CHAPTER 9

MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY

INTRODUCTION All the objects that exist around us are made up of chemical substances. These objects exist an element, compound or mixture. All these objects contribute benefit to humankind. As time goes on, human has done many researches to ensure all these chemical substances will be enough for the use of themselves.

Chapter 9 of Form 4 syllabus introduces the students with manufactured substances in industry. This is important for the students to appreciate the knowledge of chemistry that is still new for themselves. Personally, I think that this chapter is an interesting chapter as it revealed the way of scientist produces the material around me. It also gives me new knowledges of the uses of chemical substances that I usually found in the laboratories.

I hope, by learning this chapter, I will be more interested in learning chemistry as it will help me in the future. All the equations from this chapter make me more understand of the previous chapters.

OBJECTIVES 1. Understand the manufacture of sulphuric acid. 2. Synthesis the manufacture of ammonia and its salts. 3. Understand alloys. 4. Evaluate the uses of synthetic polymers. 5. Apply the uses of glass and ceramics. 6. Evaluate the uses of composite materials. 7. Appreciate various synthetic industrial materials.

DISCUSSION MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY A. MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

To manufacture fertilisers -There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them are: a) Calcium hydrogen phosphate (superphosphate) b) Ammonium sulphate c) Potassium sulphate

Other chemicals - Sulphuric acid is used as other chemicals like pharmaceuticals,insectide s, tartaric acid and explosive.

To manufacture paint pigment - The white pigment in paint is usually barium sulphate, BaSO4. The neutralization of sulphuric acid and barium hydroxide produces barium sulphate.

THE USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

To manufacture synthetic fibres - Synthetic fibres are polymers ( long chain molecules). Rayon is an example of a synthetic fibre that is produced by the reaction of sulphuric acid eith cellulose threads soaked in alkaline solution. To manufacture detergents - Sulphuric acid reacts with byproducts of oil refining to form sulphonic acid. Neutralising the sulphonic acid with an alkali produces detergents. To clean metals -Before electroplating, sulphuric acid is used for cleaning metals to remove the surface oxides.

Contact Process Contact process produces more than 90% of the world sulphuric acid. Raw materials used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid :(i) sulphur (ii) air (iii) water. This process consists of three stages.

Stage 1 In the furnace, molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide, So2. The gas produced is purified and cooled. S(l) + O2(g) SO2(g) Stage 2 In the converter, sulphur dioxide, SO2 and excess oxygen gas, O2 are passed over a few plates of vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5 catalyst at 450oC to produce sulphur trioxide, SO3. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) reversible reaction. Stage 3 In the absorber, the sulphur trioxide, SO3 is first reacted with concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 to form a product called oleum, H2S2O7 SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l) The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 in large quantities. H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l) The two reactions in the third stage are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide, SO3 directly to water. SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(l) However, this reaction is not carried out in industry. This is because the reaction is too vigorous. It produce a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist. This mist is corrosive and pollutes the air. 2SO3(g) About 99.5% of the sulphur dioxide, SO2 is converted into sulphur trioxide, SO3 through this

Sulphur dioxide and environmental pollution

1. Sulphur dioxide is the main by product produced when sulfur-containing fuels such as coal or oil are burned.

2. Sulphuric acid is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulphur dioxide in the presence of water. It also produces sulphurous acid.

3. Sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid are constituents of acid rain.

4. Sulphur dioxide is released through:(a) Burning of sulphur during Contact process (b) Extraction of some metals from their sulphides ores (c) Burning of coals or fuels with high sulphur content

5. Acid rain occurs when there is sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid in the rain. These strong acids will cause the pH of rain to fall between 2.4 and 5.0

6. Acid rain can cause many effects such as: i. Corrodes concrete buildings and metal structure ii. Destroys trees and plants iii. Decrease the pH of the soil and make it become acidic iv. Acid rain flows into the rivers and increases the acidity of water and kill aquatic living things.

7. Hence, we must reduce the sulphur dioxide from the atmosphere by: i. Use low sulphur fuels to reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide in exhaust gases ii. Remove sulphur dioxide from waste air by treating it with calcium carbonated before it is released

8. Sulphur dioxide accounts for most of the acid rain problems. (a) When sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater,sulphurous acid is formed SO2(g) + H2O (l) H2SO3(aq) (b) Sulphur dioxide can react with oxygen and water to form sulphuric acid 2SO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

B. MANUFACTURE OD AMMONIA AND ITS SALTS

Manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers such as (NH4)2SO4, NH4NO3, (NH4)3PO4 and urea As an alkali to prevent the coagulation of latex USES OF AMMONIA To produce ammonium chloride as an electrolyte in dry cells Manufacture of nitric acid As a cooling agent in refrigerators in the liquid form

Manufacture of explosives

The Properties of Ammonia 1. A colorless, pungent gas. 2. Its molecular formula is NH3 3. It is extremely soluble in water. 4. It is a weak alkali. 5. It is about one half as dense as air 6. It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to produce white fumes of ammonium chloride. NH3 + HCl NH4Cl 7. Ammonia is alkaline in property and reacts with dilute acids in neutralization to produce salts. For examples: NH3 + HNO 3 NH4NO 3 2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4) 2SO4 8. Aqueous solutions of ammonia produces OH ions (except Na+ ion, K+ ion, and Ca 2+ ion) forming metal hydroxides precipitate. Fe3+ + 3OH Fe(OH) 3
Brown precipitate

Mg2+ + 2OH Mg(OH) 2

White precipitate

9. Some metal hydroxides such as zinc hydroxide and copper (II) hydroxide dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to form complexes. Zn(OH)2 + 4NH3 [Zn(NH3)4] 2+ + 2OH Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3 [Cu(NH3)4] 2+ + 2OH

The industrial process in manufacture of ammonia 1. Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber process. 2. Raw materials for the Haber process are (i)hydrogen (ii)nitrogen 3. Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air. 4. Hydrogen gas is obtained by: (i)Reaction between methane from natural gas and steam CH4(g) + 2H2O(l) 4H2(g) + CO2(g) (ii)The reaction between heated coke and steam C(s) + H2O(l) H2(g) + CO(g)

5. Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed according to the ratio 1 mole N2 : 3 moles H2. 6. The mixture is compressed to 200 atm and heated to a temperature of about 450C 7. The mixture is then passed through layers of heated iron catalyst in a reactor.Ammonia is produced. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

8. The reaction is reversible and the production of ammonia gives out heat.The high pressure and iron catalyst speed up the rate of reaction. 9. The ammonia gas produced is liquefied ans separated to get a better yield. 10. The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and passed back into the reactor together with the new source of nitrogen and hydrogen.About 98% of nitrogen and hydrogen are converted into ammonia.

Preparation of Ammonium Fertiliser Aim: To prepare ammonium sulphate. Material: a) 1 mol dm-2 sulphuric acid, b) 2 mol dm-3 ammonia solution, c) methyl orange d) filter paper Apparatus: 25.0 cm pipette, burette, conical flask, white tile, retort stand and clamp, beaker, glass rod, evaporating dish, filter funnel, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze. Procedure:a) Determining the volume of sulphuric acid that will neutralize 25.0 cm of ammonia solution:1. 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm-3 ammonia solution is transferred by a pipette to a clean conical flask. 2. Three drops of methyl orange indicator are added to the alkali. The solution turns yellow. 3. A clean burette is filled with 1 mol dm-2 sulphuric acid and clamped to a retort stand. The initial burette reading is recorded. 4. The conical flask with its content is placed on a white tile below the burette. 5. The sulphuric acid is added slowly into the conical flask. The conical flask is swirled gently throughout the titration. 6. The addition of sulphuric acid is stopped when the indicator changes from yellow to orange. The final burette reading is recorded. 7. The volume of acid needed to completely neutralize the 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm-3 ammonia solution is calculated. Let this volume V cm.

b) Preparation ammonium sulphate salt:1. 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm-3 ammonia solution is pipetted into a clean conical flask. No indicator is added. 2. V cm of 1 mol sulphuric acid is added from the burette to the ammonia solution. 3. The mixture in the conical flask is transferred to an evaporating dish and heated until a saturated solution is formed. 4. The hot, saturated salt solution is left to cool for crystallization to occur. 5. The crystal of ammonium sulphate formed are filtered, ashed and dried between sheets of filter paper.

Observation:1) A colourless solution is formed when sulphuric acid is added to ammonia solution. 2) The crystal obtained are white in colour Discussion:1) The equation for the reaction is: H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH4OH (aq) (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O 2) Methyl orange is an acid-base indicator used to determine the end point of the titration. 3) The first titration is carried out to determine the exact volume of sulphuric acid required to completely neutralize the 25.0 cm of ammonia solution. 4) The salt solution in the first titration is discarded because it is contaminated by methyl orange. 5) The ammonium sulphate solution should not be heated until dryness because ammonium sulphate decomposes when it is overheated. 6) The weight of ammonium sulphate obtained from the activity is always less than the theorical value. This is because some of the salt is not fully crystallized out and still remains in the solution. 7) Other ammonium salt such as ammonium nitrate can be prepared from the reaction between nitric acid and ammonium solution. Conclusion:Ammonium sulphate and other ammonium fertilizers can be prepared by neutralizing ammonia solution with the respective acids.

ALLOYS Meaning Of Alloys 1. Alloys are materials that contain more than one element. 2. Usually alloys are mixtures of metallic elements two or more metals. 3. Pure aluminium is light but not strong enough to make aeroplane bodies. If a small amount of manganese and magnesium are added then an alloy duralumin is formed. This alloy is hard and strong for aeroplane frames. 4. Thus, an alloy is a mixture of metals made for a certain purpose. Aim Of Producing Alloys The aim of making alloys is generally to make them less brittle, harder, resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable color and luster. Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as jet engines, may contain more than ten elements. Aims of alloying: To increase the hardness and strength The addition of a little carbon to iron metal produces steel which is very hard alloy of iron. The addition of magnesium to aluminium metal produces an alloy called magnalium. Magnalium is harder than aluminium but still retains the low density of aluminium metal. The addition of tin to copper metal produces bronze. Bronze is an alloy harder than both tin and copper. To prevent corrosion The addition of carbon, nickel and chromium to iron metal produce stainless steel. Stainless steel an alloy which can resist rusting. The chromium(III) oxide and nickel(IV) oxide which prevents the iron from rusting. The addition of tin to copper produces bronze which is able to resist corrosion and tarnish. To improve the appearance Stainless steel is more shiny than pure iron. Adding a little copper and antimony to tin produces the alloy pewter which is harder and shinier, and not so easily tarnished. Alloy wheels made from aluminium and other elements improve the look of vehicles.

Examples Of Alloys a. Carbon steel Frameworks of buildings and bridges. In the making of tools, framework of heavy machinery and body of vehicles. b. Stainless steel In the making of cutlery and kitchenware In the making of machine parts and surgical instruments. c. Bronze In the making of kitchenware and ships propellers. In the making of decorative ornaments, statues and art crafts.

d. Brass In the making of electrical connectors and musical instruments. In the making of kitchenware and decorative ornaments. e. Magnalium In the making of aircraft body frames. In the making of rims of racing car tyres. f. Duralumin In the making of the bodies of aircrafts and bullet trains. In the making of racing bicycles, fan blades, light electrical cable. g. Pewter In the making of mugs, candlesticks, decorative ornaments and souvenirs. h. Solder In the making of solder for electrical wires and metal pipes. i. Cupro-nickel To make coins of 10 , 20 , 50 cent.

Arrangement Of Atoms in Metals 1. In pure metals, the atoms are all of the same size. 2. They are arranged in layers as shown.

3. When the pure metals are hit with a hammer, the layers of atoms can slide over each other easily. 4. Thus pure metal can easily change its shape. They are said to be a) Ductile as they can be drawn into long wires. b) Malleable as they can be hammered to form any shape.

Arrangement of Atom in Alloys

1. Alloys have more than one kind of atoms. These different atoms are of different sizes. They are mixed when they are in the molten state (liquid). 2. The layers of atom in an alloy cannot slide over each other easily. 3. The movements of atoms get jammed up. This makes them difficult to move. 4. This makes the alloy not ductile and not malleable. 5. However, alloys are harder and stronger than the original constituent metals. 6. There are different ways of arranging the different atoms in alloy. a) Solution alloys are homogeneous alloys in which the different atoms are distributed uniformly throughout. b) In heterogeneous alloys, the different atom are not distributed uniformly. 7. Homogeneous alloys have definite properties and composition.

Composition, properties and uses of alloys

GLASS AND CERAMICS The main component of both glass and ceramic is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2. Both glass and ceramic have the same properties as follow: a) Hard and brittle b) Inert to chemical reactions c) Insulators or poor conductors of heat and electricity d) Withstand compression but not stretching e) Can be easily cleaned f) Low cost of production Differences between glass and cerement are, glass is transparent, while ceramic is opaque. Ceramic can withstand a higher temperature than normal glass.

1. 2. 3.

Glass Glass is made up from sand. The major component of glass is SiO2. Uses of improved glass for specific purpose a) Photochromic glass - It is sensitive to light intensity b) Conducting glass - It conducts electricity

 Ceramics 1. Ceramic is a manufactured substance made from clay such as kaolin. It contains silicates such as aluminium silicates. 2. Ceramics are hardened by heating them at high temperature. Once it been hardened it is resistant to extreme temperature. 3. General uses ceramics are as follows of : very hard and strong but brittle inert to chemical reaction has a very high melting point good electric and heat insulator 4. Examples of ceramics are bricks,tile,mugs and clay pots.

COMPOSITE MATERIAL Meaning Of Composite Materials 1. A composite material is a structural material formed by combining two or more materials with different physical properties, producing a complex mixture. 2. The composite material produced will have different properties are more better than the original materials. 3. The composite material produced are harder, stronger, lighter, more resistant to heat and corrosion and also for specific purposes. 4. When composite material is formed, the weakness of the components will not exist anymore. 5. Some common composite materials are: a) Reinforced concrete b) Superconductor c) Optic fibre d) Fibre glass e) Photochromic glass

The Needs For New Materials 1. Most materials used today have their own weakness. 2. For example: a) Iron is good to use in the construction industry. However, iron rusts easily. b) Metal such as copper and aluminum are conductors of electricity. However they are also lose electric energy at the same time. c) Glass and ceramics are hard and are resistant to oxidation but they are brittle and can be easily broken. d) Common plastics are long lasting. However, most of them melt or soften if heated. 3. New materials are needed today to supply the high demand for the new industries. New technology needs materials which are: a) Harder b) Tougher c) Last longer d) Easier and more convenient e) Able to withstand high temperatures and high pressure 4. With knowledge of science on materials, chemists are able to produce new composite materials for general and specific needs of technological development. Justify The Uses Of Composite Materials 1. Engines a) With the shortage and high cost of fuel, car and jet engines have to operate with maximum fuel efficiency. This type of engine needs to perform efficiently at very high temperatures. b) Thus ceramics, might be a better material for these engines because ceramis can withstand very high temperatures. c) However, ceramics are brittle. They tend to break rather than bend. This limits their usefulness. d) This problem can be overcome adding small amounts of organics polymers into ceramics. This will make the ceramics more flexible and less brittle. e) Thus with these materials we can build lighter, more durable and efficient engines. 2. The new organoceramics can also be used to produce : a) Superconducting wires b) Microelectronic devices 3. In future, these organoceramics can be developed to build prosthetics devices such as artificial bones.

General Idea Produce Advance Material To Fulfill Specific Needs As societies develop, new needs are created. A higher standard of living is demanded. New materials have to be developed by chemists to fulfill this needed. Example 1 Organ transplants are increasing difficult to perform. This is mainly due to a lack of organ donors. Chemists help this problem by developing organs made from plastic composite materials. Example 2 Cars made from iron and steel are very heavy. They need more fuel to function. Scientists may develop new composite materials to build cars engines and car bodies that are lighter and stronger. Example 3 At present, many building are built 0f concrete and steel. These materials are heavy and require strong foundation. Better composite material may be found in future so that building are lighter. These materials should be lighter, stronger and easier to work with. Example 4 Special materials may be developed for electrical industries. Presently cables are made of metals such as copper and aluminium. They are heavy and costly. New conducting glass and plastics materials may be developed as conductors. These materials are lighter and cheaper to use and maintain.

CONCLUSION We must appreciate these various synthetic industrial materials. One of the way is by doing continuous research and development ( R & D ) to produce better materials used to improve our standard of living. As we live in a changing world, our society is gettingmore complex. New materials are required to overcome new challenges and problems we face in our daily lives. Synthetic material are developed constantly due to the limitation and shortage of natural materials. New technological developments are used by scientists to make new discoveries. New materials for clothing, shelter, tools and communication to improve our daily life are developed continuously for the well-being of mankind. New needs and new problem will stimulate the development of new synthetic materials. For example, the new use of plastic composite material will replace metal in the making of a stronger and lighter car body. This will save fuel and improve speed. Plastic composite materials may one day used to make organs for organ transplant in human bodies. This will become necessity with the shortage of human organ donors. The understanding of the interaction between different chemicals is important for both the development of new synthetic materials and the disposal of such synthetic materials as waste. A responsible and systemic method of handling the waste of synthetic materials and their byproduct is important to prevent environmental pollution. The recycling and development of environmental friendly synthetic material should be enforced.

REFERENCES 1. Low Swee Neo, Lim Yean Ching, Eng Nguan Hong, Lim Eng Wah, and Umi Khalthom bt Ahmad Chemistry Text Book Form 4, Abadi Ilmu Sdn. Bhd 2. Toh Kim Kau Nexus Chemistry SPM, SASBADI Sdn. Bhd. 3. Pn Letchumy A/P Muthu Chemistry Teacher. 4. Internet: http://www.google.com.my http://www.scrib.com