Inspection of Welded and Bolted Joints

Author
Robert E. Shaw, Jr., PE is president of the Steel Structures Technology Center, Inc., Novi, Michigan. A graduate civil engineer from Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology, he began his career in the steel construction industry in 1973. The SSTC focuses on the development and presentation of technical training seminars related to the design, fabrication, erection and inspection of steel-framed structures, and also provides consulting services in these areas. Mr. Shaw is the principal instructor for the Federal Highway Administration's two-day seminar on High-Strength Bolts for Bridges. He also conducts two-day training courses on the inspection of steelframed structures for the International Conference of Building Officials. Mr. Shaw is a consultant to the Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, serving as editor to update the classic textbook on welding design entitled, Design of Welded Structures, by Omer Blodgett. Mr. Shaw also serves as editor for the SSTC's bi-monthly newsletter Steel Inspection News, which focuses on the quality and inspection of steel-framed buildings and bridges.

Before funding the SSTC in 1990, Mr. Shaw was employed by the American Institute of Steel Construction as associate director of education from 1986 to 1990 and was a regional engineer from 1981 to 1986. Before joining AISC he was a sales engineer for the Mississippi Valley Structural Steel Division of Bristol Steel and Iron Works, Inc. His duties included sales and project management for steel fabrication and erection contracts in the upper Midwest.

Summary
Engineers and fabricators should be aware of the inspection requirements for each of the four bolt installation methods approved by the Research Council on Structural Connection (RCSC). These requirements will discussed along with the meaning of the RCSC and AISC inspection rules. This discussion will include sampling and frequency and the proper use of a bolt tension calibrator. The American Welding Society's inspection requirements for various types of welds and their applications will also be discussed. The rules will be explained along with practical suggestions on how acceptable welds can be achieved in real buildings. Cases will be presented.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Inspection of Bolted Joints

Robert E. Shaw, Jr., PE President Steel Structures Technology Center, Inc. Novi, Michigan

Over the past 40 years or so, since the advent of the use of high-strength bolts, there has been much trial and tribulation over the inspection of installed bolts. Several attempts have been made to refine and clarify the codes and methodologies, with the most recent changes coming with the 1985 Allowable Stress Design Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 and A490 Bolts and its 1988 companion, commonly referred to as the "Bolt Spec."

Unfortunately, the momentum of 40 years of practice in the industry, as well as our industry's tendency to adopt change slowly and cautiously, has meant that there is continuing need for presentations and discussions on the topic of high-strength bolting. Confusion continues to reign over joint types,

installation requirements and inspection requirements.

The principal obligation for proper specification and inspection of high strength bolts lies with the engineer. The engineer has the responsibility to design a project that provides both structural integrity and serviceability, without unnecessary expense to the owner. Unfortunately, there are dozens of ways to waste the owner's money by improperly specifying or overspecifying the requirements for bolted joints and their inspection. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the possible pitfalls and recommend suitable practices.

We will look at proper specifications, including a few design considerations, material concerns, assembly concerns, installation techniques and good inspection sequences. A good job requires the inter-related work of engineer, supplier, fabricator, erector and inspector.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Selection of Joint Type

The first step is the determination by the structural engineer of the type of each joint - shear/bearing, slip critical or direct tension. If shear/bearing, a second decision must be made - snug tight installation or pretensioned installation. These four options give two different installation requirements and four different inspection levels. The specifics of the installation and inspection requirements for each will be covered in a latter section.
Shear/Bearing Joints

The vast majority of joints in building structures are shear/bearing and need be tightened only to the snug-tight condition. The principle of the shear/bearing joint is that the load is transferred from plane to plane through shear in the bolt, the load being transferred to the bolt by bearing against its shank. In essence, we have a series of pins to carry the load. The weight of the members and other dead loads during construction is usually enough to create the direct bearing of steel against bolt, hence no further movement of the joint would be expected under live load.

Some shear/bearing joints are of enough structural importance that the AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, section J1.12 (ASD), J1.11 (LRFD), requires that the bolts be pretensioned. These joints are as follows: 1. Column splices in all tier structures 200 ft. or more in height. 2. Column splices in tier structures 100 to 200 ft. in height, if the least horizontal dimension is less than 40% of the height. 3. Column splices in tier structures less than 100 ft. in height, if the least horizontal dimension is less than 25% of the height. 4. Connections of all beams and girders to columns and any other beams and girders on which the bracing of the columns is dependent, in structures over 125 ft. in height. 5. In all structures carrying cranes of over five-ton capacity: roof truss splices and connections of trusses to columns, column splices, column bracing, knee braces, and crane supports. 6. Connections for supports of running machinery, or of any other live loads which produce impact or reversal of stress. 7. Any other connections stipulated on the design plans.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

For all other cases, A307 bolts or snug-tight high-strength bolts could be used. However, slip-critical joints and direct tension joints must also be considered, although not mentioned in this section, as requiring high-strength bolts.
Tightening bolts in column splices in tier buildings and other similar structures with a narrow aspect ratio provides better splice stiffness and helps maintain column and frame alignment. Tightening bolts at members that brace the columns helps maintain frame alignment, as well as the lateral support of the columns.

For those members of crane buildings that directly participate in carrying crane loads, both vertical and lateral, their connections are pretensioned to provide added stiffness to the joints and frame, as well as handle vibrations from the crane movement that could, in some people's opinion, cause the nuts too loosen.
For reciprocating machinery and other machinery that induces considerable vibration into a joint, the tightening of the bolts not only stiffens the joint and frame, it reduces the chance that the vibration would cause the nut to loosen. It is the opinion of most fastening experts that vibration alone will not cause the nut to loosen, if the bolt is tightened, because of the friction between the nut face and the washer or steel and also between the bolt threads and nut threads. However, if the joint is permitted to slip with a sufficient number of reversals of slip, the nut will indeed back off the threads. For this reason, these joints are treated as slipcritical, as we will see later.

The last provision is to include those special situations where the structural engineer determines that the pretensioning would indeed be important to joint performance, but the joint may slip without serious consequence to the joint or structure. It has been estimated that as high as 98% of all building joints could be considered as shear/bearing joints that need tightened only to the snug-tight condition. The above cases are relatively rare in common building construction, as are the slip-critical and direct tension cases yet to be discussed.
Slip-Critical Joints

A slip-critical joint is assumed to behave in an entirely different manner than a shearbearing joint. In a shear-bearing joint, one steel element bears against the bolt, transferring load, the load is carried through the bolt in shear to the next steel element, then unloaded to the next element by bearing against the bolt hole. In a slipcritical joint, however, the transfer mechanism is totally reliant upon friction forces between the two steel elements. The friction is a result of the compressive forces between the

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

parts, and the compression is the result of the tension in the bolts. The only other variable in the strength of a slip-critical joint is the coefficient of friction between the parts. Therefore, achieving at least the required tension is critical to the performance of a bolted joint.

The slip-critical joint is fairly rare joint in building applications. The specific situations a joint must be treated as slip-critical are listed in the RCSC Bolt Specification, section 5(a), as follows: 1. Joints subject to fatigue loading. 2. Joints with bolts installed in oversized holes. 3. Except where the Engineer intends otherwise and so indicates in the contract documents, joints with bolts installed in slotted holes where the force on the joint is in a direction other than normal (between approximately 80 and 100 degrees) to the axis of the slot. 4. Joints subject to significant load reversal. 5. Joints in which welds and bolts share in transmitting load at a common faying surface. 6. Joints in which, in the judgement of the Engineer, any slip would be critical to the performance of the joint or the structure and so designated on the contract plans and specifications. Few building joints are subjected to true fatigue loading. To meet the AISC definition of fatigue, one needs at least 20,000 cycles of a high enough stress level to fall into the fatigue category. Seismic joints are generally not considered in fatigue categories because the number of cycles applied is so small. Seismic joints are designed for ductility, rather than fatigue performance. Joints resisting wind moments see many cycles, but the stresses are rarely of significant magnitude where fatigue enters into the design. Most bridge joints, however, would be categorized as subject to fatigue, and therefore would be slip-critical.
There are, indeed, certain types of joints in seismic and non-seismic design where most engineers would want to avoid joint slip. Critical moment connections where slip would allow significant frame deformation, or void the stress transfer mechanisms of the joint, may be considered as slip-critical. Certainly, typical floor framing joints do not fall into this category, even though occasional reversals of stress may occur during seismic events.

Oversized holes are not common except in very thick materials that are fabricated without pre-assembly, or for cases when connecting to existing connections with less than exact conditions. Slotted holes oriented in the loaded direction are also rarely used. If used, the magnitude of slip would exceed the 1/16" commonly accepted for shear/bearing joints, and therefore slip is to be avoided. Slots that are perpendicular to the direction of applied load are common for adjustment and tolerances, but these cases may be treated as shear/bearing joints unless other conditions dictate. The definition of "significant" in "significant load reversal" is one that is missing from both specification and commentary. Most commonly, this section is considered for bracing elements. There is typically load reversal in many bracing systems, but is it significant? One must consider several factors when considering whether or not to make a bracing joint slip-critical. How much movement would be expected in

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

the joint, figuring bolt diameter, hole diameter, accuracy of hole placement through punching or drilling, and the random nature in which bolts are located within the holes upon completion of the snugging and tightening (if any)? If the joint were to slip, would the amount of movement possible cause the joint or the structure to perform in a different manner? Would it have a significant effect upon building drift or lateral stability? How much would joint movement contribute to lateral drift when compared to drift from other sources - member deformation, bending and elongation? How often is it expected that wind or seismic loading (or other lateral loading) will be significant enough to overcome the slip resistance generated by just snugging the joint? Is the significance and frequency of these loadings enough that the additional slip in the joint would even be noticeable when compared to other building movements and behavior? Would there be a cumulative effect if all or several of the bracing joints were to slip? When welds and bolts share load, there can be no movement allowed in the bolted joint. Because of the inherent stiffness of a weld, the weld tends to take all the load. The bolts should be tightened first to develop the proper tension and clamping force, then the welds should be completed. Welding first could distort the joint so that proper mating of the surfaces necessary to develop the frictional resistance would be difficult or impossible. Research by Jarosch and Bowman ("Tension Butt Joints with Welds and Bolts in Combination", Engineering Journal. 1st Quarter 1986) has added cautions when using this type of detail with transverse welds. The final clause is to permit the engineer to use good judgement for cases that may not be adequately addressed by specification. Examples could be movement-intolerant supports for critical laboratory equipment or machinery.
Direct Tension Joint

The third type of joint - the direct tension joint - was added to the specification in 1985. Prior to 1985, all high-strength bolts were pretensioned. Beginning in 1985, most could remain snug tight. The assumptions used in designing hanger-type details, particularly those where prying action could be a factor, was based upon a pretensioned bolt. The methodology became ineffective with snug tight bolts. Secondly, there is concern that, if the bolts were only snug tight, the load applied to the fitting would cause separation of the parts, hence allowing movement in the joint and supported elements. For these reasons, direct tension joints must have the bolts pretensioned.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Purchasing and Materials

For the fabricator, purchasing the right materials is the first step. Review the project specifications to determine if there are any specific requirements for the job. Certain projects may have buyAmerica requirements. Some may call for the rotational-capacity testing required under AASHTO and FHWA specifications, even though the project may be a building. Some engineers have specifically excluded Grade C, C3, D and 2 nuts from their projects because of their risk of stripping. Others may handle the stripping problem by specifying a minimum hardness for the nuts. Metric bolts are being specified for some government projects.

The inspector is not the one to check purchase orders, but the inspector should check the containers to make sure the specified materials have been provided. The inspector should also look for supporting documentation of bolt quality in the form of test reports and certifications.
Under ASTM A325, the following items must be provided when requested by the purchaser: (1) heat number and heat analysis of the steel from which the bolts are made, (2) numerical results of hardness, tensile and proof load tests, (3) results of rotational-capacity tests (required for zinccoated assemblies, optional for black assemblies), (4) zinc coating thickness measurements, (5) results of visual burst inspection, (6) statement of compliance of dimensional and thread fit requirements, (7) lot number assigned to fasteners, (8) title and signature of individual responsible for certification, and (9) mailing address of responsible party.
Similar requirements apply to nuts and washers. ASTM A490 simply requires copies of the inspection reports when requested by the purchaser. Testing of A490 bolts may still, unfortunately, be done by the shipping lot method.

The Fastener Quality Assurance Act has placed a great deal of pressure upon the fastener manufacturers to provide accurate and truthful test reports and certifications. Most bolt distributors are also being diligent about their certifications, but some should be watched carefully. Verify that the certification paper identification agrees with the container labeling. If the containers are unmarked, reject the lot.

Many times the bolts, nuts and washers are produced by different manufacturers. They may be supplied by different distributors. Individually, each fastener component may meet the product specification, but when the bolt, washer and nut are assembled, problems may arise.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Fastener Identification
Reports about the use of unmarked bolts, nuts and washers have, fortunately, died off from the furor of the late 80's. The Fastener Quality Assurance Act passed by Congress certainly caught the attention of manufacturers and distributors. Unmarked fasteners are/were typically imported fasteners from questionable sources purchased by a distributor. Those trying to save a buck may have been tempted to sell or use such product. Obviously, if the fasteners have not been marked properly according to ASTM requirements, the manufacturer or distributor has probably been skirting or ignoring other significant portions of the ASTM specifications. Strength, ductility and thread fit are critical to bolt performance. Were these unmarked fasteners satisfactory in these areas? Probably not.
The first thing to look for is the manufacturer's mark. Nearly every single component - bolt, nut and washer - must have the manufacturer's mark either stamped into it or in raised form. Obviously, washers must use stamping only. For bolts, the head marks are typically raised. All bolts, even the lowly A307 bolt, must bear the manufacturer's mark.
Bolts

A325 bolts must clearly say "A325" on them. A Type 1 bolt may have three radial lines at 120, but this is optional to the manufacturer. A Type 2 bolt would be identified by three radial lines at 60. Type 2 bolts have not been manufactured domestically for several years, and if found, would be worthy of additional investigation regarding source and quality. Type 3 bolts, used for weathering steel applications, have the A325 underlined. A490 bolts must say "A490". The Type 1 has no additional markings. The Type 2, still available, has six radial lines at 30. The Type 3 bolt for weathering steel applications will have the A490 underlined.

A449 bolts, used only for bolts over 1-1/2" in diameter (the maximum diameter of A325 and A490 bolts), will not say "A449", but will have three radial lines at 120. Only the Type 1 bolt is acceptable. The Type 2 A449 bolt carries only three radial lines at 60 (similar to the A325 Type 2), but these bolts go only to 1" diameter and are not to be used.
A307 bolts will have "307A" or "307B" on them, depending upon grade. Either grade is acceptable. The A307 bolt, until about five years ago, was not required to carry grade identification, so there are probably some legitimate A307 bolts in the market with no markings. Let the buyer and user beware.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

A354 bolts may be used, per AISC specification, only for anchor bolts and as threaded rod. They should not be used for a steel-to-steel joint. A325 or 490 bolts should be used in these cases. Grade BC is the lower strength of the two and is marked with a "BC" on the head. Grade BD, with the equivalent strength of an A490, must be marked with six radial lines 60 apart and may have an optional "BD" on the head. Grade BD bolts over 2-1/2" must have the additional "BD" marking. A354 studs and threaded product must carry "BC" or "BD" on one end of the product.
Nuts

All nuts must also carry the manufacturer's mark. Nuts and washers, as commodity items, are more at risk of being unmarked. The A563 grade C nut is identified by three circumferential arcs spaced at 120 about the face of the nut. For C3 nuts, a "3" is added to the face of the nut. For D, DH and DH3 nuts, "D", "DH" or "DH3" will appear on the face. A194 nuts of grade 2 and 2H will carry a "2" or "2H" on the face.

Acceptable nuts for A325 and A490 bolts are chosen from ASTM A563, grades C, C3, D, DH and DH3, and A194 grades 2 and 2H. Depending upon the grade of bolt, and whether it is black or galvanized, only certain combinations are acceptable. These acceptable combinations are noted by a circle in the adjacent chart. For A307 grade A and B bolts, A563 nuts of Grades A or B can be used, depending upon diameter of bolt. It is not required to have either the manufacturer's mark or grade identification on grades A or B, per ASTM. Manufacturers are required to mark the grade with a letter "A" or "B" only when required by the purchaser. Grades C, C3, D, DH and DH3 are also suitable nuts, and it would be advisable to select these grades of nuts for use, rather than use unmarked nuts. A449 type 1 bolts may also use an A563 grade A heavy hex nut, but stronger A563 nuts suitable for A325 bolts would make a better choice.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

In the above examples, suitable nuts were based upon the use of black bolts. When the bolts are galvanized, stronger heat-treated nuts are required. ASTM A563 Appendix Table X1.1 provides recommendations for suitable nuts for various diameters of both black and galvanized bolts. No such table exists in ASTM A194. Nuts with higher strength levels than that of the specified or recommended nut can usually be substituted. Washers F436 washers complete the fastener assembly. There is another washer specification, ASTM F844 for "Washers, Steel, Plain (Flat), Unhardened for General Use," but these washers have no strength or hardness characteristics required. Any such requirements must be part of the purchase order. These F844 washers do not need marked with either a grade or manufacturer. F436 washers, on the other hand, are the only washers listed by AISC. There are minimum hardness and testing requirements. F436 washers must have the manufacturer's mark stamped into them on one face. If the washer is for a weathering steel application, a "3" must also be stamped into the washer face. Some manufacturers place "F436" on the washer, but this is at their option. Clipped washers may sometimes have their manufacturer's mark removed, and this is acceptable.
Manufacturer's Marks

To tie the fastener back to the manufacturer's certifications, especially in cases where the fasteners are not in their original shipping container with the lot number labels, it is helpful to be able to correlate the manufacturer mark back to the manufacturer.

The Industrial Fastener Institute publishes a "North American Manufacturer Identification Markings for Fasteners," publication IFI122, for $15.00 that relates manufacturer's mark to a company name and address. The latest regular edition was published in 1988, but it is constantly updated. Also available is a "Fastener Quality International Guide" (IFI-122A) for $20.00, but it is a few years out of date. To order, contact the Industrial Fastener Institute in
Cleveland at (216) 241-1482.

The Department of Defense publishes a similar document of international markings, Military Handbook "Listing of Fastener Manufacturers' Identification Symbols," identified as MIL-HDBK-57B(IS) and dated 30 November 1990. Order from Defense Publications by fax
only at (215) 697-1462. For problems, call 215-697-2179. This publication is free.

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Pre-Testing Fastener Assemblies Prior to Installation

One of the most important areas of high-strength bolt installation is actually performed prior to bolt installation. The 1985 ASD and 1988 LRFD Bolt Specifications give specific instructions regarding pretesting of fasteners prior to installation. The 1988 Spec is better written, with some clarifications and additions over the 1985 version, but the 1985 version is still the one referenced in all three model building codes.
Pre-testing is required in some form for all slip-critical, direct tension and pretensioned shear/bearing joints. Joints that need to be tightened only to snug tight are exempted from these provisions.

The purpose of these provisions is: 1. to verify the quality of the materials, both bolt and nut and washer, if used, and their ability to work together without nut stripping, 2. to verify the method selected for pretensioning will actually provide the required pretension, and 3. to verify the installation crew's understanding of the method.
All pre-installation testing should be done in a bolt calibration device such as a Skidmore-Wilhelm. Install the bolt in the Skidmore, with spacer plates and washers as needed for the bolt length, snug the bolt, then tighten the bolt using the procedure that will be used for the work. Verify that the achieved bolt tension is at least 5% higher than that required by the specification.

If the turn-of-the-nut method is selected, pretesting is performed at the start of the work. Under the 1985 provisions, a representative sample of 3 bolts and nuts of each diameter, length and grade are pretested. Under the 1988 provisions, the sample is changed to three bolt and nut assemblies of each diameter, length, grade and lot. This provides additional verification of thread mating between the bolt and nut assemblies that are actually going to be used. Under the 1985 provisions, you could choose three bolts at random and three nuts at random and try them out. No additional checks were necessary, even if bolt manufacturers or nut manufacturers were different from those tested. Variations occur within bolts and nuts, even from the same supplier.
If the calibrated wrench method is selected, calibration is required each day on three bolts of each diameter, length and grade of bolt being tested, treated as assemblies. The 1988 Spec clarified and expanded this to state that the assemblies are made of three bolts of each diameter, length, grade and lot with nuts of each diameter, grade and lot. Recalibration is required for changes in bolt or nut thread condition, installation conditions, etc.

For alternate design bolts such as twist-off bolts or lock pin and collar fasteners, the pretesting is required only at the start of the work and includes three bolts of each diameter, length and grade. No mention of nuts is made here, but these items are typically delivered pre-assembled. Regardless, the nut statement should be added. Neither the 1985 or 1988 Spec calls for testing by lot, but they should.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

For direct tension indicators, the 1985 Spec calls for testing, at the start of the work, three dti's for each diameter and grade of fastener. The 1988 provisions added the words "with three typical bolts." There is no mention of testing by lot in either version, but it is suggested that dti's should be tested by lot. Second, there is no real test of the bolts or nuts required, just the direct tension indicator. Each bolt and nut assembly to be used should be tested as a unit for suitable performance. Testing as assemblies creates more sorting, storage and record-keeping work for the field, ending the random "mix and match" mode without pretesting each possible combination of bolt lot and nut lot. It does, however, increase the probability of getting good pretensioned bolts. Testing by lot is being performed for high-strength bolts at the manufacturer's level or at the supplier's level under the provisions of recently revised ASTM's. However, there are still many bolts in circulation manufactured and sold under the old ASTM shipping lot method, so it may take some time before on-site assembly testing procedures can be modified to reflect the pretesting performed prior to delivery to the jobsite. Additional testing may be appropriate, such as the FHWA procedures for rotational capacity tests for assemblies. Not a part of the RCSC/AISC Bolt Specs or the current ASTM Specs, FHWA's methods provide additional testing for bolt ductility, strength, assembly thread fit and the adequacy of the lubricant. The effort required to install the bolt should not be extraordinary, which would be indicative of inadequate lubrication. No specific torque values are dictated by specification except under the FHWA and AASHTO specifications. In these two specifications, the torque (in foot-pounds) must not exceed 0.25 times the bolt diameter (in feet) times the bolt tension (in pounds). This torque reading can be taken at any point when the bolt is above the required tension. A thread stripping check is performed under the FHWA and AASHTO specs at a deliberately over-tensioned level. The fasteners are tightened until twice the rotation required under turn-of-the-nut tightening is achieved. In other words, if a short bolt requires one-third of a turn, the bolt is tightened two-thirds of a turn past snug tight, then the assembly is disassembled and checked for stripping. Any thread shearing or stripping of threads would indicate a thread fit problem or too soft a nut. By design and specification, the bolt hardness and thread design is such that the bolt should break before the bolt threads strip.
Another aspect of the FHWA / AASHTO test at this point (having achieved twice the required turns) is that bolt ductility is verified. The bolt is able to stretch more than required. Along with this, the bolt at this point (at twice the required turns) must have at least 15% more pretension than that required by specification, indicating that the bolt was neither too soft nor stretched too easily.

All the above tests are described as being conducted in a bolt calibration device such as a Skidmore-Wilhelm. Often, however, bolts are too short to be installed in a Skidmore and an alternative method must be used for pretesting. This is typically done with the use of direct tension indicators. The dti's are placed under the bolt head

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

using any available bolt long enough to fit in the Skidmore. The bolt is then tightened to the minimum required tension (plus 5%, as required by Spec), and the average gap is determined for the dti at that tension. This step is repeated two more times, and the average of the averages is determined. This becomes known as the "calibrated gap."
For calibrated wrench installation of short bolts, the wrench is set to compress the dti below the calibrated gap when the bolt is tested in a steel plate. For short twist-off bolts, the dti must be compressed below the calibrated gap when the spline shears off. It may be necessary to restrain the twist-off bolt head from rotation during testing because of the dti presence. This procedure cannot be used, however, on short bolts that will be installed using the turn-of-thenut method because much of the rotation provided will be used to compress the dti, not elongate the bolt. For short bolts using the turn-of-the-nut method, there is no valid method of pre-installation testing and we rely upon forty years of satisfactory experience and testing.

Snugging the Joint

If the joint is not properly snugged, no pretensioning method will work correctly. Snugging the joint has often been overlooked, and many an argument has arisen over "loose" bolts caused by improperly snugged joints.
First, we must understand that not all bolts must be pretensioned. The majority of bolts in buildings must be tightened only to the "snugtight condition." Certain shear/bearing joints must be pretensioned, as well as slip-critical joints and direct tension joints.
The current RCSC Allowable Stress Design Bolt Specification (11/13/85) defines "snug tight" in section 8(c) as "the tightness that exists when all plies in a joint are in firm contact."

This leaves the door open for bolts being only "finger-tight" when the parts are solidly seated and no gaps are present. Indeed, the bolted joint would probably perform quite adequately in this "finger-tight" mode, as shear/bearing behavior requires no bolt tension, even snug.
The sentence that follows the definition of "snug tight" states that "This may be attained by a few hits of an impact wrench or the full effort of a man using an ordinary spud wrench." In the LRFD Bolt Spec (6/8/88), this sentence was moved to the Commentary.

The latest definition of "snug tight" has been provided by the AISC's LRFD Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (12/1/93). This definition combines both the condition and the tightening method used. The new definition states "The snug-tight condition is defined as the tightness attained by either a few impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of a worker with an ordinary spud wrench that brings the connected plies into firm contact." By using this definition, the "finger tight" possibility is removed.
The only fear of the above definition is an inspector who decides to

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

verify that full effort was used on the installer's spud wrench, then proceeds to apply an inspection spud wrench to the bolts to see if they turn. What a travesty that would be, because we are really concerned only with the steel being in contact.
Some people have mistakenly adopted the "few hits" or "full effort" provisions to mean snug tight. If the result of these efforts is a joint in which a gap still remains, the joint is not snug and the pretensioning procedure will not work properly. Effect of Improper Snugging

What is the effect of having a joint that is not properly snugged before pretensioning? How serious are the consequences? These answers depend upon the pretensioning method used, but there are some common effects.
First, if the joint is not in solid contact for all the bolts, the pretensioning method employed on the first bolt will only serve to further draw down the gap between the steel elements. The installer assumes the first bolt is tight, but it's not. The next bolt tightened further draws down any remaining gap, and the initial bolt becomes looser still. This can become a compounding series in some joints.
If the turn-of-the-nut technique is used for pretensioning, a gap of just 1/16" is the equivalent of 5/8 turn on a 3/4" bolt (10 threads per inch), or 1/2 turn on a 1" bolt (8 threads per inch). A gap of just 1/64" still requires nearly 60 of rotation on a 3/4" bolt just to remove the gap, far exceeding the under-tightening tolerance of turnof-the-nut. On a 1" bolt, the 1/64" gap would need 45 additional rotation to remove the gap. Obviously, if matchmarking is performed while gaps are still present, the provided turns will be substantially inadequate to induce the required pretensions.
If the calibrated wrench technique is used, the installer stands a better chance of getting the bolt properly pretensioned. This is because this method requires "touching up" all the bolts in the joint until they fail to further impact. This is the only method that requires "touching up." This touching up will be a time-consuming effort if the joint is not properly snugged in the first place. This is not to say that the calibrated wrench technique is the best method, or that snugging is not critical to the technique. Wrench settings and the equipment used could be such that the wrench fails to impact because of high torques needed to initiate rotation, and the bolts could still be inadequately pretensioned.

If twist-off bolts are used, the joint requires a proper snug of the entire joint prior to twisting off the bolt spline. If the spline shears off during the snugging operation, the installation method is no longer valid and the pretension required will not be achieved. Visually, however, the installer and inspector will assume the bolt to be tight because the spline has been sheared off.
If direct tension indicators are used, the dti may be compressed during snugging to a point that the feeler gage used to check the remaining gap will be refused. When adjacent bolts are tightened, the prior bolt "tightened" will loosen, but the dti gap will not be restored because the dti is inelastic. Checking these bolts later with a feeler gage would indicate that the bolt had the proper tension at

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

one time, but would not indicate if inadequate snugging was performed
prior to installation. Inspecting for Snug

It is truly imperative that the "snug tight" condition be verified prior to pretensioning bolts. This may be a part of the quality job performed by the ironworkers, with no outside inspection. If the Bolt Specification is followed, however, the inspector is to verify snug.
Section 9 (a) of the 1988 LRFD Bolt Spec clearly states "All

connections shall be inspected to insure that the plies of the connected elements have been brought into firm contact." The 1985 ASD Bolt Spec says essentially the same thing. This requirement applies whether the bolts remain snug tight only, or are pretensioned following snugging. The installation crew may be permitted to stuff and snug joints without the observation of the inspector, as long as the proper bolt materials and lengths are used and no unfair reaming or flame-cutting of holes is performed. The inspector is then called upon to verify that the joints are snug prior to any pretensioning work. If the turnof-the-nut method is to be used, matchmarking of the joints should be
done while the inspector is there. This eliminates the "matchmarking of the bolts after impacting," which occurs from time to time.

The installation crew and inspector must understand where contact in the joint is important and where it is not. Contact is necessary at the point where the bolt goes through the hole. Contact is not necessary at the edges of the joint, or even within the joint away from the bolt holes. Research has indicated that the slip resistance is provided immediately around the bolt holes, as illustrated by the masking provisions of Figure C3 of the Bolt Spec. The "circular area around all holes" (one inch but not less than the bolt diameter) is the area that is active in transferring stress through friction. In shear/bearing joints that do not need friction, the gaps must still be removed around the bolt holes to ensure proper pretensioning. In "snug tight only" bolted joints, gaps between the steel where the bolts go through the joint could lead to excessive deformation of the connected parts and undesirable movement of the joint or connected members. Gaps at the bolt holes could also contribute to hidden corrosion of the bolts themselves if water can collect in the holes. For additional commentary on gaps at the joint, see the AISC's Quality Criteria and
Inspection Standards, 3rd Edition.

In many joints, one can look at the joint from the side and judge
whether the joint has been properly snugged. In large joints with

several rows of bolts, this is not possible. Judgement must be used based upon part thicknesses, whether an impact wrench was used for snugging, if the nuts show some peening of the corners, and the care demonstrated by the crew. If it is suspected that the joint has not been properly snugged, with gaps between the parts in the interior area of the joint, remove a bolt from the suspect area and insert a
tape measure with a thin hook on the end, or some other form of bent

feeler gage, and feel is there a gap between the parts. If the hook or
feeler does not drop between the parts, pass the joint as snug. Do

this in as many areas as is necessary, based upon judgement.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Most black bolts can be re-installed after removal, provided the nut can be run up the full length of the bolt threads by hand. If galvanized bolts or A490 bolts were used in the joint, it is safest to simply replace them. However, if the bolts were given only nominal tension during snugging (no impact wrench was used), these bolts can probably be reinstalled without a problem. In summary, the extra time and effort to ensure the proper snug condition will pay off in the long run when the bolts are pretensioned (if required). Many "loose" bolts come not from improper tightening technique, but from improper snugging. If you can't be assured off good snugging, then no installation method is reliable. You'll be stuck with arbitration inspection using a hand torque wrench, one of the costliest and least effective methods of bolt inspection that can be employed.

The Turn-of-the-Nut Installation Method

The turn-of-the-nut method has been around for many years. In the early Fifties, the railroad industry developed a turn-of-the-nut method for installing bolts. Essentially, one full turn beyond hand tight was provided. In subsequent years, further research was provided and turns were measured from the "snug tight" condition, rather than hand tight. The "turns tables" have been modified occasionally, but the current table has been in use since 1978. The principle behind the turn-of-the-nut method is the controlled elongation of the bolt. Because of the pitch of the threads, turning the nut a prescribed rotation elongates the bolt a certain amount. The elongation has a direct correlation to the bolt tension. As bolts become larger in diameter, the number of threads per inch decreases accordingly, and therefore the same number of turns will provide at least the required amount of pretension for a given length-diameter ratio.
The turn-of-the-nut table is well-known. For bolts less than or equal to four diameters in length, say a 3/4" by 3" bolt, 1/3 turn must be provided. A 3/4" by 5" bolt would receive 1/2 turn. A 3/4" by 6-1/2" bolt would receive 2/3 turn.

For bolts over 12D in length, there is too much variation to provide tabular values. It is required that the installer use a bolt tension calibrator, such as a Skidmore-Wilhelm, and determine the number of turns required to provide the required bolt pretension. It may well be that 2/3 turn will be adequate, but it must be proven by test.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Rotation Tolerance

There is a tolerance to the amount of applied rotation. For turns of 1/2 turn or less, the nut may be under-rotated by no more than 30. For turns of 2/3 turn or more, the nut may be under-rotated by 45. If the nut does not receive sufficient rotation, the desired pretension may not be achieved. The second tolerance applies to over-rotation. The same numerical values apply. For turns of 1/2 turn or less, over-rotation is limited to 30. For 2/3 turn or more, 45. The problem of over-rotation is that the bolt may be stretched to the point of breaking, or perhaps to the point where nut stripping will occur. In reality, the ductility of fasteners is such that such limited overrotation is quite restrictive. Physical testing indicates that bolts of 4D in length generally can sustain an additional full turn beyond the required turns before breaking. Bolts of 8D in length and more can generally withstand 1-1/2 to 2 full turns beyond the required turns before breaking. Such ductility is not always guaranteed, however, and may be adversely affected by poor lubrication or by having just one or two bolt threads in the grip of the joint. Also, A490 bolts exhibit reduced ductility when compared to A325 bolts. Because of the inherent ductility of high-strength bolts, there is rarely concern about cases where the nuts have been over-rotated. The most common mode of failure when extreme over-rotation occurs is when the bolt breaks in a combination of torsion (from tightening) and tension. If the bolt does not break during this worst-case stress condition, it should not break in service. Normally, when a bolt breaks during installation, the sound is distinctly noticeable and the result is easily visible as a loose bolt. A second risk of over-rotation is nut stripping. Bolt threads are rarely at risk of stripping because of the thread design. However, nuts that are not heat-treated, A563 grade C, C3, D and A194 grade 2, are at risk of stripping if their hardness is below 89 Rockwell B or 180 Brinell. If heat treated nuts are used (A563 grade DH or DH3 or A194 grade 2H), the risk of stripping before bolt fracture is negligible.
Sloping Surfaces The second component of the

"turns table" is when there is a sloping surface below either the bolt head or nut, or both. When this case exists, additional turns may be warranted, per the adjacent table.
The sloping surfaces provisions apply when the slope of the surface exceeds 1:20, or about 3. Bolts are tested by the manufacturer using a wedge tensile test of either 6 or 10 under the bolt head, so the bolt can take this slope. However,

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

there will be extra rotation needed to overcome the loss caused by the bending at the head, and therefore 1/6 turn is added for each sloping
surface over what would be required for parallel surfaces. If the sloping surfaces are caused by the 16-2/3% (10) bevel used for channel and S-section flanges, then a beveled washer must be used. The required turns increase for the sloping surface is not required,

because the beveled washer has returned the head or nut to the parallel condition.
Pre-Installation Verification

Prior to stuffing bolts in the steel, the Bolt Spec section 8(d)(1) requires that three sample bolts of each diameter, length and grade be installed in a bolt calibration device (Skidmore-Wilhelm or
equivalent). The bolts are to be snugged by the crew using the method they would use on the steel, then given the required rotation for that length and diameter of bolt. The tension read on the Skidmore must be at least 5% above the required pretension. The 1988 Bolt Spec added that this test must be performed for each diameter, length, grade and lot.

When the pre-installation verification test is performed, there may be

instances where the required turns do not quite develop the required tension plus 5%. The Skidmore is a hydraulic device, and as such, is softer than the steel in which the bolt will be installed. The hydraulic fluid between the bushing and body moves and compresses, and

therefore some of the rotation is actually taken by this fluid action.

When the bolt is installed in a solid steel joint, there is no deformation between bolt and nut and all the rotation is used to

elongate the bolt. For a given rotation, the tension in a solid steel plate will be higher than the tension read in the Skidmore. This could be further proven, even to the point of developing a calibration
curve, by using identical fastener assemblies and using measured torques vs. tensions read in the Skidmore.

This condition would typically be found with longer bolts (just under
4D, 8D or 12D) that are installed in the Skidmore with a maximum

number of threads in the grip (minimum stickout). The longer bolt length and the full number of available threads to elongate would reduce the achieved tension for a given rotation. However, the probability of having actual undertensioning in installed bolts, even
under these conditions, is very small, and the amount of

undertensioning would be negligible.

Installation and Inspection The installation sequence should start with snugging the joint. There is no need for an inspector to witness such snugging, provided there is no flame cutting or unfair reaming of holes beyond specified Bolt

Spec tolerances. When snugging is complete, the inspector should be

called to verify the snug condition. The inspector verifies that the

joint is solidly seated, with no improper gaps, and that the proper grade and length of bolt was used (by verifying the stickout
condition), with proper washer placement (if required) and proper nut material. The installation crew is then permitted to matchmark the end of the bolt and a corner of the nut. At this point, the inspector may continue to other duties. After the required turns have been applied, the inspector returns to the joint to visually verify that the

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

required turns were applied, checking for the proper rotation between bolt and nut. The inspector should also monitor the crew upon occasion to verify that the proper technique is routinely applied during the pretensioning. This is not an important item if matchmarking is used, but crucial if the crew insists upon using the "watch the chuck turn" method. If the crew does not matchmark, regular observation is necessary to ensure that, the crew consistently watches the wrench chuck turn during pretensioning and that the bolt head (unturned element) is prevented from turning. It is not necessary to observe each individual bolt or joint, just verify that the crew uses good practice. If turn-of-the-nut has been properly applied, verified by matchmarking after snugging and checked after pretensioning, there is no valid reason to submit the completed joint to any additional testing. Unfortunately, torque testing is still required for turn-of-the-nut installation under the AASHTO Bridge Specifications, but hopefully this requirement will be removed when the above inspection techniques are employed, especially with matchmarked joints. If we have good materials, snug properly, and use the proper technique, and inspect for these along the way, why would we want to use a highly variable torque value to test them? The torque is not as reliable as the turnof-the-nut method.

The Calibrated Wrench Installation Method

The calibrated wrench method uses a special type impact wrench to tighten the bolts. Rather than impact until the wrench operator releases the trigger, the wrench is adjusted to automatically stop impacting when a certain resistance is felt by the wrench. The wrench is adjusted so that it stops impacting when the bolt has achieved at least the required tension, as determined using a bolt calibration device, but does not over-rotate the fastener beyond the turn-of-thenut tables.
The procedure has been used for many years, but fell out of favor with many because installers were failing to calibrate their wrenches as required for the procedure. The RCSC Bolt Spec withdrew permission to use the calibrated wrench procedure in 1980, but reinstated it in 1985 with additional provisions intended to clarify and highlight the calibration requirements. In addition to the pneumatic impact wrenches typically found on jobsites, hydraulic wrenches have also been used for installing bolts. In these units, the hydraulic pressure required to tighten a fastener to at least the required tension is determined by using a bolt calibration device. The tool is activated until the required pressure is reached. Actually, this same tooling could be used to install bolts using turn-of-the-nut techniques by simply watching the wrench chuck rotation or by match-marking, then shutting off the unit when the required turns had been applied.

Pneumatic impact wrenches depend upon an internal cam unit for control. When the desired resistance, actually torque, is reached, the cam unit shifts and the wrench stalls out. If the air pressure or air

29-20
2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

volume is inadequate, however, the control mechanism will not function properly and will continue to impact the fastener, although at a slower, weaker level. For this reason, the calibrated impact wrench must be calibrated with a given air supply condition. The wrench should be calibrated using the same compressor and pressure settings, air hose and air hose length that will be used on the work. If an additional wrench is to be driven off the compressor, the wrench calibration should be checked with both wrenches in operation simultaneously as well as individually. If a significant length of hose from compressor to wrench is either added or removed, then the wrench should be recalibrated. In essence, the bolt calibrator should be mounted on the steel in the immediate vicinity of the bolts being installed, not on the ground next to the air compressor.

The Bolt Spec calls for calibration every day, before installation begins, with three fastener assemblies of each diameter, length and grade (and lot, per 1988 Spec). An assembly, by specification, would be comprised of a bolt from a specific production lot with a nut from a specific production lot. If a certain lot of, say 7/8" x 3" bolts is used with 7/8" nuts from three different lots, all mixed, then the wrench must be calibrated so that it properly installs the bolts using any of the three lots of nuts. Lot control becomes essential when using the calibrated wrench method. Washers representative of those being used in the work must be included in the test, but lot control is not mandated except under AASHTO / FHWA requirements for bridge work.
A third factor (air supply and lot control being the first two) is involved in the calibration of the wrench. If there is a significant difference in the quality of fastener lubrication, then the wrench must be calibrated for the varying lubrication conditions. A welloiled bolt, washer and nut assembly will require considerably less torque than one that is nearly dry or one that exhibits some indications of rust. Hence, if the wrench is calibrated using welloiled bolts, then used on a poorly-lubricated bolt, the resultant tension will be less. The same concerns apply if the bolt, nut or washer surfaces contain dirt, grit or sand. Efficient calibration becomes key to the use of the calibrated wrench method of installation. Some projects have used a separate calibrated wrench for each given diameter, length and grade being installed, changing wrenches when a different bolt group is being installed. Every wrench is calibrated each morning. It is possible to simplify operations by calibrating the wrench to properly install a wider range of bolts, perhaps the entire range of a given diameter and grade. This would be accomplished by setting the wrench to install at a tension well above the required pretension, but yet not high enough to exceed the turns tables. This same wrench setting could be tested on another length of bolts of the same diameter and grade, and then another. With luck, perhaps one wrench setting could be used throughout the day for all bolts of the same diameter and grade being installed, or perhaps only two wrenches would be needed instead of several.

Snugging the joint can be done with either the calibrated wrench (actually in the uncalibrated condition, releasing the trigger when snug is achieved) or with an impact wrench, or with a hand wrench for lighter framing. After snugging, the joint should be inspected to verify snug, then approved for pretensioning of the bolts. After the

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

wrenches are calibrated, pretensioning can begin. The wrench operator should tighten the bolts using a systematic pattern, observing the chuck rotation as tightening proceeds. If the rotation of the nut exceeds the turns table for turn-of-the-nut, the wrench calibration should be rechecked. After tightening all the bolts in the pattern, the operator should return to "touch up" each bolt in the pattern. Only the calibrated wrench method calls for such "touching up." The inspector has the responsibility during calibrated wrench tightening operations to observe the installation technique. The inspector should observe the calibration of the wrench prior to installation, then observe the technique to verify that the crew properly uses the wrench, does not adjust the wrench calibration without use of the bolt calibration device, does not use the wrench on fasteners from a different group that requires a different wrench, does not use fastener assemblies with significantly different lubrication characteristics than those bolts used for calibration, and does tighten in a systematic manner, observing the wrench chuck turning to verify that over-rotation is not being demanded by the wrench, and finally touches up each bolt after tightening.

The Direct Tension Indicator Installation Method

The direct tension indicator, or dti, for short, is a special load cell device used as proof that the required tension has been provided in the assembly. The effectiveness of the dti, however, is only as good as the techniques used in installing the fastener. The manufacturing and testing of the dti itself is governed by ASTM F959.
The principle behind the dti is that the protrusions (bumps) formed into the device will be compressed by the tension in the bolt. Through manufacturing controls, the gap remaining between the dti face and the fastener element against which it is placed will not close to, below a specified gap until after the fastener has reached the required fastener tension. Therefore, when the gap in the dti is below the specified gap, the bolt's tension will be higher than that required.

The gap is determined by the use of a feeler gauge inserted between the protrusions (bumps) in the dti face. The preferred position of the dti is with the bumps facing outward directly underneath the bolt head. During installation, the bolt head must be held from turning to prevent abrasion of the bumps, thereby rendering the dti measurement invalid. For building applications, this condition would call for a 0.015" feeler gauge to be refused entry in half or more of the gaps of the dti.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Other positions may be used for the dti. If the bolt head will be
turned, a hardened F436 washer must be placed between the bolt head and dti. If the dti is placed at the nut end of the assembly, an F436 washer must be used between the dti and nut, whether or not the nut is allowed to turn. In each of these cases, a 0.005" feeler gauge is used to check the gaps.

For all bridge applications, the 0.005" feeler gauge is used to check the gaps. This is used to ensure that the gap between the dti and the fastener itself can be bridged by the applied coating system and crevice corrosion will be avoided. Standard F436 washers are needed behind the dti when the dti is used over an outer ply containing an oversized or slotted hole. This prevents the dti from cupping into the hole and voiding the gap measurement technique. In no case are the dti bumps permitted to face inward toward the steel joint. It must face outward toward either the bolt head or the nut. Otherwise, the dti will cup outward, opening the gaps larger and voiding the measurement technique.
It is necessary to test the dti at the jobsite prior to installation to meet the provisions of the Bolt Spec, section 8(d)(4). Three dti's are tested in a bolt calibration device. The bolts are tightened to 5% above the required bolt tension, then the gaps are checked. Half or more of the gaps in the dti must not refuse the feeler gauge. This means that when the bolt is tightened in the field, half or more gaps refusing the feeler gauge means that the bolt tension will be higher than that required. If the dti is used in other positions (say under the nut instead of under the bolt head), then the dti should also be pretested in this position. After the quality of the dti has been verified in this manner, the bolt installers can proceed to their installation and snugging operations. The dti's should be installed in the same position as tested. The joint is snugged using a systematic technique, then checked to ensure that the dti's have not been over-compressed by the snugging operation. The installer should check that at least half the gaps do not refuse the feeler gauge. This is done to ensure that the bolt did not reach its required tension during snugging, then subsequently loosen when adjacent bolts were snugged. Since the dti is inelastic, it will not rebound to increase the gap when the preload is released. Therefore, a bolt "over-tightened" during snugging, then subsequently loosened, will still appear to be properly tensioned by the having an adequate number of refusals for the post-installation check.
The snugging check of the dti should be performed by the bolt installer, not the inspector, as this is a step in the installation process. The inspector should verify the snug condition of the joint visually, and also observe that the installer conducts the snug check with a feeler gauge.

After the entire joint has been deemed snug by the inspector, without pre-compressed dti's, the installation crew can then proceed to further tighten the bolts until at least half the dti bumps refuse entry of the feeler gauge. The crew may use a trial and error system, a calibrated wrench method or a visual judgement to establish when to stop impacting. The feeler gauge is then reinserted into the dti gaps. If the feeler gauge is refused in at least half the gaps, the bolt is

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

assumed to be properly tensioned. The inspector should observe that the feeler gauge is used consistently and properly by the installation crew, and may wish to spot check dti's at random using a feeler gauge. AASHTO has recently added a provision that no torque testing of the completed joint is required if the dti method is used.

The Twist-Off Bolt Installation Method

The twist-off bolt is a specially designed bolt that has a spline at the end that is used by the installation tool. The spline is designed to shear off from the torque generated by the wrench. This torque is the result of wrench efforts to turn the nut in the clockwise (tightening) direction, as well as counteracting efforts to turn the bolt shank in the counter-clockwise direction. When the twist-off bolt's head grabs the steel, the bolt shank itself will not turn, and all rotation takes place with the nut.

The spline has been designed so that it will not shear off until the bolt is above the required tension, but will not be too strong to cause over-tightening of the bolt beyond reasonable limits. When the spline shears off, the wrench no longer functions. The twist-off bolt is completely dependent upon the torque tension relationship, which can vary greatly depending upon the quality and type of lubrication of the assembly. The manufacturers of twist-off bolts generally produce a very consistent and durable lubricant that resists water, mild solvents and rust for some time.
Because of the interdependence of the bolt, torque used for installation, the twist-off by the manufacturer. Substitutions of other adversely affect performance and cause bolt too low. nut and washer upon the bolt unit is pre-assembled nuts or washers may tensions to be too high or

Prior to installation, the twist-off bolts must be tested at the site for performance. This is as required by section 8(d)(3) of the Bolt Spec. Three samples of each diameter, length and grade of twist-off bolt must be tested in a bolt calibration device (Skidmore) prior to being installed in the steel. When the installation tool snaps off the spline, the resultant tension shown in the Skidmore must be at least 5% higher than the required tension for that bolt. Although the Bolt Spec does not call out specifically for testing by lot, it is suggested that this testing be done by production lot as received from the manufacturer or distributor.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

For cases where the twist-off bolt is too short to fit into a Skidmore, then pre-installation testing must be done using calibrated dti's as described earlier. The head of the bolt must be restrained from rotation, as the dti bumps under the bolt head will provide little frictional resistance to force the bolt to stop turning and force the wrench to turn the nut. If the bolt is allowed to turn, the dti bumps will become abraded and the measurement of the dti bumps will be inaccurate. Secondly, the spline will typically shear off sooner if the nut is not rotating and the bolt shank is rotating, not representative of the conditions of installation typically found on the steel.

When pre-installation testing is complete, the bolts must be installed and the joints snugged using a systematic method, as with all installation procedures previously discussed. Care must be used to make sure that the splines are not twisted off during the snugging operation. Any bolts that twist off during snugging must be replaced. In some cases, deep sockets are used on conventional impact wrenches to snug the joints, therefore protecting the splines. Upon completion of snugging, the inspector should verify the snug condition visually to make sure no improper gaps exist. The inspector should also verify the presence of all splines. Upon acceptance of the snugged joint by the inspector, the installation crew can proceed to tighten the twistoff bolts with the installation wrench until the splines shear off. Again, a systematic pattern should be used for this step. The inspector should observe that the crews used the installation wrench properly and that all splines have been sheared off by the wrench. AASHTO has recently added that no torque testing of the completed joint is required if twist-off bolts are used.

Inspection Procedures
Up until this point, no mention has been made of any torque testing of any completed joints, except to say when torque testing is not required by AASHTO. Yet, each method described above has contained the entire inspection procedure from start to finish. Under the provisions of the RCSC Bolt Specification, no torque testing of any completed joint is required unless a dispute arises. All the inspection procedures above carry a common focus: 1. Check the materials and certifications. 2. Check the assembly in a bolt calibration device for material quality. 3. Check the validity of the installation technique for that group of fasteners. 4. Check the knowledge of the installation crew in applying the proper technique. 5. Visually check after snugging to verify that the snug condition has been achieved. For dti's, also verify that the installers check for an adequate number of remaining gaps in their dti's. For twist-off bolts, check that the splines are intact. 6. Observe the installation crew for proper technique. This does not mean that the installation of each individual bolt is observed, but to verify that the crew understands and follows the proper techniques (and the crew understands that the inspector is around to make sure they follow them.)

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Torque testing is applicable only when there is a dispute, per section 9(b) of the Bolt Spec. The methodology listed there is not intended as an inspection method, only as a last-ditch effort to resolve claims that the crew may not have followed the proper techniques for a particular joint. The Spec clearly states that this section is to be used only when inspection per 9(a) has been performed - the visual observation of the pre-installation testing, checking for snug, and observation of the installation technique of the crew.
For AASHTO and FHWA bridge work, torque testing is still required for

10% of the bolts in each connection, minimum two per connection, for bolts installed using turn-of-the-nut or calibrated wrench methods. It is hoped that these torque testing provisions will be removed from AASHTO shortly, at least for the turn-of-the-nut method when matchmarking is employed. The torque-testing procedures of AASHTO are similar to the Bolt Spec section 9(b), except that only three bolts are used to determine the inspection torque, not five.

For additional consideration of the value of torque testing, Bolt Spec section 9(c) places severe limitations on its application and validity. The procedure is to be used "at the time of tensioning the joint," not the following week, month or at the completion of the project. AASHTO states that torque testing must be done within 24 hours after completion of pretensioning of the bolts to be tested. Torque values have also been known to vary as much as 30% when trying to relate test torque to actual installed tension, meaning that all the torque testing, performed at great expense, has provided very limited information on actual bolt tension.

Summary
For most buildings, all joints will be shear/bearing joints that need to be installed only to the snug-tight condition. For these joints, the inspector should verify the quality of materials and verify that the joints have been properly snugged. No flame-cutting of holes, slotting of holes or unfair reaming should be allowed without inspector presence and engineer notification. No pre-installation testing or installation observation is required. No torque testing is required. Inspection expenses are minimal when this type of joint is specified.

For shear/bearing joints that must be pretensioned, materials must be checked, the pre-installation verification of materials and procedure must be performed, the snug condition must be verified, and the observation of technique must be conducted. In previous versions of the Bolt Spec Commentary, it was suggested that, since the actual pretension of these joints was not critical to performance, adequate inspection would be to look for peening of the turned element. This would indicate that it had received impact wrench tightening to some degree. Until this statement returns to the Spec, however, it would be inappropriate to follow such guidelines.
For slip-critical joints, inspection of materials, observation of the pre-installation testing, checking for the snug condition and observation of the installation technique is necessary. In addition, inspection of the quality of the faying surface is also required.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

For direct tension joints, the same inspection as required for slipcritical joints should be performed, except there is no inspection of the faying surfaces.
The proper inspection of bolted joints starts with the structural engineer. The engineer must first select the type of joint(s) found in the structure, then convey this information to the fabricator, erector and inspector. The project specifications should include a detailed list of the operations to be performed by the inspector, including timing of such inspections, for each type of joint.
The engineer should not accept torque testing as a substitute for the observation testing as prescribed by the Bolt Spec. To meet any of the three model building codes, the Bolt Spec must be followed, and therefore the observation techniques as prescribed are paramount.

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2003 by American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.