district level intermediaries (Anonymous, 2007). The information support systems under AAS include: Provision of weather, climate, crop/soil and pest disease data to identify biotic and abiotic stress for on-farm strategic and tactical decisions. Translate weather and climatic information into farm advisories using existing research knowledge on making more efficient use of climate and soil resources through applications of medium range weather forecast to maximize the benefits of weather conditions and alleviate the adverse impacts of weather events. Develop effective mechanism to on time dissemination of agromet advisories to farmers.
agricultural enterprises in the region. M e d i u m range weather forecasts (MRWF) for rainfall, cloud cover, maximum and minimum temperature received from National centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting Delhi for 3 days during 2000 to 2007 for central region of Punjab were verified. The forecasts were compared with daily-observed weather data from Agrometeorological observatory situated at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana for the respective days. The reliability of forecasts of rainfall, temperature and cloud cover was verified by calculating the error structure. The verification of weather forecasts was done for four seasons viz., hot period (AprilJune), SW-Monsoon period (July-September), Post Monsoon period (October-December) and winter period (January-March). The verification methods were used as provided by IMD as well as suggested by Singh et al., (1999). The utility of the forecast was assessed by conducting a field survey of the study area. Sixty farmers of the region were selected and feedback taken from them during every year was summarized. The economic impact was assessed on the university farm by recording the yield of the crops under two situations viz. recommended practices and recommended practices based on agro advisory during the years. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Rainfall The accuracy of 3 day forecast for rainfall was inconsistent within and between the six years from 2000 to 2007. The rainfall usability varied from 43 to 100 per cent over different years and periods. The SW monsoon period, which is the main rainfall season, recorded low percentage of usability 51 to 90, whereas in other seasons it touches 100 percent level. The October to December, January to March and April to June showed usability between 80 to 97 per cent, 77 to 95 per cent and 65 to 85 per cent, respectively. The mean values were about 86 per cent in all the period except SW monsoon period, which registered the lowest accuracy of 78 per cent. The higher values are indicative of higher reliability of forecast. The ratio score values during SW monsoon period varied between 51 to 92 per cent over different years (Table 1). The ratio score was more than 65 per cent in all periods except SW
71
The use of agro-advisory is to make awareness on weather forecasting among the farmers and advise them on day to day farm operations for sustenance of agricultural production. The present study was undertaken to verify the meteorological parameters throughout the years and their use in agro-advisory service in central zone of Punjab. MATERIALS AND METHODS The Punjab state is located between 30 to 32 o N latitude and 75 to 77 o E longitudes. The elevation varies from 230 to 300 m above the mean sea level. Agroclimatically the state is delineated in five zones. The geographical location of study area falls in central plain region of Punjab (30o54 N Latitude, 75o48E Longitude and 247 m above mean sea level). The annual rainfall ranges from 700 to 800 mm. The average maximum temperature ranges from 19.0 to 40.0 o C and minimum temperature from 5.0 to 25.0 o C. It represents the sub-tropical semi-arid climate, with hot summers from April to June, hot and humid from July to September, cold winters from December to January and mild climate during October-November and February-March. The period from July to September is the monsoon season and experiences 70 per cent of the total rainfall of the year. The agroclimatic region represents 35 per cent of total area and 53 per cent of the cropped area of the state. The main crops are wheat, Maize, Rice, cotton and oilseed crops. In addition, poultry and dairy are important
Table 1. Forecast verification for rainfall.
Month April June July-September October December January-March April June July-Sept. Oct.-Dec. Jan.-Mar.
2000-2001 65.7 89.9 80.0 77.6 0.19 0.21 0.44 0.12
2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 83.7 51.4 96.3 88.5 0.09 0.04 0.32 0.25 72.7 71.4 91.2 82.6 0.31 0.24 0.36 0.39 77.5 77.0 90.6 90.1 0.12 0.33 0.25 0.54
2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 85.5 57.9 92.1 88.3 0.24 0.16 0.16 0.40 73.5 77.2 92.7 89.1 0.12 0.26 0.27 0.38 84.2 75.6 97.8 95.6 0.33 0.27 0.45 0.51
Monsoon period. Similar observations have been reported by Singh et. al. (1999) for Delhi and Pantnagar agro-climatic regions. The HK score varied from 0.0 to 0.54 during different seasons over the years (Table 1). The mean HK score was higher in October to December (0.25) and January to March (0.35) compared to other periods. Cloud cover: Over the years, the accuracy of cloud cover during SW monsoon varied between 66 to 81 per cent, which was nearly lowest (66per cent) among different periods. The October to December period showed variation from 64 to 94 per cent with mean value of 85.16 per cent, April to June period varying from 69 to 87 per cent with mean value of 76.17 per cent and January to March period varying from 68 to 83 per cent with mean value of 77 per cent. Similar findings of cloud cover verification were reported from arid and semiarid region of Hisar (Singh et al 1997).
between 66 to 98 per cent, which was highest with mean of 84.17 per cent among different seasons followed by April to June varying between 58 to 79 per cent with mean value of 73 per cent, Jan.Mar. period varying from 69-90per cent with mean value of 78per cent and SW monsoon period varying from 63 to 92 per cent with mean value of 80.33 per cent. The accuracy of minimum temperature was low in all the years and periods. The accuracy during October to December period varied between 61 to 95 per cent, with mean of 77.83 per cent followed by January to March varying between 55 to 91 per cent with mean value of 71per cent, SW monsoon period varying from 66 to 90 per cent with mean value of 77.83 per cent and April to June varying from 53 to 94 per cent with mean value of 64.33 per cent.
Utility of forecast for farming community: The farm survey conducted during each year revealed that the utility of the medium range weather forecasting for undertaking all farm Temperature: activities was encouraging. Seventy five per cent The accuracy of maximum temperature during farmers of the region rated the usefulness of the period from October to December varied forecast between good to excellent (Table 2). About 95 per cent farmers believed that the utility Table 2. Utility of medium range weather forecasts for farmers. of MRWF was beneficial for sowing as well
Utility in specific farm practice: Sr No. Farm Operation 1. 2. 3. 4. Mean of 2004-2007 (Per cent) 95 92 95 95
Sowing/Transplanting time and harvesting information Fertilizer and manures time application information Weed control time information Pests and disease information
Overall Utility: Rating 1. 2. 3. 4. 72 Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory
Percentage 50.5 10.4 30.6 26.9
Table 3. Economic impacts of agro advisory.
Crop
Grain and straw yield/ha (Mean of 2003-04, 2004-05)q/ha Recommended practices Grain Yield Straw Yield 23.0 16.4 Recommended practices based on AAS Grain Straw Yield Yield 14.2 19.2 22.0 15.5
Increase in Rupees due to AAS (Mean Value)
Percentage increase in net returns of crops due to AAS (Mean Value)
Rice Wheat
13.5 18.7
1250 1611
10.5 12.3
transplanting time, pest and disease information, fertilizer and irrigation application, weed control information and harvesting schedule of agricultural crops. Such findings were also reported by Patel et al., (1998) who observed that 81per cent farmers rated the usefulness of agroadvisory bulletins good to excellent. The economic impact evaluation on university farm by assessing the yield during April 2000 to March 2001, indicated 8 to 14 per cent higher profit due to agro advisories in rice, wheat and maize in the agro climatic region (Table 3). The present study showed a fair degree of authenticity of rainfall, cloud cover and temperatures in all the seasons except SW monsoon. Further fine tuning of the model forecast can increase accuracy and prove more beneficial in reducing crop losses and cost of cultivation in different crops. CONCLUSION The present study showed a fair degree of authenticity of rainfall, cloud cover and temperatures in all the seasons except SW monsoon. Further fine tuning of the model forecast can increase accuracy and prove more beneficial in reducing crop losses and cost of cultivation in
different crops. In the current climate change scenario, it is very important to sustain the agriculture by improving the socio economic status of the farmers. REFERENCES
Anonymous.( 2007). Background paper for 16th Annual Review Meeting of National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, New Delhi. In: Status of economic impact. pp 13. Das, D. K. and Sindhu, J.( 2001). Importance of weather forecasting in agriculture : Fertilizer News., 46 (12):89-102 Patel, H. R. , Sheikh, A. M. and Venkatesh, H. (1998) . Status of present day weather forecasting to farmers: A case study of middle Gujarat region . Annals of Agric. Res., 19(3): 285289 Singh, S. V. , Rathore, L. S. and Trivedi, H. K. N .( 1999). Verification of medium range weather forecasts ,(In) Guide for Agrometeorological advisory services pp 73-81. (Eds)National Centre for Medium *Range Weather Forecasting, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. Singh, S. , Bisnoi, O. P. and Ram Niwas. (1997). Proceedings of international conference on ecological Agriculture towards sustainable development . Chandigarh . India 15-17 November , 1997 pp 347-53 Singh, K. K. (2011). Weather forecasting and agromet advisory services in India. Indian Meteorological Department, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Mausam Bhavan, New Delhi 22:240-243.
73
Preparation and Nutritional Evaluation of CheeseWhey and Soya-Whey Based Fruit Beverages
Sangita Sood , Sonia Minhas and Suruchi Katoch Department of Food Science and Nutrition CSKHP Agricultural University, Palampur -176062 ( Himachal Pradesh)
ABSTRACT Whey contains 40 per cent of milk solids including lactose, minerals, water-soluble vitamins and 20 per cent of milk proteins with high biological value. In the present study, cheese- whey and soya -whey was blended with 50 per cent pulp of Jamun fruit for the development of squash as per FPO specifications. The values for TSS, pH and acidity were found to be 46.43 and 45.40 degree Brix; 4.35 and 4.30 and 1.19 and 1.17 per cent in cheese -whey and soyawhey blended with Jamun pulp, respectively whereas, ascorbic acid content was found to be 11.52 and 10.41 mg/100 g. The values for total sugars, reducing-sugars and non-reducing sugars were calculated as 39.94, 36.57; 20.21, 20.48 and 19.72, 16.09 per cent respectively in cheese-whey and soya-whey based Jamun squash. Organoleptically soya-whey based squash obtained maximum scores (7.78) for over-all acceptability as compared to cheese-whey based (7.30) Jamun squash. During storage, acidity, reducing sugars and total sugars increased and pH, TSS and ascorbic acid decreased but both the products remained acceptable up to 3 months of storage at ambient temperature. Key-words -Cheese-whey , Soya-whey, Fruit pulp, Fruit beverages, Nutritional constituents INTRODUCTION A number of dairy products are entering the market. During the manufacturing process of these products, a large quantity of whey is produced. Whey contains about 40 per cent of the milk solids which include lactose, minerals, water-soluble vitamins and about 20 per cent of milk proteins with high biological value. These whey solids are not utilized profitably and a huge quantity of whey is drained out globally, which poses a serious threat to environmental safety because of its high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of 35,000 to 50,000 ppm. A large population of India falls in the consumers list of cold drinks, especially during the summer season. Amongst the various types of cold drinks, fruit beverages have an important place because of the sensory and nutritional value. In fact, these could be particularly useful in places where there is lack of food and improper nutrition leading to deficiencies of certain nutrients. Jamun fruit is known for acid and astringent taste and useful for curing diarrhoea and diabetes. It has also high antioxidant properties and is a source of riboflavin and ascorbic acid. Keeping
Corresponding author email: sangitasood@rediffmail.com
in view the therapeutic as well as medicinal properties of whey with Jamun. Both these beverages were evaluated for chemical parameters, nutritional as well as organoleptic parameters. MATERIALS AND METHODS Preparation of cheese-whey To prepare cheese-whey, milk was procured from the Department of Livestock Farm, COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur and curdled the milk by adding citric acid @ 0.5 g/ 100 ml of milk (previously standardized). Whey from cows milk was prepared by method as given below: Cow milk Boiled (100oC) Added citric acid @ 0.5. g/100 ml Allowed to coagulate Filtered Collected whey
74
Preparation of soybean-whey Soybean seeds were procured from the Seed Production Unit of the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics College of Agriculture, CSKHPKV Palampur. Soymilk was prepared, curdled by adding magnesium sulphate @ 0.5 g magnesium sulphate in 100 ml milk to obtain soywhey. For obtaining quality whey, different types of coagulants were tried at different levels. But citric acid and magnesium sulphate @ 0.5 g/100 ml gave the optimum results. Steps for preparation for soya-whey are given below: Soyabean seeds (cleaned and washed) Soaked overnight Boiled for 10 minutes in an open vessel Grinding (by adding hot water) Magnesium sulphate is added @ 0.5 g/100 ml Filter Collected whey Preparation of Jamun pulp Matured jamun fruit Boiled (for 2 minutes) Mashed Remove seeds Pulping Stored in bottles Preparation of Beverages Fruit juice beverages are becoming popular due to their pleasing flavour and nutritional characteristics. Squashes were standardized by using various permutation and combinations of basic raw ingredients viz. whey, sugar, citric acid and pulp. Cheese whey and soya-whey based squash were prepared as per FPO specification (Juice 50%, TSS-40-50o Brix). The sugar (40-60 g) and citric acid (2 g) were dissolved in whey (50 ml) and was filtered through muslin cloth to
skim-off dirt. The fruit juice (50 ml) was mixed with whey, sugar and citric acid. The content was heated to 80oC and filled in sterilized glass bottles leaving 1 inch head space and capped air tight. The squash was stored for 3 months at room temperature. The TSS were recorded using refractometer and the acidity was determined by titrating against standard NaOH solution using phenolphthalein as an indicator and expressed as anhydrous citric acid, pH was determined with the help of a pH meter. Ascorbic acid was determined by titrating it against 2,6-dichlorophenol indophenol dye (Ranganna 1995). The reducing and total sugars were determined by the method as described by Ranganna (1995). The organoleptic characteristics were determined by 10 semi trained judges using 10 point Hedonic scale (Gould, 1978). RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Effect of storage on chemical and nutritional constituents: The data (Table 1) showed a gradual increase in acidity content and a low reduction in pH, TSS and ascorbic acid values of the Jamun squash based on both cheese-whey and soya-whey during storage. Initial pH value 4.35 for cheese-whey based Jamun squash was decreased to 4.30 whereas pH 4.30 of soya-whey based Jamun squash decreased to 4.26 during storage period of 90 days. These results were in agreement with those of Singh and Nath (2004) who reported that the pH of the squash decreased with the storage because of decrease in acidity. TSS in cheesewhey based Jamun squash was 46.43o Brix which was reduced to 45.4 o Brix but in case of soyawhey it decreased from 45.40 to 43.63o Brix. TSS in cheese-whey was found to be maximum which might be due to solubilisation of pulp constituents during storage because of presence of acids (ascorbic acid and citric acid). The acidity in cheese-whey based Jamun squash was increased from 1.19 to 1.38 and in soya-whey based squash it increased from 1.17 to 1.32 during storage. This increase was probably due to the conversion of lactose to lactic acid and formation of organic acids from ascorbic acid, conversion of SO 2 to sulphurous acid and breakdown of pectin to pectic acid. Ascorbic acid in cheese-whey based squash was decreased from
75
Table 1. Effect of storage intervals on chemical parameters of Jamun squash
Treatments Cheese whey Soy whey Cheese whey Soy whey Cheese whey Soy whey Cheese whey Soy whey
Parameters pH TSS Brix) Acidity (%) Ascorbic acid (mg/100g)

(0
0day 4.35 4.30 46.43 45.40 1.19 1.17 11.52 10.41 pH 0.44 0.62 0.88
30days 4.33 4.28 46.20 44.97 1.25 1.23 11.33 10.34 TSS 0.16 0.22 0.32
60days 4.32 4.27 45.93 43.93 1.32 1.28 11.24 10.26
90days 4.30 4.26 45.40 43.63 1.38 1.32 11.02 9.98
Mean 4.32 4.27 45.99 44.48 1.29 1.25 11.28 10.25
CD at 5% A B AXB
Acidity Ascorbic acid 0.18 0.25 0.35 0.30 0.42 0.60
Table 2. Effect of storage intervals on nutritional parameters of Jamun squash
Treatments Cheese whey Soy whey Cheese whey Soy whey Cheese whey Soy whey
Parameters Total sugars(%) Reducing sugars(%) Non-reducing sugars(%)
0day 39.94 36.57 20.21 20.48 19.72 16.09 pH 0.12 0.17 0.24
30days 40.25 36.92 22.00 22.96 18.25 13.96 TSS 0.13 0.19 0.27
60days 40.79 37.10 23.78 23.09 17.01 14.01
90days 42.78 38.26 25.27 24.82 17.51 13.44
Mean 40.94 37.21 22.81 22.83 18.12 14.37
CD at 5% A B AXB
Acidity Ascorbic acid 0.83 0.11 0.16
Table 3
Effect of storage intervals on organoleptic scores of Jamun squash
Treatments Cheese whey Soy whey Cheese whey Soy whey Cheese-whey Soy-whey Cheese-whey Soy-whey
Parameters Colour Taste Consistency Overall acceptability
0day 7.20 7.87 7.17 7.97 7.53 7.50 7.30 7.78 pH 0.19 0.27 0.38
30days 7.18 7.85 7.13 7.53 7.42 7.47 7.24 7.61 TSS 0.30 0.42 0.60
60days 7.16 7.83 7.10 7.43 7.37 7.43 7.21 7.56
90days 7.15 7.80 7.08 7.30 7.30 7.37 7.17 7.49
Mean 7.17 7.83 7.12 7.55 7.40 7.44 7.23 7.61
CD at 5% A B AXB
Acidity Ascorbic acid 0.19 0.28 0.39 0.22 0.32 0.45
76
11.52 mg to 11.02 mg while for soya-whey squash it decreased from 10.41 mg to 9.98 mg/100 g. Ascorbic acid of the squashes followed a significant decreasing trend with increase in storage time. The ascorbic acid decreased during storage due to the unstable nature of the ascorbic acid by the action of heat, air and light or conversion to dehydro-ascorbic acid by its participation in browning. Increasing instability with increase in enzymatic and non-enzymatic oxidations might have resulted in gradual but significant decrease in ascorbic acid content. Similar results were explained by Sood (2000) during storage of intermediate moisture foods under different modes of packaging. The data on the total sugars of squashes clearly depicted that the sugars of squashes increased continuously with increase in storage conditions. The initial total sugars in case of jamun squash was 39.94 and increased to 42.78 and in case of soya- whey 36.57 to 38.26 (Table 2). Singh and Nath (2004) and Krishnaveni et al., (2001) also reported an increase in total sugars during storage. This increase might be due to the breakdown of polysaccharides like pectin and starch to the simple sugars. The initial reducing sugar content of the jamun squash was 20.11 which changed to 25.27 in cheese whey, whereas in soy whey 20.48 to 24.82 after 90 days of storage. This increase in reducing sugars was due to the hydrolysis of non-reducing sugars into reducing sugars during storage. Similar observations were reported by Sethi (1992) for lime ginger cocktail and Krisnaveni et al., (2001) for jackfruit squash. The non-reducing sugars increased from 19.72 to 17.51 in cheese- whey and 16.09 to 13.44 in case of soya -whey. The whey based jamun squash was evaluated at regular intervals (30 days) for the various quality attributes such as colour, flavour, taste and overall acceptability. In Jamun squash, colour decreases from 7.20 to 7.15 in
cheese-whey and in case of soya-whey 7.87 to 7.80. The taste score in case of jamun squash in cheese -whey was also decreased from 7.30 to 7.17 and in soya-whey from7.78 to 7.49. These findings were in agreement with Sarvana and Maninegalai (2005). In case of jamun squash, consistency decreased from 7.53 to 7.30 in cheese-whey but in case of soya-whey from 7.50 to 7.37. Hassan and Ahmed (1998) also reported a similar trend for consistency values. CONCLUSION It was concluded that nutritious whey based fruit beverages offer an attractive alternative for disposal of whey. oth cheese and soybean based whey can be used to make acceptable quality beverages with Jamun fruit. Soybean based whey offer more scope due to better organoleptic score. Such beverages can be safely stored for three months at room temperature. REFERENCES
Gould, W.A. (1978). Food quality assurance. The AVI Publishing Company Inc. Westport, Connecticut. Hassan, M. and Ahmed, J. (1998). Physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of mango- milk beverage. Indian Food Packer, 52 (2): 32-37. Krishnaveni, A., Manimegalai, G. and Saravanakumar, R. (2001). Storage stability of jack fruit RTS beverage. J. Food Sci. Tech., 38: 601-602. Ranganna, S. (1995). Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruit and vegetable products. 3rd Edition Sarvana Kumar R and Manimegalai G (2005). Studies on storage stabilish of whey based papaya juice blended RTS beverage. J. Food Sci. Tech., 42(2): 185-188. Sethi, V. (1992). Preparation and storage study of lime-ginger cocktail at room and low temperature. Bev. Food World, 19 (12): 51-52. Singh, N. and Nath, N. (2004). Development of bael fruit beverage with whey protein. J. Food Sci. Tech., 42(2): 157-161. Sood, S. (2000). Development of intermediate moisture foods with intent to enhance shelf life and nutrient bio-availability. CSK HPKV., Himachal Pradesh, Ph.D. Thesis.
77
Technology Transfer Modules of Punjab Agricultural University used for Agricultural Development in Punjab
M. S. Gill, Manoj Sharma* and Gagandeep Kaur* Directorate of Extension Education Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004 (Punjab)
ABSTRACT Since the foundation of the Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), practical extension work in agriculture has been undertaken besides education and research at university. Remarkable features of PAU extension system are direct assessment of farmers needs, need-oriented research, quality training for state personnel, and a strong linkage between academic education and field practice. It has its own multidisciplinary extension team in each district in FASS and KVKs, who are engaged in adaptive research, on farm research, training, and consultancy. These extension workers are working like transmitters and receivers of experiences from researchers, farmers, and state extension workers. Regular workshops are held which unite university and department staff from research and extension together with outstanding farmers. Strength of PAU extension system is its literature where apart from regular monthly magazine, all the latest research findings are published as a Package of Practices for all the crops recommended for the zone in local language every year before the commencement of cropping season. Considering person-to-person communication has traditionally been the most important form of information transfer. Thus PAU has registered many commodity based clubs and training youth in large numbers, for the formidable task of disseminating useful and practical information from the research base to the rural farm families. Similarly the latest modes of communication are being exploited by providing advisory through SMS on phone and emails. Such experiences have been documented in this paper. Key words : Technology transfer, Package of Practices, KVK, FASS, Kisan Clubs. INTRODUCTION Agriculture has two ways to increase its production, expanding the land area under cultivation and improving the yields on cultivated land. In early 60s, Punjab state became a harbinger of green revolution by adoption of high yielding varieties of wheat and rice. As a result the productivity increased discernibly. Better inputs coupled with development of irrigation facilities, farm mechanization, infrastructure development and policies implemented in state acted as catalyst in revolutionizing the state agriculture. Alongside, the agricultural technology development and transfer by Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) had been driving force for this development. As an outcome of this revolution, the Punjab which represents only 1.5 per cent geographical
* Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala (Punjab) Corresponding author e-mail: directorext@pau.edu
area of country is contributing 30-40 per cent rice and 40-50 per cent wheat to the central food grain pool. At the country level, it is producing 22 per cent wheat, 11per cent rice, 10 per cent cotton, 37 per cent honey and 40 per cent mushroom clearly enumerating the extensive agricultural growth. The cropping intensity and irrigated area is 189 per cent and 98 per cent, respectively. Ricewheat is the major cropping system occupying about 60 per cent of the cultivated area and producing on an average yield of 6.0 t/ha paddy and 5.1 t/ha of wheat. Mode of Technology Dissemination Followed The following activities were identified and implemented for efficient and effective transfer of agricultural technologies to farmers for the rapid development of agriculture in Punjab state.
78
Establishment of Farm Advisory Service Scheme Apart from development of agricultural technology, PAU has played a significant role in the dissemination of the technologies through the Farm Advisory Service Scheme (FASS) at each district head quarter . The main objective of the scheme was to acquaint the farmers about the new technologies by organizing training camps, farmers group discussion, imparting technical know-how to the farmers by organizing the frontline demonstrations, field days, campaigns, exhibitions and to refine and assess the technologies at the cultivators fields in the form of adaptive research trials. The multi-disciplinary teams of subject matter specialists at each FASS provided the technical support to the State Development Departments as resource persons in their training programmes. Kisan Mela PAU is the pioneer Institute in the country which started Kisan Melas (Farmer Fairs). The first Kisan Mela was organized at PAU campus, Ludhiana during 1967. After observing the overwhelming response of the farmers, a regional Kisan Mela was started at Regional Research Station (RRS), Gurdaspur in 1975. Later on, more number of regional kisan melas were started keeping in view the success achieved during earlier years e.g. at Regional Research Station (RRS), Ballowal Saunkhri (1983), RRS, Bathinda (1985) and KVK, Patiala (1995). Recently, two more Kisan Melas have been started, one at RRS, Faridkot (2011) and another at KVK, Amritsar (2012). These kisan melas are organized twice a year during the months of March and September. Thus, a total of 14 Kisan Melas are conducted for maximum outreach and benefit of the farmers. The kisan Mela at PAU is of two days whereas the regional melas are of one day. The demonstration plots of the crops, vegetables, fruits, farm power and machinery, improved methods of irrigation are shown on mela route along with the exhibition of latest technology generated in the different disciplines of agriculture. An impressive agroexhibition stall is arranged comprising of machinery, tube well pumps, pesticides, fertilizers, kitchen garden appliances, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) activities, self-help groups, banking
services, health services, legal services which attract the farmers in large number. In addition to the exhibition there is sale of quality seed, saplings, bio-fertilizers, literature in these malas. The attractive feature of the mela is question-answer session for the queries of the visiting farmers besides special technical sessions where all experts from the university pass on information regarding the improved agro-technologies to the farmers. It is worth to mention that these fairs acquaint and equip participating farmers and farmwomen with latest farm innovations, technical know-how of scientific farming and need-based agricultural-technologies. Over the years these Kisan Melas have become platform for knowledge sharing where not only farmers gain new knowledge from scientists, but scientists also get valuable feedback from farmers. Farmers committees and clubs It was well understood by the scientists of PAU that linking the farmers to the process of technology development by taking their feedback is vital for transfer and adoption of these technologies. Thus various committees/ farmers clubs/associations involving progressive farmers of the state have been formulated and registered and are now functioning well. Kisan Club: PAU Kisan club which was registered during 1966, now has more than 3000 members from the entire State. An annual function is organized at PAU, Ludhiana and the innovative farmers are honored for their excellence in different fields. Farmers committee: PAU farmers committee was started in 1970 whereas PAU fruits and vegetables growers association came into existence during 1989. These committees registered by PAU have organized structure and meet at scheduled time. To make their meetings effective and more fruitful, the Director of Extension Education, PAU presides over such meetings. The members of these committees meet once in a year. The member-farmers help a lot to disseminate the knowledge in the rural masses. They also provide the feedback about the success of recommended technologies, their shortcomings if noticed for further improvement.
79
Agricultural Equipment Manufacturers Committee: This committee started functioning in 1995 and meets once in every month. All the issues relating to the development and promotion of newly evolved machinery are discussed at length. These meetings serve as both bottom up and top down platform where the entrepreneurs/ manufacturers take cue and guidance from university leadership and fellow farmers. Thus they have been able to develop machinery specific to farming situation and as a result, Ludhiana has become a hub of agricultural machinery catering to entire country. Punjab Naujwan Kisan Sansthas: Mobilizing youth for agricultural and overall community development is another phenomenon adopted by PAU for under which the Punjab Naujwan Kisan Sansthas have been established at each district head quarter. The ultimate aim of these organizations is to develop robust relationship between university and youth. The proper legislation of such clubs and associations has assured facilities and assistance to youth so that they can catalyze agriculture development. Bee- Keepers Association : Commodity based farmer associations are platform where the farmers share knowledge on use of appropriate and affordable technologies for increasing their production. In this series, PAU set up a bee- keepers association in 1991 with the aim of furthering the craft of bee-keeping and to advance education in field of bee-keeping. The Punjab state has made mark in honey production due to concerted efforts of university and KVKs in rendering training in bee-keeping. At present, there is 33,000 bee-keepers in the State and produce about 14,000 tonnes of honey which is 37 per cent of the total honey produced in the country. Tree Grower Association: The tree grower association came in existence during 2007. The farmers who grow timber trees either in blocks or as agro-forestry are the member of this association. Their meeting is organized once in three months. Various issues relating to forest trees are discussed in detail. The PAU
experts apprise them about the latest developments in production and protection technologies of timber trees. Seed and Nursery Producers Association: The quality seed are in short supply and the PAU has taken an initiative to form the seed and nursery producers association in 2011. The University shall supply the foundation seed to them for producing certified seed. The response of the fellow members is highly encouraging. These associations work hand in glove with extension officers helping in establishment of strong working relation between farmers and university and make the delivery of services to rural people more channelized. Training Programme The effective technology transfer cannot be separated from human resource development and empowerment of farmer community is corner stone of the extension approach of university. Thus over the years university has paid attention to training component. Trainings were earlier conducted at PAU campus alone but now the transfer of skill to grass root level is carried out by KVKs. There are 20 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) in Punjab state imparting trainings, conducting frontline demonstrations and on-farm research trials. These KVKs also organize campaigns, exhibitions, field days and celebrate technology week and special days on different occasions. Since the inception of first KVK in 1982 at Gurdaspur, the KVKs have come long way in capacity building of farmers. The short term trainings provide improvement of knowledge and skill which helps the farmers to execute farm operations effectively while the vocational trainings aim at teaching new skills, knowledge and attitude in context of entry into new vocation. The vocational trainings are given to the farmers/ farm women in different agri-based enterprises (dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, bee-keeping, rabbitry, hybrid seed production, mushroom, kitchen gardening, tie-dye, preparation of pickle, jam, chattni, tomato ketchup, sevian, warrian, baking, sprouting, cooking of normal and therapeutic diet, fruit and vegetable preservation,
80
infant feeding, recycling of old cloth, paper & kitchen wastes, stitching and embroidery, nutrition and home decoration). At PAU, the refresher and advance training courses are organized in the field of precision farming, protected cultivation, improved methods of irrigation, queen rearing in bee-keeping, spawn production for mushroom, integrated farming system, organic farming, agro-forestry, cultivation of aromatic and medicinal plants, agro-processing, crop residue management, soil and water testing, conservation agriculture, fruit and vegetable processing, value addition, marketing intelligence, custom-hiring systems for cooperative societies, post harvest management for the quality control etc. As networking is the key in developing agrientrepreneurship, the university encourages and facilitates the interaction with the officials from line departments, licensing officers, credit providers by inviting them as experts in these trainings. Frontline Demonstration The frontline demonstrations (FLDs) are conducted by KVKs based on principle that seeing is believing with the purpose of creation of local proof of both the applicability and profitability of the recommended technology. This is done with the cooperation and participation of the farmers and under the personal guidance of the scientists and extension personnel. Each KVK conducts around 100 demonstrations to promote oilseeds, pulses, cotton, vegetables, integrated pest management, integrated nutrient management concepts etc. The target audience of frontline demonstrations is both farmers and the extension officers. The purpose is to convince extension functionaries and farmers together about the potentialities of technologies for further wide scale diffusion and FLDs are used as a source of generating data on factors contributing higher crop yields and constraints of production under various farming situations. The FLDs not only help to get first hand feedback on the contributory or limiting factors for achieving the productive potential of the new technology but also prepares technical leadership in the village as the training of farmers associated with FLDs is pre-requisite of this programme.
Field Day The field days are conducted at the demonstration plots during the different growing stages of the crop and farmers are acquainted about the technology demonstrated and discussion is made at the site. During technical sessions, the experts deliver the lectures about the improved technologies and reply to the queries of the farmers. Similarly, progressive farmer who is conducting FLD share his experience about the technology used under the FLD as wells as at his own level and gave his free and frank comments to the other fellow farmers as well as to the extension workers of line departments. The field days and farmers group discussions are organized at FLDs sites to show the worth of the technology to the farmers. On-Farm Trial (OFT) and Adaptive Research Trial (ART) Linking the technology development process/ research to extension and farmer has the potentials to promote agricultural production, and adoption of agricultural technologies. This concept has been well taken care of in technology transfer modules of PAU through OFTs and ARTs. On-farm trials are conducted by the KVKs, to solve the location specific problems. This kind of research in real field conditions helps farmers to decide that what would work best for their fields. Each Subject Matter Specialist conducts two onfarm research trials in each season. These trials help to solve the problems being noticed at the cultivators field. On the basis of the results, the feedback is given in the research system for further improvement, if need be. Similarly there is another testing tool used by university for testing its new technology which is through adaptive research trials (ARTs). Despite three year of testing at university, prior to bringing recommendation of technology in the state, university conducts one year trial (ARTs) at farmer fields. The objective of an adaptive trial is to predict how different varieties/management options will perform compared to each other under different environment and cropping system. This process of testing and using the information gained in a cooperative, systematic manner has been highly successful in providing viable technological options for state farmers.
81
Farmers Service centre PAU is the pioneer Institute which conceived the idea of providing all services to the farmers at single window and that too at the entrance of the University. With this in mind, the plant health clinic was established during 1993 at one of the entrances of the university where the multidisciplinary team of experts provides diagnostic and advisory service to the farmers. Flash message/press release about the out - breaks of pests and diseases are given as an alert signal to the farmers. The blow-up depicting information about the insect-pests and diseases of different crops, vegetables, fruits, disorders on account of excessive use of chemicals, micro-nutrient deficiency, new weed biotypes emerging over time, new farm mechanization aspects also displayed so that the visiting farmers is able to relate it to the problems at his farm. Furthermore, the disease or insect samples are preserved to educate the visitors about various problems. Additionally, the availability of improved seed, sapling, vegetable nursery, rhizobium culture, leaf colour chart, tensiometer, mushroom spawn, water testing kit, farm literature has been ensured under a single roof. The visiting farmers need not to visit the different departments for getting the reply of the problem. On the basis of the queries/plant sample diagnosed at Plant health clinic enable to give need based feed back to the research scientists to find out the solution. The final year B.Sc. Agriculture students are given practical training at Plant health clinic. The students interact with the farmers and get knowledge about the field problems. Keeping in view the utility of this concept, this service has been started at the Krishi Vigyan Kendras with the same objective. The KVKs have been lased with all kind of basic infrastructure required for identifying the problems of visiting farmers and providing instant solutions. Farm Literature The production and distribution of printed material helps farmers in the transfer of new information and technologies at a faster rate than personal contacts. Printing helps in preserving the technologies in the shape of books/booklets, magazines, newspapers and brochures. According to a many studies conducted, majority of the
82
farmers consulted pamphlets, magazines, and newspapers for getting the information regarding crop production technologies. Farm publications have proved to be effective means for dissemination of information, especially to introduce new technologies. Package of Practices For Kharif And Rabi Crops PAU has fully explored this tool of technology dissemination and wide array of literature is printed by it. The farm literature in the form of package of practices for kharif and rab i crops, vegetables and fruits are published regularly. These include the entire package from sowing to harvesting covering all aspects of production, protection, improved cultivars, farm mechanization, high density planting and post harvest management. These also include the information on integrated nutrient and pest management, organic farming, use of poor quality water, rat control and complete package about beekeeping, spraying techniques etc. In addition, the farm literature of field problems, individual agri-based enterprise bulletin/ pamphlets on protected cultivations, C.Ds of agri-based enterprise have also been developed. The farmers are showing keen interest towards farm literature. During 2002-03, the total sale was of Rs.46.1 lakhs which doubled in 2010 (Rs. 98.5 lakhs) and three time in 2011-12 (Rs. 138.4 lakhs) which clearly indicates the increase in sale asserting the faith of Punjab farmers towards the findings of PAU in documented form. Changi kheti and Progressive farming: Monthly magazines namely Changi kheti and Progressive farming are published regularly. The total circulation of these magazines is more than one lakh. It bears the latest knowledge for adoption to the farmers. Apart from improved technologies, the articles on the new emerging issues in agriculture like appearance of new bio-types, resistance in pests, decline in biodiversity, climate change, disappearance of farmer friendly birds/ small animals, decline in water table, appearance of multi-nutrient deficiency are duly published along with their possible remedial measures for the benefit of the farmers. Another remarkable feature of these monthly magazines is calendar of farm operations for the current month and
training schedule of 20 KVKs and PAU. For the easy outreach to the farmers, farm literature is available at the office of all FASS and KVKs. Mobile Diagnostic and Exhibition Van The Directorate of Extension Education has taken new initiatives such as Mobile Diagnostic and exhibition van fully equipped with the literature, blow-ups and audio-visual aids. The information about the new innovations, subsidiary occupations, techniques to reduce the cost of production, crop diversification, conservation of natural resources, secondary agriculture etc. is shown through videos to the farmers and the experts accompanying the van attending queries raised by the farmers on the spot. PAU Doots To improve technology transfer and gather farmers feedback, PAU has started an innovative way of deputing volunteer PAU Doots (agricultural ambassadors) in Punjab villages, which use internet for this purpose and act as bridge between farmers and experts. PAU doot are supplied technical know-how, information about new varieties, production and protection technology, steps to counteract the climate change on their e-mail which they convey in their
respective villages through announcements or meetings and also bring back feedback. Any farmer query conveyed to experts through PAU Doots is replied back within 24 hours. So far 6000 doots have been deputed and others are being identified. Similarly 8500 farmers have been registered at 17 KVKs and Kisan Mobile Advisory Service is being provided to them. CONCLUSION The technology transfer approaches described above have achieved remarkable results in terms of improvement in agriculture and impact on livelihood. Common requirement for success of these approaches is continued community development at grass root level. The PAU is constantly tuning its technology transfer modules in context of more participatory, consumer-led and market oriented reforms. As mentioned in beginning of the paper that there are two ways to increase the agriculture production; increasing area and/or productivity but as both are reaching stagnation, so PAU is now looking at a third way, i.e. shifting the product composition to higher value product through crop diversification. Through the effective technology transfer tools University will be able to replicate its first green revolution success on this front.
83
Using fruit plants as ornamentals: An innovative practice for beautification and monetary benefits
T. Mubarak Krishi Vigyan Kendra, (Sher-e-Kashmir, University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology) Kashmir - 192 233 (Jammu andKashmir)
ABSTRACT Apple is the major fruit crop of temperate Kashmir valley and has improved the socioeconomic condition of the farmers to a great extent. People, however, spare portion of productive land for lawns and use ornamental plants other than fruits. An innovative way to use fruit plantation for ornamentation was tested, so that the objective of beautification is achieved while getting returns from horticultural crops. Different fruit plants were added to the garden for diversity and beautification. In addition to these fruit plants some ornamentals were also recommended for further beautification. The plot was leveled and beds of different designs were made around the apple trees, which were kept free from weeds through mulching and intercultural operations. Fertilizers were applied as per the recommendations of SKAUSTKashmir. Addition of variety of fruit plants created diversity, flowering were observed at different stages and ripen fruits were available throughout the season. Fruit plantation served two purposes i.e. ornamentation and monetary returns. The quality of the fruits over farmers practice was also improved. Cost of cultivation was higher in the demonstration, while gross returns (Rs.47,287/Kanal) and net returns (Rs. 32,052/- kanal) were also higher in the same. Increases in the income was to the tune of 26 per cent over the farmers practice. Key Words: Apple, Ornamentation, Diversity, Beautification, Fruit plants. INTRODUCTION In Kashmir valley temperate fruit in general and apple in particular is considered as the back bone of economy. Apple is the major fruit crop and is cultivated on an area of about 132.5 thousand hectares with an annual production of 1332.8 thousand MT (Anonymous, 2010). It has undoubtly improved the economy of rural Kashmir, which in turn has greatly improved living status and life style. It is, however, disheartening
Designs of beds around fruit plantation
Apple plantation in full bloom

Corresponding author e-mail: drtasneem.mubarak@gmail.com
that people spare a large portion of productive land for lawns to beautify the surroundings of their homes and use ornamental plants other than fruits. A number of such cases can be observed in the valley. An innovative way to use fruit plantation for ornamentation was therefore tested to reverse the trend. This study was intended to sensitize our famers, so that the objective of beautification is
84
A view of farm house
Cherry in Demo plot
achieved while getting returns from horticulture crops. MATERIALS AND METHODS An orchardist Mr. Mubarak Ahmad Khan of village Khanpora situated at about 20 KM away from KVK, Kulgam was planning to remove some apple plantation in front of his farm house to make a lawn. He sought guidance from KVKs scientists and was suggested to create a garden while retaining the apple plantation. About 600 m2 was marked for the demonstration. Some more fruit plants were added to the garden for diversity and beautification. This small area accommodated different fruit plants like apple, pear, apricot, peach, pomegranate, fig and cherry. In addition to these fruit plants some ornamentals were also recommended for further beautification. The plot was leveled and beds of different designs were made around the apple trees, which were kept free from weeds through mulching and inter- culture operations. Fertilizers were applied as per recommendation of SKUAST-Kashmir to the fruit plants (Table 1). Organic matter was added in the form of FYM and chopped grass was used as mulch as well as organic source of nutrients. Controlled irrigation was applied through pipes as and when required. Need based application of fungicides and horticulture mineral oils recommended by SAU were used to manage different diseases and insect-pests. Rest of the management practices were kept common with the farmers own practice. Wooden boxes were used for packing of fruit.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Effect on fruit: Most important aspect of this concept was that no fruit tree was removed from the selected area, rather some more fruit species were added to create diversity, observe flowering at different stages and provide ripen fruits throughout the season. Fruit plantation served two purposes i.e. ornamentation and monetary returns. It not only added beauty to the garden but also improved both production and quality of the fruit over rest of the orchard (Table 1). This was attributed to followings; Application of organic manure and chopped grass (obtained from moving) might have improved the physico-chemical properties of the soil. There are numerous studies which confirm that organic sources improve fertility, physical and biological properties of the soil (Reeves , 1997; Okwuagwu, et al., 2003 ; Ewulo et al., 2008) and also add to the quality of fruit(Liu and Liu., 2012).
Fruit laden apple plant in Demo. plot
85
Table 1: Fertilizer schedule adopted as per the type and age of fruit trees.
Fruit tree
Age (Year)
Urea (g/tree)
DAP (g/tree)
MOP (g/tree)
Remarks Farmyard manure (FYM) was applied in March @ 15 kg/tree, except peach and fig where 5 kg/tree FYM was applied.
Apple
7-10
450-750
225-375
720-1150
For apple, pear and cherry fertilizers were applied as; 1/3rd urea full dose of DAP and MOP 3 weeks before expected flowering 1/3rd urea and MOP 3weeks after fruit set. 1/3rd urea in JuneJuly In case of Apricot and peach urea and full dose of DAP and MOP was applied 3 weeks before expected flowering .Remaining dose of urea was applied 3weeks after fruit set. Solubor@1g/lt. water was sprayed at pink bud stage of apple. 3 sprays of Calcium chloride were applied to apple crop throughout the season@3g/lt. water
Pear
5-7
250-450
125-225
400-720
Cherry Apricot Peach Fig
5-7 5-7 1-3 3
250-450 250-490 50-150
125-225 100-200 20-60
400-720 350-630 70-210
Only FYM was applied
Table 2. Effect of KVK intervention.
Parameter A Grade B Grade Total Rate (Rs./kg) A Grade B Grade Total gross income (Rs./kanal) Cost of cultivation(Rs./kanal) Net income(Rs./kanal) Additional income over farmers practice Per cent increase in income. Yield Kg/kanal
Farmers Practice 1016 138 1154 32 15 38998/13568/25430/6652 26
Recommended Practice 1211 125 1336 37.5 15 47287/15235/32052/-
Regular inter-culture operations improved soil aeration and facilitates decomposition of organic matter in the soil. Regular controlled water supply with pipe instead of flooding maintained optimum moisture and soil aeration which might have facilitated better root proliferation and shoot growth. This practice also helped in reducing root rot and collar rot disease incidence (Bhat et al. 2012). Root rot was prevalent in a number of trees in the rest of the orchard where flood irrigation was practiced. Foliar disease pressure was also higher in farmers
practice mainly due to poor sanitation. Proper sanitation reduced the load of diseases and insect-pests in demonstration, which in turn improved fruit quality. Economic benefits: The economics was pooled over three years (2010 to 2012) for costs and income realized by the orchardist. The objective of presenting these figures is just to reflect that this practice is quite rewarding for the farmers. Farmers in the area grade fruit into two main grades i.e., Grade A and Grade B, based on colour and damage caused by pests and diseases. Each grade has three sub
86
prosperity of the farming community, as this not only serves the purpose of beautification but also improves productivity, quality and profitability. REFRENCES
Anonymous.( 2010). Digest of statistics, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Government of Jammu & Kashmir. Pp., 117-19. Bhat, Z. A., Sheikh, F. A., Mubarak, T., Bhat, J. A., Zargar, M. A., Wani Akhlaq A., Rather G. H and Itoo, H. U. (2012). Onfarm testing and popularization of integrated management module of apple root rot under high altitude temperate conditions. J. Krishi Vigyan., 1: 54-57. Ewulo, B. S., Ojeniyi, S. O. and Akanni, D. A.( 2008). Effect of poultry manure on selected soil physical and chemical properties, growth, yield and nutrient status of tomato. African J. Agril. Res.,3: 612-16. Liu, C.H. and Liu, Y. (2012). Influence of organic manure addition on the maturity and quality of pineapple fruits ripened in winter. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr.,12: 211-20. Okwuagwu, M. I., Alleh1, M. E. and Osemwota, I. O. (2003). The effects of organic and inorganic manure on soil properties and yield of okra in Nigeria . African Crop Sci. Conf. Proc., 6: 390-93. Reeves, D. W. (1997). The role of soil organic matter in maintaining soil quality in continuous cropping systems. Soil & Tillage Res., 43:131-36.
Tulip at flowering stage
grades i.e., five layer, four layer and five layer roll boxes. The returns presented in the table 2 were based on the mean of these three sub-grades in each main grade. Cost of cultivation was higher in the demonstration plot due to higher yield, which resulted into extra cost incurred on harvesting, grading, packing, loading, transport charges and unloading charges in the mandi. Gross (Rs.47,287/kanal) and net returns (Rs.32,052/kanal) were higher in recommended practice over farmers practice (Table 2). This was attributed to improvement in productivity and higher rates of A grade fruit owing to its good quality under the recommended practice. The increase in the income was to the tune of 26.0 per cent over farmers practice. The economics can further be improved by planting potential flowers for seed multiplication. Tulip and gladiolus in particular are very well adapted to the area. CONCLUSION Land is a precious asset and it should be put to the best use. Increasing demand of fruits in view of changing life style and food habits in the country will further strengthen the economic condition of farmers associated with horticulture crops. This innovative practice of gardening may help to put in use every inch of soil for economic
List of reviewers
Anil Kumar Sharma Avneet Kaur Bipin Kumar Sharma Chander Mohan Gurdeep Singh Gurmeet Singh Gurpreet Kaur K. K. Katoch Karamjit Sharma Kiran Grover M. S. Gill M. I. S. Gill Mahesh Kumar Narang Parminder Singh Soma Banerjee New Delhi Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Himachal Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab Punjab West Bangal 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Copyright and discalimer
Copyright Authors. All rights reserved. Authors are responsible for obtaining permission to reproduce copyright material from other sources. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any statement of fact or opinion or copyright violation in the published papers. The views expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent the view point of the journal.
87
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS The Journal of Krishi Vigyan, a peer-reviewed, half yearly, journal is being published by the Society of Krishi Vigyan. The publication is aimed at providing access to academicians, researchers, extension workers and industry professionals from across the globe to publish their work on all aspects of agriculture and allied fields through research papers, short communications and review articles. The editorial board of SKV welcomes the submission of manuscripts within the aim and scope of the journal for publication. The articles may be submitted via regular mail in duplicate, each with a set of original figures and photographs to the Editor, Journal of Krishi Vigyan electronically in MS WORD format as e-mail attachments to the editoriskv@gmail.com or secretarykvk2011@gmail.com .
Please refer to the instructions for authors before submitting an article.

General guidelines It is the responsibility of the authors to ensure that 1. Papers are submitted strictly as per the style and format of JKV. The articles not confirming fully to the style and format of JKV will be returned to author(s) by the editorial office for amendment, prior to a review for its scientific merit. 2. Submission of an article is understood to imply that the article is original and has not been published previously, is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, and if accepted, it will not be published elsewhere in the same form, in English or any other language. The submission of the article has the approval of the all co-authors and the authorities of the host institute where work has been carried out. 3. The editorial board of JKV discourages the submission of more than one article dealing with related aspects from the same study; this includes different aspects of data derived from one particular experiment, or cases in which the analytical techniques, animals or experimental procedures are common to all papers. If author(s) have valid reasons for separation of reports of one particular experiment or study into more than one paper, these must be submitted simultaneously. 4. The Author(s) may suggest the names of at least three experts/reviewers, not from the host organization/institute where the work had been carried out (along with their complete mailing address, contact nos. and e-mail id) whom they feel qualified to evaluate their research article. These suggestions will only be considered if e-mail Ids are also provided. Submission of such names does not imply that they will definitely be used for scrutiny. 5. The Article submission certificate duly signed by all the authors/head of host department / institute (optional) on a prescribed format must be furnished along with article at the time of submission. If the article is sent through e-mail, the scanned copy of certificate (signed / stamped) may be attached. 6. For publication of articles in JKV, all the contributing authors has to be the member (either life or annual) of Society of Krishi Vigyan. 7. The submitted manuscripts will be assessed from editorial points of view, at first, and if found suitable for publication, it will be sent for peer-review. The review process will be a double-blind process where author(s) and referees are unaware of each others name. The author(s) must abide by the suggestions of referee and the editorial board of JKV. The final decision to publish an article will lie with the Editor and Publisher of the journal. 8. The corresponding author will be sent the PDF file of his/her published article free of cost via email. No hard copies of the reprints will be provided. 9. Journal of Krishi Vigyan has no page charges.
10.For enquiries regarding submission, secretarykvk2011@gmail.com
please
contact
the
editorial
office
at
Manuscript preparation Language: Papers must be written in English. The text and all supporting materials must use UK spelling conventions. It is up to the authors to make sure there are no typographical errors in the manuscript. Typescript: Manuscripts must be typed in Microsoft Word, using Times New Roman font at 12 points, double spaced on one side of A4 size bond paper with 2.5 cm margin on all sides. All pages should be numbered consecutively in the right corner on the top. Indent new paragraphs. Words: Papers should not normally exceed up to 8000 words for review articles; 4000 words for original full length papers and 1500 words for short communications. Headings: Main Headings - Major headings are centered, all capitals, boldface in Times New Roman font at 12 points, and consist of ABSTRACT, INTRODUCTION, MATERIALS AND MATHODS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (optional) and REFERENCES. First subheadings are placed in a separate line, begin at the left margin, and are in italics. Text that follows should be in a new paragraph. Second Subheadings should begin with the first line of a paragraph, indented and in italic. The text follows immediately after the second subheading. Contents: The contents must be arranged in an orderly way with suitable headings for each subsection. The recommended subdivision of contents is as follows:Running head: The running head or short title of not more than 50 characters, in title case and centered should be placed above the main title of the study. Title: The title must be informative and brief. The initials and name of the author(s), the address of the host institution where the work was done must follow the title. Superscripts (1,2,3) should be used in cases where authors are from different institutions. The superscript # should be appended to the author to whom correspondence should be addressed, and indicated as such together with an e-mail address in the line immediately following the keywords. The present postal address of authors, if currently different from that of the host institution should also be superscripted appropriately and inserted in the lines following the key words. Abstracts: It must summarize the major objectives, methods, results, conclusions, and practical applications of the study conducted. The Abstract must consist of complete sentences and use of abbreviations should be limited. Keywords: The Abstract is followed by three to five keywords from the title to be used for subject indexing. These should be singular (e.g. paper, not papers). The abstract, including key words should be separated by horizontal lines places before and after the text.
ARTICLE SUBMISSION CERTIFICATE Manuscript Title: Manuscript type: Review article/Full length paper/Short communication (Check one): Name(s) of the author(s): Name and address of corresponding author : Contact No. # : E-mail:
I (we) affirm that: 1. The manuscript has been prepared in accordance with the latest Instructions for authors guidelines of the Journal of Krishi Vigyan. 2. The article is original and has not been published previously, is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, and if accepted, it will not be published elsewhere in the same or, in English or any other language. The submission of the article has the approval of the all the authors and the authorities of the host institute where work had been carried out. 3. All the authors have made substantive and intellectual contributions to the article and assume full responsibility for all opinions, conclusions and statements expressed in the articles. 4. I (we) agree to abide by the comments of referees/editorial board and will modify the article as per their recommendations for publication in Journal of Krishi Vigyan. 5. If the above article is published in Journal of Krishi Vigyan, the copyright of this article will vest with the Society of Krishi Vigyan, who will have the right to enter into any agreement with any organization in India or abroad engaged in reprography, photocopying, storage and dissemination of information contained in it, and neither we nor our legal heirs will have any claims on royalty.
Name of the author(s) 1. 2.
Designation
Present official address
Signature with date

Journal of Krishi Vigyan Vol.1 Issue 2.

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Krishi Vigyan Vol.1 Issue 2.

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SOCIETY OF KRISHI VIGYAN

LIFE MEMBERS OF SOCIETY OF KRISHI VIGYAN

A Study of Organizational Structure of an NGO Working in Remote Hills of Uttarakhand

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Table 1. General profile of organizational personnel.

Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to different aspects of the organization.

Number of Percentage Respondents

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Table 1. Yield of wheat under irrigated and rain fed conditions.

Yield q/ha 29.8 22.5 12.2 10.5

Irrigated Demonstration Farmers Practice Rainfed Demonstration Farmers Practice

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Table 2 : Extent of adoption of wheat production technology.

Table 3. Constraints perceived in wheat cultivation.

Per cent 84.29 74.28 68.57 62.85 57.14 50.00 21.42

Rank I II III IV V VI VII

Per cent 80.0 68.6 57.1 52.9 42.9 40.0 24.3

Rank I II III IV V VI VII

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

An Analytical Study of Livestock Sector in an Adopted Village

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Table 1. Livestock population.

Total population covering 150 respondents 300 (17.5%)

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Table 3. Knowledge of farmers regarding scientific animal husbandry practices.

No. of respondents 0 0 43 110 24 98 11

Percentage 0 0 28.7 73.3 16.0 65.3 7.3

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Table 2: Status of dairy farming in south western Punjab

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

(Multiple responses) (Figures in parenthesis indicate number of dairy farmers)

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Table 4: Constraints faced by dairy farmers in adoption of recommended dairy technologies.

Sr. No. Particulars 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

(Multiple responses) (Figures in parenthesis indicate number of dairy farmers)

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Design, Development and Evaluation of Grader for Wild Bitter Gourd

Fig 1. Wild Bitter Gourd (Momordica charantia var. abbreviata)

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Fig 4: Set of two sieves with interlocking arrangement

Figure 3: Variation of produce diameter

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Table 1. Experimental Designs under different Integrated Farming Systems.

Non-integrated (Traditional) Integrated

Non descriptive Nil Nil 2008-2011(4 years) Six months

Table-2: Mean SE of water quality parameters under T1, T2 and T3.

Journal of Krishi Vigyan

Cirrhina Ctenopharyng mrigala odon idella

Total fish production (kg/six month) 10.670.33a 20.570.33b 27.780.50c

4.93 0.11a 9.48 0.19b 12.59 0.26c

3.650.22a 0.480.04a 1.610.11a 6.650.14b 1.370.11b 3.070.14b 8.840.17c 2.930.15c 3.420.15b

2195.56a .0000a b 405.4227.81 .0000a b 441.2518.42 293932.41b

Total Expenditure (Rs) 1175.5050.70a 2812.5081.48b 3873.00153.03c

Gross income (Rs) 6157.75212.22a 12379.25257.76b 28999.75541.07c

Net Income(profit) (RS) 4982.25206.09a 9566.75185.74b 25126.75393.99c