Al-Azhar University Assiut Branch Faculty of Science Geology Department

The Geological Interpretation of Reflection Seismic Data

Prepared by

Research on

1. Abdelrhman M. Abdelftah Selim 2. Ahmed Abdelhamed Ali 3. Ahmed Mahmoud Abdelsalam

Essay Submitted for Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for B.Sc in Geology

Supervisor

Dr. AbdelSattar A. Abdellatief

Lecturer of Applied Geophysics 2008/2009

Acknowledgements
Firstly thanks to "ALLAH" who give us the health and life to finish up this work. Were grateful to the people who helped with this Research, and to the students and colleagues who have, whether advertently or inadvertently, introduced us to many new learning experiences. Were particularly grateful to Dr. AbdelSattar for his help. (All candidates) Amid such a mass of small letters, it will not seem surprising that an occasional error of the press should have occurred. But I hope that the number of such errors is small. And special thanks to my mother and my uncle Rabih Elabasere. (Abdelrhman)

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Contents
Acknowledgements List Of Figures List Of Tables and Boxes Abstract Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Milestones in Seismic Industry 1.3 Principle of Seismic Survey 1.4 Modern Seismic Data Acquisition 1.4.1 Land Data Acquisition 1.4.2 Marine Data Acquisition 1.4.3 Transition Zone Recording 1.5 How Are The Seismic Data Collected? 1.6 What Is The Interpretation Mean? Chapter 2 Fundamentals Of Seismic 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Seismic Wave 2.3 Types Of Waves 2.3.1 Compressional Waves (P-waves) 2.3.2 Shear Waves (S-waves) 2.4 Characteristics of Seismic 2.4.1 Reflections 2.4.2 Critical Reflection 2.4.3 Refractions 2.4.4 Diffractions 2.4.5 Multiples 2.4.6 Seismic Noise 2.5 Seismic velocities 2.6 Seismic Receivers 2.6.1 Geophones 2.6.2 Hydrophones 2.6.3 Dual Sensors 2.7 Seismic Data Processing 2.7.1 Migration
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ii v vii viii 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 12 12 13 13 13 14

Contents

2.8 Seismic Sections Chapter 3 Steps Of Interpretation Seismic Data 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Identification Of Reflections (Tracing) 3.3 Picking And Correlation Of Reflections 3.3.1 Correlations 3.4 Continuity 3.5 Unconformities and Seismic Facies Patterns 3.6 Naming 3.7 Fault Pattern Determination 3.8 Hydrocarbon Indicators 3.9 Mapping 3.9.1 Construction Of Two-Way Time Map 3.9.2 Construction Of Structural Cross-Sections 3.9.3 Contour Maps 3.9.3.1 Construction Of Geo-Seismic Structural Contour Map 3.9.3.2 Construction Of Isopach Maps Chapter 4 Reflection Data Over Geologic Structures 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Anticlines 4.3 Faults 4.4 Diapirism And Salt Domes 4.5 Basement Structure 4.6 Pitfalls In Structural Interpretation 4.6.1 Velocity Pitfalls 4.6.2 Geometrical Pitfalls Chapter 5 Case Study Evaluation Of Matruh Basin 5.1 Geological Background 5.2 Basin Analysis 5.3 Seismic Data 5.4 Structural Interpretation 5.4.1 Fault Pattern Interpretation 5.5 Summary And Conclusions Bibliography
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14 17 17 18 18 19 20 21 22 22 22 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 25 26 27 29 31 32 33 35 36 36 37 38 43 47 47 50 52

List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 4.1 4.2 (a) 4.2 (b) Sketch of rays reflected from a bed to receiver Histogram of seismic wave velocities of various classes of rocks (after Grant and West, 1965) Terminology of wiggles Vertical trace Parallel other reflection Most type of reservoirs and traps Anticline from San Joaquin Valley, Calif.: (a) section as automatically migrated by computer; 5 12 16 16 21 26 26

(b) immigrated section. The migration has collapsed the 27 many diffraction patterns that concealed the actual structure. (Geocom,Inc.) Pattern of faulting Example of Salt Dome. Basement effect in a deep-sea area Identification of basement surface from diffraction patterns on section along traverse In deep water. (United Geophysical Corp, proprietary data.) 28 30 31 32

4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

4.7

Distortion of sedimentary layers due to forces associated 34 with salt-dome buoyancy. Some of the structures shown, e.g., those below the piercement-type salt dome and salt pillows (like the deep one on the right) are not real but result from velocity effects. (Exxon, Inc.) "Anticline" cased by thrusting of high-velocity material over 34 monoclinal layers. Markings on lower section indicate interpreted structure. (From Tucker and Yorston.8) Bow-tie effect observed over sharp syncline in the Adriatic Sea. Apparent anticline is actually a diffraction feature.(Geocom, Inc.) 35

4.8

4.9

List of Figures 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Location map of the study area Basment tectonic map of the north Western Desert of Egypt (Modified after Sultan and Halim, 1988). The subbasins constituting the northren Western Desert Basin (Modified after Sultan and Halim, 1988). Isopach map of Bahariya Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt (C. I.=50 ft) Isopach map of Kharita Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt (C. I.=200 ft) Structure contour map of Bahariya Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt. Arrows refer to possible hydrocarbon migration pathway (C. I.=200 ft) 36 37 37 40 40 41

5.7

Structure contour map of Kharita Formation. Matruh Basin, 41 North Western Desert, Egypt. Arrows refer to possible hydrocarbon migration pathway (C. I.=200 ft) Sand to shale ratio map of Bahariya Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt. Sand to shale ratio map of Kharita Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt. Location the seismic lines Line "q" in the original 3D seismic volume (before applying any intrpretation steps). Line "f" in the original 3D seismic volume (before applying any intrpretation steps). Line "k" in the original 3D seismic volume (before applying any intrpretation steps). Interpreted line number "f" Interpreted line number"k" Interpreted part of line number"q" 42 42 43 44 45 46 48 49 50

5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16

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List of Tables
Table. 2.1 2.2 2.3 5.1 5.2 Average values approximating measurements on polycrystalline bodies velocities in non-porous sedimentary rocks Velocity in Porous Rock filled by fluids Stratigraphic column of matruh basin, Egypt (Modified after Medoil, 1983). Page 10 11 11 38

Lithologic constituents of Bahariya and Kharita 39 formations. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt.

List of Boxes
Box. 2.1 Box. 3.1 Why Processing? Tips for Correlation 13 19

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Abstract
This research consists of all these aspects in a brief. Starting from the introduction to the seismic methods in Chapter 1, in Chapter 2, We tried to give a brief introduction about the basics of the different types of waves, and fundamental of seismic data and it's definition like multiples, processing, etc. The next Chapter 3 deals with the steps of geological interpretation to seismic data. Chapter 4 is about the structure interpretation especially the common traps and reservoirs, where we described pitfalls in structure interpretation. In Chapter 5 were showing case study of the interpretation technique from a Ph.D dissertation explained basic data and aid data used to complete the interpretation.
The geophysical method that provides the most detailed picture of subsurface geology is the seismic survey. This involves the natural or artificial generation and propagation of seismic (elastic) waves down into Earth until they encounter a discontinuity (any interruption in sedimentation) and are reflected back to the surface. On-land, seismic shooting produces acoustic waves at or near the surface by energy sources such as dynamite, a Thumper (a weight dropped on ground surface), a Dinoseis (a gas gun), or a Vibroseis (which literally vibrates the earths surface). Electronic detectors called geophones then pick up the reflected acoustic waves. The signal from the detector is then amplified, filtered to remove excess noise, digitized, and then transmitted to a nearby truck to be recorded on magnetic tape or disk. In the early days of offshore exploration, explosive charges suspended from floats were used to generate the necessary sound waves. This method is now banned in many parts of the world because of environmental considerations. One of the most common ways to generate acoustic waves today is an air gun. Air guns
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contain chambers of compressed gas. When the gas is released under water, it makes a loud pop and the seismic waves travel through the rock layers until they are reflected back to the surface where they are picked up by hydrophones, the marine version of geophones, which trail behind the boat. The data recorded on magnetic tape or disk can be displayed in a number of forms for interpretation and research purposes; including visual display forms (photographic and dry paper), a display of the amplitude of arriving seismic waves versus their arrival time, and a common type of display called variable density. The variable-density display is generated by a technique in which light intensity is varied to enhance the different wave amplitudes. For example, low amplitude waves are unshaded and higher amplitude waves are shaded black, thus strong reflections will show up as a black line on the display. Seismic waves travel at known but varying velocities depending upon the kinds of rocks through which they pass and their depth below Earths surface. The speed of sound waves through the earths crust varies directly with density and inversely with porosity. Through soil, the pulses travel as slowly as 1,000 feet per second, which is comparable to the speed of sound through air at sea level. On the other hand, some metamorphic rocks transmit seismic waves at 20,000 feet (approximately 6 km) per second, or slightly less than 4 miles per second. Some typical average velocities are: shale = 3.6 km/s; sandstone = 4.2 km/s; limestone = 5.0 km/s. If the subsurface lithology is relatively well known from drilling information, it is possible to calculate the amount of time it takes a wave to travel down through the earth to a discontinuity and back to the surface. This information is used to compute the depth of the discontinuity or unconformity. However, the only way of accurately determining depth is by correlating seismic sections to wireline logs. Reflections are generated at unconformities because unconformities separate rocks having different structural attitudes or physical properties, particularly different lithologies. These principles form the basis for application of seismic methods to geologic study.
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Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 1

Introduction
1.1 Introduction The seismic method is one of the geophysical methods of prospecting It has three important/principal applications: a. Delineation of near-surface geology for engineering studies, and coal and mineral exploration within a depth of up to 1km: the seismic method applied to the near surface studies is known as engineering seismology. b. Hydrocarbon exploration and development within a depth of up to 10 km: seismic method applied to the exploration and development of oil and gas fields is known as exploration seismology. c. Investigation of the earths crustal structure within a depth of up to 100 km: the seismic method applies to the crustal and an earth quake study is known as earthquake seismology. Definition by Robert E. Sheriff: Seismic survey is a program for mapping geologic structure by observation of seismic waves, especially by creating seismic waves with artificial sources and observing the arrival time of the waves reflected from acoustic impedance contrasts or refracted through high velocity members. 1.2 Milestones in Seismic Industry As the search for oil moved to deeper targets, the technique of using reflected seismic waves, known as the seismic reflection method, became more popular during World War II, because it aided delineation of other structural features apart from simple salt domes. During 1960s the so-called digital revolution ushered in what some historians now are calling the Information Age. This had a tremendous impact on the seismic exploration industry. The ability to record digitized seismic data on magnetic tape, then process that data in a computer, not only greatly improved the productivity of seismic crews
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but also greatly improved the fidelity with which the processed data imaged earth structure. Modern Seismic Data Acquisition could not have evolved without the digital computer. The late 1970s saw the development of the 3D seismic survey, in which the data imaged not just a vertical cross-section of earth but an entire volume of earth. The technology improved during the 1980s, leading to more accurate and realistic imaging of earth. In 1990s depth section preparation got focused from the prevailing time section preparation after processing the data. In 2000s data is being acquired with an additional parameter of time as the 4th dimension of the existing 3D data acquisition system. This is called 4D data acquisition. As the seismic industry made one breakthrough after another during its history, it also created new challenges for itself. Now we record not just p-waves but also converted s-waves for a wide range of objectives. Using the multi-component seismic method, commonly known as the 4-C seismic method, we are now able to see through gas plumes caused by the reservoir below. We are able to sometimes better image the sub-salt and sub-basalt targets with the 4C seismic method. Using the converted swaves, we are able to detect the oil-water contact, and the top or base of the reservoir unit that we sometimes could not delineate using only pwaves.

1.3 Principle of Seismic Survey Seismic wave are used to give a picture of deep rock structures. The seismic wave travels through the water and strikes the seafloor. Some of the energy of the wave is reflected back to the receivers. The rest of the wave carries on until it reaches another rock layer. The time taken for the waves to travel from the source to the receivers is used to calculate the distance traveled - hence the thickness of the rock layers. The strength of the reflected wave gives information about the density of the reflecting rock. Each time the seismic pulse meets a change in rock properties, for example from a shale to a sand layer, part of the pulse will be reflected back to the surface. This is called an event. By measuring precisely the difference in arrival time of a given event from the nearer and further receivers groups, the velocity of the rock material can be measured. The seismic measurements are made in time, so if the velocity and time are known, geophysicists can work out the depth of the event. In seismic surveys,
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reflected sound waves, called signals, are combined and interpreted electronically or reproduced on graphic paper recorders. This data gives information on the depth, position and shape of underground geological formations that may contain crude oil or natural gas.

1.4 Modern Seismic Data Acquisition Subsurface geologic structures containing hydrocarbons are found beneath either land or sea. So there is a land data-acquisition method and a marine data-acquisition method. The two methods have a common-goal, imaging the earth. But because the environments differ, so each required unique technology and terminology.

1.4.1 Land Data Acquisition In land acquisition, a shot is fired (i.e., energy is transmitted) and reflections from the boundaries of various Lithological units within the subsurface are recorded at a number of fixed receiver stations on the surface. These geophone stations are usually in-line although the shot source may not be. When the source is in-line with the receivers at either end of the receiver line or positioned in the middle of the receiver line a two-dimensional (2D) profile through the earth is generated. If the source moves around the receiver line causing reflections to be recorded form points out of the plane of the in line profile, then a three-dimensional (3D) image is possible (the third dimension being distance, orthogonal to the inline receiver-line). The majority of land survey effort is expended in moving the line equipment along and / or across farm fields or through populated communities. Hence, land operations often are conducted only during daylight thus making it a slow process. 1.4.2 Marine Data Acquisition In a marine operation, a ship tows one or more energy sources fastened parallel with one or more towed seismic receiver lines. In this case, the receiver lines take the form of cable called Steamer containing a number of hydrophones. The vessel moves along and fires a shot, with reflections recorded by the streamers. If a single streamer and a single source are used, a single seismic profile may be recorded in like manner to the land operation. If a number of parallel sources and/or streamers are towed at the same time, the result is a number of parallel lines recorded at
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the same time. If many closely spaced parallel lines are recorded, a 3D data volume is recorded. More than one vessel may be employed to acquire data on 24-hour basis, since there is no need to curtail operations in nights. 1.4.3 Transition Zone Recording Because ships are limited by the water depth in which they safely can conduct operations, and because land operations must terminate when the source approaches the water edge, or shore lines, transition-zone recording techniques have been developed to provide a continuous seismic coverage required over the land and then into the sea. Geophones that can be placed on the sea bed or used with both marine and land shots fired into them. Techniques have been developed to use both Geophones and hydrophones in the surface area where the shore line / water edge is likely to migrate towards land and sea depending on the tide of sea a day. The combination of such hydrophone / geophones is called a Dual Sensor. The advantage of why this is to see that either of the receiver of Dual Sensor pickups the surveyed from the slots recorded using a land or marine source and data gaps all along the coast within the area of prospect. 1.5 How Are The Seismic Data Collected? As the vessel moves along the line, computers control the simultaneous discharge of seismic waves from the sound sources, usually every 10 seconds. The waves travel down through the rock formations. When they encounter a boundary between different formations, some sound waves are reflected back to high-capacity computers, check and store the data collected. The collected data go through several processing steps to improve the quality of the signals and filter out background noise. Geophysicists then interpret the information to develop a detailed picture of the structures and rock formations.

Fig. 1.1: Sketch of rays reflected from a bed to receiver

1.6 What Is The Interpretation Mean? The word interpretation has been given many different meanings by geophysicists who handle seismic reflection records and by geologist's who put the information from them to use. To some it is virtually equivalent to data processing and is tied inextricably to computer software. To others it consists of all of the operations we considered as the mechanical transformation of seismic reflection data into a structural picture by the application of corrections, time-depth conversion, and migration. Interpretation can be all of these things, subject to the one inviolable condition that it involves some exercise of judgment based on geological criteria. By this conception, interpretation can begin with planning and programming a seismic reflection survey if they are guided by the geology of the area and by the economic or scientific objectives of the survey. It can involve the choice of field parameters, such as the kind of seismic source to be used, the geometry of source and receiver patterns, and the settings on the panels of the recording instruments, as long as such choices are governed by the geological information desired. The selection of processing procedures and parameters is also an important part of the Interpretation if it is supported by the same considerations.
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Any purely mechanical operations not requiring discretion on the part of the geophysicist would come under the category of reduction, not interpretation. It is possible to make a seismic map, particularly one in time, without carrying out any real interpretation at all if every stage of its preparation is routine or automatic and no decisions have to be made that involve geological considerations. After a seismic map is constructed, an important part of its interpretation is integrating the seismic data on it with geological information from surface and subsurface sources, e.g., fault traces or geologic contacts. This involves identifying reflections and making ties to wells or surface features. The extent to which this can be done depends on the amount of geologic information available. The computer has made it feasible to use previously unexploited characteristics of seismograms to obtain geological information. Under favorable circumstances, interval velocities can be determined from reflection records with enough precision to permit them to serve as a basis for identifying lithology. Another property of seismic waves that has been employed for studying rock composition is attenuation of seismic-wave amplitudes between successive reflectors, a parameter that can now be measured because of the high dynamic range in modern recording equipment. Thanks to the computer technology.

Chapter 2

Fundamentals of Seismic

Chapter 2

Fundamentals of Seismic

2.1 Introduction A seismic image of the earth is formed by seismic waves reflected the transmission of energy into the earth can be explained by assuming that the Earth has the elastic properties of a solid. The Earths crust is considered as completely elastic (except in the immediate vicinity of the shot), and hence the name given to this type of acoustic wave transmission is elastic wave propagation. In this chapter we will define and explain fundamental of seismic waves, its velocity and how seismic cross-section made. 2.2 The Seismic Wave Several kinds of wave phenomenon can occur in an elastic solid. They are classified according to how the particles that make up the solid move as the wave travels through the material. 2.3 Types Of Waves 2.3.1 Compressional Waves (P-waves) On firing an energy source, a compressional force causes an initial volume decrease of the medium upon which the force acts. The elastic character of rock then caused an immediate rebound or expansion, followed by a dilation force. This response of the medium constitutes a primary compressional wave or P-wave. Particle motion in a P-wave is in the direction of wave propagation. The P-wave velocity is a function of the rigidity and density of the medium. In dense rock, it can vary from 2500 to 7000 m/sec, while in spongy sand, form 300 to 500 m/sec.

2.3.2 Shear Waves (S-waves) Shear strain occurs when a sideways force is exerted on a medium; a shear wave may be generated that travels perpendicularly to the direction of the applied force. Particle motion of a shear wave is at right angles to the direction of propagation. A shear waves velocity is a function of the resistance to shear stress of the material through which the wave is traveling and if often approximately half of the materials compressional wave velocity. In liquids such as water, there is no shear wave possible because shear stress and strain cannot occur in liquids. 2.4 Characteristics of Seismic 2.4.1 Reflections The phenomenon in which the energy or wave from a seismic source has been returned from an interface having acoustic impedance contrast (reflector) or series of contrasts within the earth is called reflection. The amplitude and polarity of reflections depend on the acoustic properties of the material on both sides of discontinuity. Acoustic impedance is the product of density and velocity. The relationship among incident amplitude A i , reflected amplitude A r , and reflection coefficient R c , is: Ar = RC * Ai where, R C =V 2 p 2 -V l P l /V 2 p 2 + V l P l where, V= velocity; p - density Where velocity is constant, a density contrast will cause a reflection and vice versa. In other words, any abrupt change in acoustic impedance causes a reflection to occur. 2.4.2 Critical Reflection When an impinging wave arrives at such an angle of incidence that energy travels horizontally along the interface at the velocity of the second medium, then critical reflection occurs. The incident angle ic, at which critical reflection occurs can be found using Snells Law. Sin i c = (V1/V2) Sin 90o = (V1/V2) 2.4.3 Refractions The change in direction of a seismic ray upon passing into a medium with a different velocity, is called refraction. Snells law describes how
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waves refract. It states that the sine of the incident angle of a ray, (sin i), divided by the initial medium velocity V1 equals the sine of the refracted angle of a ray (sin r), divided by the lower medium velocity V2, that is: Sin i c = (i/V1) Sin (r/V2) When a wave encounters an abrupt change in elastic properties, part of the energy is reflected, and part is transmitted or refracted with a change in the direction of propagation occurring at the interface. 2.4.4 Diffractions Diffractions occur at sharp discontinuities, such as at the edge of a bed, fault, or geologic pillow. When the wave front arrives at the edge, a portion of the energy travels through into the higher velocity region, but much of it is reflected. The reflected wave front arrives at the receivers get aligned along the trajectory of a parabola on the seismic record. 2.4.5 Multiples Seismic energy that has been reflected more than once is called multiple while virtually all seismic energy involves some multiples. The important distinction between long-path and short-path multiples is that a long-path multiple arrives as a distinct event whereas a short-path multiple arrives soon after the primary and changes the wave shape. 2.4.6 Seismic Noise The reliability of seismic mapping is strongly dependent on the quality of the records/data. We use the term signal to denote any event on the seismic record from which we wish to obtain information. Everything else is noise, including coherent events that interfere with the observation and measurement of signals. The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), is the ratio of the signal energy in a specified portion of the record to the total noise energy in the same portion. Poor records result whenever the signal-to-noise ratio is small. Seismic noise may be either a) Coherent or b) Incoherent
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Another important distinction is between a) noise that is repeatable and b) noise that is non repeatable. The properties coherence, travel direction and repeatability form the basis of most methods of improving record quality. 2.5 Seismic velocities The extension of the simple theory discussed above to a seismic wave in a real rock is not simple. The wave is then propagating in a solid formed from grains of different minerals, with pore spaces between the grains which may be filled with liquid (brine or oil) or gas. Let us look first at the experimental evidence. We can start by considering the velocities in various minerals individually. Mineral crystals exhibit anisotropy; the elastic moduli, and therefore seismic velocities, are dependent on the orientation of the crystal lattice relative to the direction of seismic wave propagation. Average values approximating measurements on polycrystalline bodies can be calculated from a Table. 2.1 compilation by Anderson and Lieberman (1966): Velocities, ft/s Mineral Pyrite Magnetite Haematite Quartz Calcite Barite Halite Density, g/cc 4.93 5.20 5.12 2.65 2.71 4.50 2.16 P 26610 24220 21800 19870 20530 14060 14850 S 16990 13750 14120 13620 10640 7300 8580

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Logically, the next step would be to look at velocities in non-porous sedimentary rocks. These are difficult to establish, because almost all sedimentary rocks are porous to some extent. Values estimated from the work of Anderson and Lieberman are as follows Table. 2.2: Velocities, ft/s Rock type Dolomite Limestone Sandstone Density, g/cc 2.84 2.73 2.65 P 23000 21000 18500 S 13000 11000 11500

Real rocks will be porous, and the pore space will be filled by fluids of much lower seismic velocity Table. 2.3: P wave velocity, ft/s 5290 4590 4200

Liquid Water (20% NaCI) Water (fresh) Oil

Density, g/cc 1.14 1.00 0.80-0.85

It is not surprising that real rocks show a wide variation of seismic velocity. Fig. 2.1 is a histogram of measurements on various classes of rocks after Grant and West (1965). It is clear that, in general, the range of seismic velocity associated with a given lithology is too large for lithology to be inferred from velocity. However, it may be possible to predict, for example, sand-shale ratio in a specific environment, where borehole control is sufficient to allow one to study thy variation of velocity in a restricted area, stratigraphic interval, and depth of burial.

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Fig. 2.1 Histogram of seismic wave velocities of various classes of rocks (after Grant and West, 1965) 2.6 Seismic Receivers 2.6.1 Geophones Conventional geophones are based on Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. This law states that relative motion of a conductor through a magnetic field induces an electromagnetic force (EMF) which causes a current to flow through the conductor, if the conductor is an element of an electrical circuit. The two types of geophones widely used in geophysical surveys are: 1. Moving coil geophone and 2. Moving magnet geophone The essential ingredients to make a geophone are a permanent magnet, a conductor and a spring which positions either the conductor in the magnetic field space (in moving coil geophone) or the permanent magnet in the electric field space (as in moving magnet geophone). The conductor in reality is a length of copper wire wrapped into a cylindrical coil shape. It is often referred to as the coil or element. The conductors or the magnets motion through the magnetic/electrical field, according to Faradays law, causes an EMF to be induced that is proportional to the velocity of the earths motion. Hence, such a geophone is called a velocity phone because its output is proportional to the velocity of the earths motion. The large amount of subsurface information carried by seismic signal would be fully available for interpretation only if the geophones follow ground movement faithfully with minimum distortion.
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2.6.2 Hydrophones The hydrophone is an electro acoustic transducer that converts a Pressure pulse into an electrical signal by means of the piezoelectric effect. If mechanical stress is applied on tow opposite faces of a piezoelectric crystal, then electrical charges appear on some other pair of faces. If such a crystal is placed in an environment experiencing changes in pressure, it will produce a voltage proportional to that variation in pressure. 2.6.3 Dual Sensors For ocean bottom cable (OBC) applications, combining the output of geophones and a hydrophone is now widely accepted technique for reducing the ghosting effect caused by the water/air interface. To overcome the disadvantage of using two separate sensors, both geophone and hydrophone are available in a single unit known as dual sensors or the 4-component (4C) receivers consist of a hydrophone, two horizontal geophones and a vertical geophone installed in a single water proof enclosure for recording P, SV and SH waves. 2.7 Seismic Data Processing The seismic method has been greatly improved in the both in the areas of data acquisition and processing. Digital recording along with the CMP multifold coverage was introduced during the early 60s. Data acquired from the field are prepared for processing by the field party itself and then it is send to the processing centre. Processing is required because the data collected from the field is not a true representation of the subsurface and hence nothing of importance can be inferred from it. With the advent of high end computing systems modern day processing has become a lot easier than it really used to be. Turnaround times have therefore come down with lot of processing taking place in-field or onboard. Box. 2.1 Why Processing?

Field record which we obtain contains: Reflections, Coherent noise, and Random ambient noise.

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2.7.1 Migration Migration is a part of Seismic Processing. Its the most critical feature of a seismic interpretation is the rate of change of distance with time, dx/dt. Seismic interpretation is the process of developing a geologic model to satisfy dx\dt. to Conversion of Reflection Times into Corresponding Depths. The average velocity values at tops of different formations, derived from essential wells, are applied by using velocity depth curves in order to get a better understanding of the subsurface geological conditions, especially structural relationships. for the construction of geo-seismic structural cross-section; reflection time read along successive shot point are converted into corresponding depth (migrated) using the average velocities determined through one or two wells along each seismic line. 2.8 Seismic Sections Seismic sections, that is, vertical sections, represent cross sections of the subsurface. They can be made from either 2-D or 3-D shooting. They can be paper prints or displays on computer screens. It's just a graph of the signal amplitude against travel-time, conventionally displayed with the time axis pointing vertically downward. The sections are made up of traces. A trace can be the information from one shot that was received by one geophone group, as on a monitor record. Or it can be the information from a set of traces combined into one. The traces may be displayed in the form of wiggle traces, as on a monitor record. If the wiggles to the right, that is, the peaks, are filled in (in data processing), they are wiggle-VA, wiggle-variable area, just the fill-in without the wiggles forms VA, variable area, traces. Or the traces may be variable density, VD, with the peaks and troughs (wiggles to the left) represented by narrow bands of alternating dark and light with gradations in between. The word "trace" came from early earthquake seismographs a wiggly line was traced with a scriber on carbon-coated paper as the earth shook. The terminology of the wiggles comes from early seismic exploration. Before magnetic tape recording was available, seismic information from a shot was recorded on a piece of photographic paper. It looked like a monitor record. These early records were worked by laying them on a desk with the end representing the surface of the ground to the left and deeper in the ground to the right, just as monitor records are placed for inspection.
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So the wiggles of the trace were, seen in this position, wiggling up and down (Fig. 2.2). The upward wiggles, looking like a sketch of mountains, were called peaks, and the downward wiggles troughs. The names have stuck, even though sections are often viewed with the surface of the ground at the top (Fig. 2.3), and even though the trace may not be in the form of wiggles. Traces from a number of shots are combined by CDP stacking. A large number of these stacked traces are placed side by side to make a seismic section. There are usually hundreds of overlapping traces on a section. The scale of a seismic section is in two different measurements. The horizontal scale is in distance. It represents the length of the seismic line on the ground. And the vertical scale is in time. It represents the amount of time it took the sound to get down to the reflecting surface plus the time to be reflected back up. This is the reflection time, also called two-way time. A conventional paper print of a section has timing lines, horizontal lines at intervals of typically .01 second, to enable a person to read the reflection rimes. Shot point numbers are along the top or the section. They can be matched with the same numbers on a map, so data from the section can be plotted on the map. Each section has a header a label chat gives line number, the name of the area, information about the way the line was shot and processed, etc. A section displayed on a video screen does not need timing lines, as the computer can read any time automatically. It also does not need a header, as the section is called up by line number and shot point numbers. Other header information is available if needed. The reflections run across the section, but without the normal move out curvature of reflections on monitor records. The curvature is removed in data processing.

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Fig. 2.2 Terminology of wiggles

Fig. 2.3 Vertical trace

The reflections on a section more or less show the underground rock layers in cross section. With limitations, the rock layers are shaped as the reflections indicate. The limitations of the section in depicting the subsurface will be taken up in later parts of this book. To use a section, a person usually marks a reflection on it. Then the times to the reflection are read at the shot points. These times are plotted on a map, along with times from other sections, and contoured. The contours show the configuration of the rock layer, from which locations for drilling wells may be deduced.

16

Chapter 3

Steps of Interpretation Seismic Data

Chapter 3

Steps of Interpretation Seismic Data

3.1 Introduction Interpreting seismic sections, producing time, depth and isopach maps is a task which depends on the interpreter's ability to pick and follow reflecting horizons (reflectors) across an area of study. He has to be able to correlate across faults and across zones where reflectors are absent because of geological discontinuity, for example, between basins either side of a structural high or between fault blocks beneath an unconformity. Reflectors usually correspond with horizons marking the boundary between rocks of markedly different lithology. Such a boundary does not always occur exactly at a geological horizon of major chrono-stratigraphic importance, such as the base or top of a System or Series, but may be simply a seismic marker horizon which occurs close to that boundary. This problem can be resolved by correlation of seismic and borehole data, and synthetic seismograms have particular relevance to such studies. Seismic data have become the key tool used in the oil and gas industry to understand the subsurface. In addition to providing excellent structural images, the dense sampling of a 3-D survey can sometimes make it possible to map reservoir quality and the distribution of oil and gas. The aim of this chapter is to help geophysicists and geologists new to the technique to interpret data while avoiding common pitfalls. The main value of seismic reflection in exploration is gain information on the relative depths of subsurface layers, i.e. the reflection of a specific layer is recognized along seismic section through the reflected times determined at different point on the line (Fitch, 1976).

17

In analysis seismic data, the following sequence was taken into consideration: (1) The available velocity data will be used to convert the interpreted seismic section into depth of structural geo-seismic cross-section. This non-uniform vertical scale exaggeration arising from time scale presentation. (2) The available subsurface geological data are used to get information on acoustic characteristics of the subsurface formation in order to be able to determine the seismic responses of different subsurface rock units to energy injected as well as to evaluate the boundaries along which the acoustic impedance contrast will create good mapping reflectors. (3) Using the determined acoustic contrasts, the different seismic sections are then analysed in terms of identification, picking, correlation and fault pattern determination, etc. The identification of reflectors will be much easier is seismic section basses by a drill hole in which wellvelocity survey was executed using its time-depth plots. As mentioned above, the analysis of seismic records implies processes; namely, identification, picking and correlation determination of structure from conversion of reflection time into depth. 3.2 Identification of Reflections (Tracing) When drilled hole data are available through selected seismic lines, reflections are identified through tieing the seismic lines to the wells. The composite log is used to determine the depth to the tops of different formations, while the sonic log and/or well velocity data are used for define the one way times at these formation tops. Then two way times are determined and used to define the reflector formation tops on the seismic sections. 3.3 Picking and Correlation of Reflections Once the reflectors had been identified on the seismic sections, interesting horizons are picked-up across the seismic lines. correlation process is used to overcome any discontinuity of reflections across seismic gaps on the bases; (i) When reflections on both sides of this gap appear on the same level along the seismic section, the discontinuity is referred to as a bad quality interval, (ii) When the reflections are either displaced vertically or disappear, the discontinuity is probably due to faulting and pinch-out, respectively, and (iii) In case where the reflections either
18

change their characters from high to low amplitude or furcate or combine together, interpretations are in terms of changes in acoustic characters or thickening or thinning of the formations, respectively. 3.3.1 Correlations Correlation is part of pre-mapping works of reservoir to locate and trace the lateral distribution, continuity, geometry of reservoirs and its flow unit. Correlation should be carried out based all the available data, a sedimentological and stratigraphic model of the area. Some pre correlation works notes: - Wireline log will be the basic data and will be calibrated and integrated with other data analysis results such as core analysis especially. - Vertical profile analysis of well data should be carried out previously to establish the facies, sequences and sedimentary environment. - Zonation of lithology and flow unit, and also marker Identification should be geologically sound. - Define the zone top & bottom, zone thickness (gross & net) etc.

Box. 3.1

Tips For Correlation

Stratigraphic Cross Section is the best demonstration of a correlation results. The section should show reservoir lateral and vertical facies changes, markers continuity, missing & repetition sections, completion & prod. testing notes, etc. Good markers can be organic shale, coal/lignite, limestone beds, glauconite, siderite etc. which has good continuity and correspond to the geologic events such as maximum flooding, emergence etc. Start the correlation with the whole log section of individual well, make zonation based on electro facies then define all markers and zones of interest. Indicates any missing and repetition section. Then carry out a detail correlation of objective reservoirs. Prepare a good tabulation (database) of geologic data such as depth of top & bottom of reservoir, net & gross thickness, faults depth etc.

19

3.4 Continuity Once a horizon has been selected for picking, whether identified or not, there must be some means of picking the same horizon throughout the area, or at least over some part of the area. If the record quality is good, and there aren't any complicated situations along the line, a colored pencil mark can be drawn on the reflection from one end of the section to the other. A comment on the pencils. The especially erasable colored pencils allow the interpretation to be made in distinctive colors for different horizons, and changed as often as needed. The colored pencils with builtin erasers on the ends are the erasable ones. But those erasers aren't good for use on sections they're too abrasive. Soft erasers, either plastic or gum, are better. The interpretation problem comes in when the record quality is not good, or when there is faulting or some other complicating factor. There is a starting place the well location or other point at which the reflection was identified. As long as it is apparent that the same reflection is continuing without a break, it can be picked. Then if the reflection becomes poor on part of the line, making a break in continuity, a search can be made above and below it for better reflections. If there are some, the poor one probably conforms with them, so it can be drawn parallel to them. Then it may be found again farther along on the section, on a reflection that the drawn line meets or nearly meets Fig. 3.1. Also, the part of the reflection already picked can be extended with a straightedge, continuing the same dip, and reflections on the other side of the poor zone extended back toward it. A good meet of these lines extended from two directions indicates that they are probably on the same horizon. Position on the section is useful in determining which is may same reflection after a gap. Naturally, if the uppermost strong reflection is being picked on the section, then after the gap me uppermost strong reflection is a candidate for being the same one.

20

Fig. 3.1 Parallel other reflections And if the horizons are not dipping much in the vicinity, then one at the about same time or depth is likely to be the same one. Occasionally an area will be encountered in which no continuous rejections can be picked at all. This may be because record quality is poor, or because the subsurface itself contains no continuous layers, but just lenses of sand and shale, as in parts of the Gulf of Mexico. In either of these cases, a line can be drawn on the section paralleling the discontinuous bits of nearby reflections. 3.5 Unconformities and Seismic Facies Patterns Unconformities are often among the best seismic reflectors. They often are fairly easy to spot because of an angularity between families of reflections. An unconformity reflection may result from erosion or nondeposition, and angularities may occur above and/or below the unconformity. The nature of such a reflection may change laterally as different beds subcrop against the unconformity or onlap onto it, and consequently the reflection often changes character along a line, sometime even completely reversing the polarity. Unconformities subdivide a section into depositional units that are often different from adjacent units and are distinguished by distinctive seismic character (seismic facies). Certain patterns characterize depositional environments so that deltas, foreset bedding, reefs, sandbars, turbidite fans, periods of nondeposition, periods of tectonic activity, and so on, may be identified by the aggregate of subtle evidences. From seismic facies studies one may be able to suggest the environment of deposition of the rocks and hence something about the stratigraphy. Usually seismic data of excellent quality are required for facies analysis.

21

The amplitudes of reflections, especially lateral changes in amplitude, provide information for stratigraphic interpretation (Payton. 1977; Sheriff, 1980; Berg and Woolverton, 1985). Strong amplitudes result from large changes in acoustic impedance, such as may occur at basement or an unconformity, or because of a change from clastic to carbonate rocks. Strong amplitudes may also be the result of interference. focusing, and other causes Gas accumulations may appreciably lower the density and velocity in porous sediments and hence may be located through amplitude effects. 3.6 Naming Naming is simple step it's segmentation of reflection vertically to give it a name related to its bed name or numbers depending on correlation. 3.7 Fault Pattern Determination Faults of large vertical displacements are usually recognized, especially from the abrupt stepping-out or breaking of reflections across their fault planes. Suitable faults with small displacements are traced on the basis of Campbell (1965) criteria; namely, (a) Correlation of reflection gaps, (b) Projection of shallow faults with correlatable reflections to deeper levels, (c) Variations between drill hole geological and geophysical dips, (d) Misclosures around a grid unit of seismic control beyond the probable limits of accuracy, (e) Dip pattern along several lines of control, and (f) Diffractions as a mask and a clue to faulting. 3.8 Hydrocarbon Indicators Hydrocarbons in the pore space of a rock lower the velocity and the density compared to water in the pore spaces. Oil lowers the velocity and density slightly, but gas has a considerable effect. A small percentage of gas may lower the velocity more than either a larger percentage of gas or zero gas. Hydrocarbons thus change the contrast in acoustic impedance
22

with the overlying and underlying rock and hence the reflectivity. The consequent change in amplitude (and sometimes of polarity) of the reflections from the reservoir rock often is large enough to be seen. In clastic sections, the lowering of the acoustic impedance of a reservoir often produces a high amplitude reflection called a bright spot. which is the most common hydrocarbon indicator (HCI) Seismic sections are sometimes displayed with low gain so that only the bright sports stand out. When the acoustic impedance of a water-filled reservoir is appreciably larger than that of the adjacent rock, as in a limestone reservoir capped by shale, the lowering of the acoustic impedance by hydrocarbons produces a dim spot. Where a water-filled reservoir's acoustic impedance is only slightly larger than the adjacent rock, the lowering, by hydrocarbons may reverse the reflection polarity. Thus a bright spot HCI, a dim spot HCI, and a polarity reversal HCI all have the same cause. The lowering of velocity also increases the travel time of deeper reflections, producing a velocity sag, another HCI. A horizontal gas oil, gas-water, or oil-water contact may produce a distinct reflection, especially where the reservoir is thick; such a reflection is called a flat spot HCI. Overlying changes in gas column thickness may tilt a flat spot so that it is no longer horizontal. Almost all section displays employ an equalizing scheme whereby the gain on a trace is adjusted so that its average is the same as the average for adjacent traces. The increased amplitude of a bright spot which causes the gam of a trace to decrease lowers the amplitude of deeper and shallower reflections and produces an amplitude shadow. Sometimes immediately underneath a reservoir the dominant frequency is lowered. Gas leaking from a reservoir may permeate overlying formations enough to affect their velocities and transmission qualities, producing gas-chimney effects. HCI effects usually indicate gas. and most effects attributable to oil accumulation are too weak to be observable. Virtually all the HCI effects can be produced by situations other than hydrocarbons so that observation of any one HCI may not indicate a hydrocarbon accumulation. The case for an accumulation is strengthened considerably when several indicators are present. HCI may be sufficiently weak that none are detectable. In general, HCI are useful in young (Tertiary) clastic sediments and become less useful with increasing age, consolidation, cementation, or depth of burial of the rocks.

23

3.9 Mapping Mapping is part of interpretation, therefore the results of which very depend on the experts working knowledge in applied geologic models. 3.9.1 Construction of Two-Way Time map Construction of two-way time maps is usually undertaken to illustrate the increase or decrease in time and correlate this with increase or decrease of depth. Also, by means of contour lines passing through points on the same stratigraphic horizon and having the same time below the sea level, the two-way time maps can show the downthrows of faults and uplifted areas. 3.9.2 Construction of Structural Cross-Sections Cross-sections are usually constructed to show the vertical and the horizontal relationships among the different rock units. Predicting the positions of structural features at depth leads to more understanding of the subsurface conditions and substantial saving in drilling costs, and gives much higher success ratios. Constructed structural sections commonly use sea level as the plane of reference (Moody, 1961). 3.9.3 Contour Maps 3.9.3.1 Construction of Geo-Seismic Structural Contour Map A subsurface structural contour map is constructing to show the configuration of its surface and distribution of structural features within it. This is accomplished by means of contour lines passing through points on the same stratigraphic horizon and having the same depth below selected datum plane, commonly sea level. 3.9.3.2 Construction of Isopach Maps An isopach is a contour line drawn through points of equal stratigraphic thickness. These maps show thickness variations of some stratigraphic units from place to place within an area. They are useful in evaluating areas with maximum subsidence during an interval of sedimentation. Also, they help in restoring the depositional edge of stratigraphic unit when the Isopach line attain a zero value (Moody , 1961).
24

Chapter 4

Reflection Data Over Geologic Structures

Chapter 4

Reflection Data Over Geologic Structures

4.1 Introduction The reflection method has been used in exploration it has been possible to obtain useful information on many types of structural features which might be responsible for the entrapment of oil. Corrected record sections, particularly those presenting data obtained with modern field and processing techniques, often make the presence of such structures obvious to the eye. The most common structural targets associated with oil entrapment are anticlines and faults appear in Fig. 4.1. Anticlines are generally easy to see on record sections, and faults of more than marginal displacement should be discernible, although some types are more readily recognizable than others. Structural deformations caused by salt domes and other intrusive can usually be mapped as well. In the paragraphs to follow we shall consider the interpretation of many such structural features and present examples illustrating their appearance on seismic sections. Migrated record sections often improve the definition of complicated structures from areas where there has been major tectonic disturbance. They are particularly helpful in resolving complex fault patterns.

25

Fig. 4.1 Most type of reservoirs and traps

4.2 Anticlines Anticlines can easily be mapped by reflection if the data are of good quality and if the closure is greater than spurious irregularities in apparent structure such as are caused by lateral velocity changes. Oil-bearing anticlinal structures may be associated with tectonic forces as well as with deformations due to the upward push of rising salt domes or other diapiric features underneath. Fig. 4.2 (a) illustrates an unusual kind of anticline as displayed on a migrated record section. The corresponding unmigrated section, shown in Fig. 4.2 (b), does not show a very meaningful picture.

26

Fig. 4.2 Anticline from San Joaquin Valley, Calif. (a) section as automatically migrated by computer; (b) immigrated section. The migration has collapsed the many diffraction patterns that concealed the actual structure. (Geocom,Inc.) 4.3 Faults The detection of faulting on seismic sections can be quite easy under favorable circumstances. Often, however, the indications are subtle, and the identifications and delineation of such features can be quite challenging. Because of the role faults often play in the entrapment of hydrocarbons, the techniques for finding and map them have considerable practical importance. The principal indications of faulting on reflection sections are the following: 1- Discontinuities in reflections falling along an essentially linear pattern. 2- Miss closures in tying reflections around loops. 3- Divergences in dip not related to stratigraphy. 4- Diffraction patterns, particularly those with vertices which line up in a manner consistent with local faulting. 5- Distortion or disappearance of reflections below suspected fault lines.

27

Where discontinuities are well defined, the position of the fault trace may be highly evident on the record sections even to someone entirely inexperienced in seismic interpretation.

Fig. 4.3 Pattern of faulting An important aid to identifying and tracing fault surfaces is the family of diffraction patterns that originate from the edges of beds disrupted by faulting. Such an edge can often act as a point source for returning seismic energy by diffraction of the type. The resulting pattern will have an arcuate shape like the trace of a surface of maximum convexity. The vertex of the diffraction pattern shows the position of the diffracting edge on the section. A number of such patterns originating from different points along a fault should make it possible to locate the fault edge even in the absence of reflections yielding such information. Diffraction patterns need not be complete to be useful in this way. Sometimes fragmental portions of a pattern can be fitted to an appropriate curve of maximum convexity based on the known velocity for the area concerned and the curve can be used to project the position of the vertex even when it is not actually observable on the section. Unless diffraction patterns are recognized as such, they might be interpreted by the unwary as reflections. A diffraction observed on both sides of its source can look deceptively like a reflection from a symmetrical anticline. The best way to determine whether a suspected feature on a section is a diffraction pattern or a true structure is to calculate the time-versus-horizontal-distance relationship for a diffraction that
28

would originate from the vertex of the feature using the best velocity information available. Then one compares the predicted and observed patterns, preferably by the use of a transparent overlay. The closer the fit the greater the likelihood that the feature is a diffraction. It is often possible to recognize faulting from divergences of reflections below the fault plane or from disturbances in the quality or character of reflections originating beneath the suspected fault that appear to pass through it. 4.4 Diapirism and Salt Domes Some sedimentary materials, primarily salt and clay have the property that, under certain conditions, bodies of such rocks will deform by plastic flow, and migration can take place both vertically and horizontally. Diapirs are said to have formed when this process leads to intrusion of the migrating plastic sediment body upwards through overlying strata to a level of equilibrium higher in the rock succession, or in some cases to extrusion at the earth's surface. Rock flow structures are most easily recognised on seismic sections where horizons can be mapped at levels below the rock units which have been deformed by migration. The structure of underlying formations will be seen to be relatively undisturbed and largely independent of the structure in rock units overlying the deformed clay or salt. In the case of salt tectonics, strata overlying the salt may be deformed into anticlines, synclines, domes, faults and overthrusts, whereas beneath the salt layer the beds can be undisturbed and flat-lying. Clay diapirs are less common, and clay migration usually takes the form of How into anticlines as a result of folding associated with compressive tectonic forces.

29

Fig. 4.4 Example of Salt Dome. Compressive tectonic forces are not an essential requirement to the mechanism of salt migration. According to Trusheim (1960) many salt structures in northern Germany can be attributed to the autonomous movement of salt under the influence of gravity. These structures develop as a result of the comparatively low density of salt and its ability to flow as a result of overburden pressure alone. Such structures are termed halokinetic structures, whereas those which arise as a result of compressive tectonic forces are termed halo-tectonic. Halo-kinetic structure can only develop where salt layers have been buried to such a depth that loading causes the salt to deform as a plastic (as opposed to elastic) solid, and experience in northern Germany indicates that an over-burden of approximately 170m thickness is necessary. According to this reconstruction, salt movement has not only caused deformation of the overlying strata but has also strongly influenced the deposition of sediments during periods of structural growth. Both faulting and folding are associated with the deformation. Salt structures occur in a wide variety of forms: stocks, domes, plugs, pillows and walls. Each structure may require detailed seismic mapping before its shape can be properly defined and in some circumstances specialised survey techniques are required to acquire good reflection data
30

from below salt structures. Salt Structures are important in oil exploration in that a wide variety of trap structures can develop in a region as a result of deformation by salt tectonics. 4.5 Basement Structure Until common-depth-point recording and digital processing became available, it was seldom possible to identify the surface of the basement from reflection records because of multiple reflections and other noise dominating the deep portions of the records. While it is still not always feasible to recognize the basement on record sections, particularly when it is very deep, the removal of noise and multiples may make its surface readily observable. Irregularities on the top of the basement often generate diffraction patterns which give a series of closely spaced arcs on the section having an envelope that can define the convolutions of the basement quite closely.

Fig. 4.5 Basement effect in a deep-sea area Fig. 4.5 illustrated this effect in a deep-sea area. The absence of reflection events below this envelope makes the identification all the more likely, even though there has been no drilling along the line to verify it.

31

4.6 Pitfalls in Structural Interpretation The conventional representation of a single channel of seismic reflection information is a plot of signal amplitude versus time on a trace corresponding in its position on the section to that of the receiving geophone group represented by the channel. The record section shows an assemblage of such traces side by side. Such a presentation should not be looked upon as a geological cross section because it can distort the actual geometry of the subsurface in two ways: (1) Any variations in velocity, either vertical or lateral, will cause the time section to have a configuration different from the actual geological section plotted in depth. (2) Geometric bending of the ray paths away from the vertical will have the same effect as pointed out in our discussion of migration in the preceding section. Migrated sections and sections plotted in depth rather than time are designed to minimize such distortion on conventional record sections. But a large majority of the sections actually used in exploration are of the conventional type,

Fig. 4.6 Identification of basement surface from diffraction patterns on section along traverse In deep water. (United Geophysical Corp, proprietary data.)

32

And it is important that all geophysicists recognize the errors that these distortions can lead to in seismic interpretation. Moreover, many migrated sections display incorrect structural indications because of uncertainties or complexities in the velocity distribution. Another common pitfall in structural interpretation can result from erroneously chosen processing parameters, e.g., an incorrect stacking velocity. 4.6.1 Velocity pitfalls Let us take look at Fig. 4.7, which illustrates spurious structures attributable to velocity anomalies in overlying salt bodies. A strong reflection is observed under the large salt dome that is about 150 ms higher at its shallowest point than the correlative events on either side of the dome. Yet there is no real structural uplift below the salt. The fact that the velocity in the salt column is higher than that in the surrounding material can account completely for the apparent structure of the subsalt formation. The observed drop off in the same reflection near the right-hand edge of the section is explainable by a salt pillow just above it, which happens to have a lower velocity than the surrounding formation, an effect often observed when salt is unusually deep. Another example from Tucker and Yorston8 is related to overthrusting. Fig. 4.8 shows a section that would lead one to the conclusion that there is an anticlinal feature between 1.0 and 2.0 s. But the authors' interpretation is quite different, as one sees from the marked section in the lower portion of the figure. A low-angle overthrust fault has a high-velocity allochthonoustongue (presumably limestone) on the left side of the section. This tongue causes the flat autochthonous beds below to appear arched upward because of velocity pull-up. Such effects are frequently observed in the Canadian foothills, as in the area around Turner Valley where the Mississippian Rundle limestone is thrust at a low angle over lower-velocity Cretaceous formations.

33

Fig. 4.7 Distortion of sedimentary layers due to forces associated with salt-dome
buoyancy. Some of the structures shown, e.g., those below the piercement-type salt dome and salt pillows (like the deep one on the right) are not real but result from velocity effects. (Exxon, Inc.)

Fault shadow

Fig. 4.8 "Anticline" cased by thrusting of high-velocity

material over monoclinal layers. Markings on lower section indicate interpreted structure. (From Tucker and Yorston.8)

34

4.6.2 Geometrical pitfalls A common type of geometrical pitfall is illustrated by Fig. 4.9. This is what is observed when a section crosses a syncline with such a sharp curvature that the reflection ray paths cross one another on their way to and from the surface. Fig. 4.9 shows the ray-path geometry resulting in the "bow tie" that is observed on the section at depths below 2.0 s. The two reflections dipping steeply in opposite directions are reflections from respective sides of the synclinal structure that cross one another on their way to the surface, and the arcuate feature below is a diffraction from a point at the bottom of the syncline, the shortest time being observed over the syncline's deepest point. Properly designed automatic migration would collapse the diffraction arc to a point and would shift the flanks to their true positions, but even in the absence of such migration the bow-tie pattern should enable the knowledgeable geophysicist or geologist to recognize the true nature of the source.

Fig. 4.9 Bow-tie effect observed over sharp syncline in the Adriatic Sea. Apparent anticline is actually a diffraction feature. (Geocom, Inc.)

35

Chapter 5

Case Study

Chapter 5

Case Study Evaluation of Matruh Basin

The purpose of the current study is to evaluate hydrocarbon potentials of the Albian Kharita and Cenomanian Bahariya formations in the Matruh Basin. North Western Desert of Egypt. The data on which the current study based on is nine composite logs and 3D seismic volume.

Fig. 5.1 Location map of the study area, The square to the south east refers
to the location of the 3D seismic data while the area in darker represent the actual 3D seismic covered area. Black-filled circles represent the locations of the nine composite logs and marks represent the two digital wells that were loaded in the 3D seismic volume.

*The square area between latitudes 30o48`, 31o24` north and between longitudes 26o48`, 27o42` east
36

5.1 Geological Background

Fig. 5.2 Basment tectonic map of the north Western Desert of Egypt (Modified after Sultan and Halim, 1988).

Fig. 5.3 The subbasins constituting the northren Western Desert Basin (Modified after Sultan and Halim, 1988).
37

Table. 5.1 Stratigraphic column of matruh basin, Egypt (Modified after Medoil, 1983).

5.2 Basin Analysis Following figures and maps for Bahariya and Kharita formations were extracted in an attempt to identify the possible reservoir intervals. subsurface data used to interpretaion of seismic data including well logs.
38

Table 5.2. Lithologic constituents of Bahariya and Kharita formations. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt.
Fromatin Name LITHOLOGY Well Name Darduma 1A Siqeifa-1X

Kharita %SS %LS %Anh %Shale %Siltst %Dol %Clay Bahariya Kharita Bahariya Kharita Bahariy Kharita Bahariya Kharita Bahariya Kharita Bahariya Kharita Bahariya Kharita Bahariya Kharita Bahariya Kharita Bahariya 72.3 41.8 60.2 33.4 69.5 47.3 69.4 46.7 71.8 28.9 68 53.7 72.7 27.7 69.7 24 78.3 36.2 11.4 24.2 4.2 28.3 3.2 20.5 1.4 18.2 2.4 31.6 1.1 13.2 22.8 3.9 16.2 0.8 16.2 0.4 0.7 1.1 0.1 10.9 27.4 31.6 34.6 21.7 25 23 24 18.5 38.7 22.1 33.1 21.4 42.2 23.2 50.9 18 47.6 0.5 3.3 8.2 4.5 2.1 4 3.7 4.5 7.2 5.1 11 7.3 0.6 5.9 7.3 3.2 8.9 2.9 0.8 -

Mideiwar 1X

Abu Tunis 1X

Marsa.Matruh MMX-1 Matruh 1-1 Matruh 1-1

Matruh 2-1

Matruh 3-1

Ras Kanayes Ja27-1

SS: Sandstone LS: Limestone Anh: Anhydrite SiltSt: Siltstone Dol: Dolomite

39

Fig. 5.4 Isopach map of Bahariya Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt (C. I.=50 ft)

Fig. 5.5 Isopach map of Kharita Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt (C. I.=200 ft)

40

Fig. 5.6 Structure contour map of Bahariya Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt. Arrows refer to possible hydrocarbon migration pathway (C. I.=200 ft)

Fig. 5.7 Structure contour map of Kharita Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt. Arrows refer to possible hydrocarbon migration pathway (C. I.=200 ft)

41

Fig. 5.8 Sand to shale ratio map of Bahariya Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt.

Fig. 5.9 Sand to shale ratio map of Kharita Formation. Matruh Basin, North Western Desert, Egypt.

42

5.3 Seismic Data

Fig. 5.10 Location the seismic lines that are shown in (Figures 5.11 to 5.13). The dark area is the real 3D seismic survey. The location of seismic survey is shown in Fig. 5.1

43

Fig. 5.11 Line "q" in the original 3D seismic volume (before applying any intrpretation steps).
44

Fig. 5.12 Line "f" in the original 3D seismic volume (before applying any intrpretation steps).

45

Fig. 5.13 Line "k" in the original 3D seismic volume (before applying any intrpretation steps).

46

5.4 Structural Interpretation Harding (1985): stated that "early identification of structural style is an important exploration function and the appropriate selection of prospect (trap) models often depend on the reliability of such identification." 5.4.1 Fault Pattern Interpretation The present study area is highly faulted. The faults affecting the time zone of interest (~ 800 to 1500 ms) need to be interpreted to reveal the geologic history of the area, allow horizons pick up as well as to help in predicting what sort of hydrocarbon traps may be present in the area. The fault interpretation was carried out through the interpretation of the vertical depth .

47

Fig. 5.14 Interpreted line number "f" (see fig. 5.12)

48

Fig. 5.15 Interpreted line number"k", empty area are no seismic data zones (see fig. 5.10 for location)

49

Fig. 5.16 Interpreted part of line number "q" (see fig. 5.10 for location) 5.5 Summary And Conclusions The purpose of the current study is to evaluate hydrocarbon potentials of the Albian Kharita and Cenomanian Bahariya formations in the Matruh Basin. North Western Desert of Egypt. The data on which the current study based on is nine composite logs and 3D seismic volume. To achieve that purpose, the following techniques were applied to the nine composite logs: 1. Burial history profiles and subsidence curves showed a rapid subsidence that started at Late Jurassic and continued through Cretaceous. The slope of the subsidence curve decreased by the Turonian indicating the start of thermal subsidence. 2. Maturity calculations at the nine wells showed that the Albian Kharita and Cenomanian Bahariya formations reached enough maturity to generate oil. 3. Structure contour maps of the Bahariya and Kharita formations showed the dip of their upper surfaces to the southeast direction.
50

4. Sand to shale ratio maps of the two formations showed that Kharita is a sandy formation while Bahariya is sandy to the east and shaley to the west of the area. 5. The thicknesses of Bahariya and Kharita increase to the northwest of the area as was deduced from the isopach maps of the twoformations. Following the previous processing steps, the seismic data was subjected to the following interpretation techniques: 1. Fault tracking in the time zone of interest through vertical seismic transects as well as time slices through the amplitude. That resulted in tracking 150 normal fault striking NW-SE. 2. Trend analysis to the tracked faults in different time at different depths that represent different ages. The results of trend, analysis showed that NW is a prevailing trend in Cretaceous. Jurassic, and Paleozoic formations with a strong appearance of E-W trending faults in the Jurassic formations. 3. Bahariya and Kharita formations were then tracked through the seismic data volume. In addition Abu-Roash D-member and Alamein dolomite Formation were also tracked in order to help in structural interpretation. 4. Time structure maps for the four horizons were constructed; they showed the general dip of these horizons to the south east direction. Besides, time structure maps showed two anticlines extending in the area and trending NE-SW in a direction almost be perpendicular to the faults direction. They are seemed to be formed at the same time of the faults. 5. Amplitude values were extracted on the Bahariya and Kharita horizons. Three higher amplitude spots were noted on each of the two maps. These differences in amplitude values may be due to changes in porosity as a result of changes in sand/shale ratios. The wrench between Europe and Africa at Late Cretaceous times was proposed to be the cause of the structures affecting the studied formations. Small hydrocarbon reservoirs can exist in the studied formations as all the circumstances allow them to form. The anticline areas are highly recommended for drilling especially the bigger western one.

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Bibliography
Bacon, M., Simm, R., & Redshaw, T. (2003). Geological interpretation. 3-D seismic interpretation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Chapman, C. H. (2004). Fundamentals Of Seismic Wave Propagation. Schlumberger Cambridge Research: Cambridge University Press. Coffeen, J. A. (1986). Seismic Exploration Fundamentals. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA: PennWell Publishing Company. Dobrin, M. B. (1960). Introduction to geophysical prospecting (3th ed.). Singapore: McGraw- Hill Book Company. Gamea, A.S. What do you know about seismic survey? (2009, February). Petroleum Journal: Petroleum Ministry, Egypt. Goulty, N. R. (1997). Lateral resolution of 2D seismic illustrated by a real data example. First Break, 15, 77-80 McQuillin, R., Bacon, M., & Barcly, W. (1979). An Introduction to seismic Interpretation. Graham & Trotman press Othman, W.M. (2007). Evaluate Oil potentiality for Matruh Basin. Applied Geophysics. Ph.D, Faculty of Science: Suez Canal University, Egypt. Talagapu, K. K. (2004). 2D and 3D Land Seismic Data Acquisition and Seismic Data Processing. Andhra Pradesh, India: Geophysics Andhra University. Taner, M . T., Koehler, F & Sheriff R. E. (1979). Complex seismic trace analysis Geophysics, 44, 1041-63. Telford, W. M., Sheriff, R. E. (1980).Reflection Interpretation. Applied Geophysics. pp 260-264
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