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Unit 1: ENVIRONMENT 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Type of environment 1.2 Segments of the environment 1.3 Component of the environment 1.4 Public awareness 1.5 Effect of environment on human beings 1.6 Need and importance of environmental 1.6-1 multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies 1.7 Need for public awareness 1.8 Questions Unit 2: NATURAL RESOURCES 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Sources of energy 2.2 Utilization of variations energy sources 2.3 Conventional Sources 2.3.1 Coal 2.3.2 Oil and natural gas 2.3.3 Oil shale 2.4 Non conventional sources of energy 2.4.1 Solar energy 2.4.2 Wind power 2.4.3 Hydropower 2.4.4 Energy to flowing system 2.4.5 Biomass energy 2.4.6 Biomass power 2.4.7 Bioenergy 2.4.8 Biogas manufacture 2.4.9 Hydrogen fuel 2.5 Forest resources 2.6 Water resources 2.6.1 Sources of water 2.7 Mineral resources 2.8 Soil 2.8.1 Soil types in India 2.9 Case study 2.10 Case study 2.11 Case study 2.11.1 Fossil fuel 2.11.2 Water 2.11.3 Food 2.11.4 Paper 2.11.5 Essential energy 2.12 Question 2.13 Project

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Unit 3: ECOSYSTEMS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Biomass 3.3 Ecosystems 3.3.1 Types of ecosystems 3.3.2 Components of ecosystem 3.4 Energy in ecosystem 3.5 Ecological Succession 3.6 Food chain, food webs and ecological pyramids 3.7 Forest ecosystem 3.8 Grassland ecosystem 3.9 Deserts ecosystem 3.10 Aquatic ecosystem 3.10.1 Marine ecosystem 3.10.2Inland (flowing) 3.10.3Inland (stagnant) 3.10.4Ice capped and glacial 3.11 Questions 3.12 Project

Unit 4: Biodiversity and its Conservation

4.1 Introduction A. Genetic Diversity B. Species Diversity C. Ecosystem Diversity 4.2 Measurement of Biodiversity 4.3 Value of Biodiversity 4.3.1 Agriculture 4.3.2 Human health 4.3.3 Business and Industry 4.3.4 Leisure, cultural and aesthetic value 4.3.5 Other ecological services 4.4 Global distribution of Biodiversity 4.4.1 Numbers of Species 4.5 India: A Mega diversity nation 4.5.1 Bio-geographical classification of India 4.5.2 Indian Biodiversity A. Species Diversity B. Endemic Species C. Threatened Species 4.6 Biodiversity hotspots 4.6.1 Indian Biodiversity Hotspots

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A. The Western Ghats B. The Eastern Himalayas C. The Indo Burma Region 4.6.2 Hotspots Conservation initiatives 4.7 Threats to Biodiversity 4.7.1 Habitat destruction 4.7.2 Threats posed by exotic species 4.7.3 Genetic pollution 4.7.4 Climate Change 4.8 Biodiversity Conservation 4.8.1 Ex Situ Conservation 4.8.2 In Situ Conservation A. Advantages B. Risks 4.8.3 Biodiversity Conservation steps in India 4.8.4 National Parks of India A. The Sundarbans National Park B. Kanha National Park C. Nagarhole

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CHAPTER I ENVIRONMENT OBJECTIVES : Multi disciplinary nature of environmental studies. Public awareness. Human activities responsible for the change of environment. Effects of environment of human beings. Need and importance of environmental studies. 1.0 INTRODUCTION : The term environment means surrounding and is defined as the sum total of all living (abiotic) and non living (biotic) components. Favourable conditions are created by environment for the growth and existence of all living organisms. Man has made tremendous progress in various field of science and technology. Due to the tremendous developments in the world there is a wide impact on the environment. Environment which we live gets affected by the activities of the man. Hence a need to maintain environmental standards is essential. The changes in the environment has affected all living organisms including human beings. The changes in the environment may be beneficial or harmful, many species on earth which could not adopt to the changing conditions of the environment are vanished or are on the brisk of vanishing. A typical example is the extinction of dinosaurs due to adverse environmental conditions. The awareness about various aspects of environment becomes very important. Every person needs to be educated about environmental issues. This environmental education has become prime concern today every curriculum school and higher education rives due emphasis on environmental aspects in spite of many publications in journal, magazine, newspapers etc. Many governmental and private organizations are working in the area of environmental education The objectives of environmental education is to make to public including students at all levels aware of the importance of the protection and conservation of our environment and the need to restrain activities which leads to an indiscriminate release of pollutants into the environment. In India separate ministry, i.e. Ministry of forests and Environment. According to Haruhiko Tanaka of Hiroshima University , Japan, environment education may only aims at acquiring the contents of knowledge related to environmental problems in the society but also on fostering students ability and the attitude necessary for the presice judgement to solve the problems. If we want to improve our environment there should be i) Awareness (environmental literacy) ii) Attitude (problem solving skills) iii) Action (decision making ). The ultimate aim of environmental education is to develop peoples awareness, attitude, competence and values. This will enable them to be effectively involved in sustainable

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development at local , national and international level and to guide them have more equitable and sustainable future. Every contributor or worker in the area of environment has own prescription and looks at environment from own point of view. Human activities which are responsible for changes in the environment causes its degradation. DEFORESTATION : From thousand of years, cutting of forest trees for bringing forest land under cultivation and for wood is responsible for erosion of the soil. KILLING OF ANIMALS : These may be killed for safety reasons or for the purpose of food has led to the gradual extinction of animals. Industrial and scientific revolutions various activities involved in this has caused tremendous pollution in the atmosphere due to the discharge of number of harmful and poisonous gases. Other activities, industrial waste has been also resulted in polluting water. Many number of episodes like London smog that killed about 4000 peoples in 1952.The use of Nuclear bombs in the second world war of on Nagasaki and Hiroshima was responsible For the death of thousands of peoples and disabling millions of them. The leakage of MIC (methyl isocyanate) at Bhopal in 1984 from Union carbide factory was the worlds worst ever industrial disaster. 1.1 TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT : I) Natural Environment; The component of this environment are air, water, land, forest, soil, wild life, solar radiations, wild like, flora and fauna etc.

ii) Man made environment : These includes having, industries, agricultural implements, dams , hydro, thermal and nuclear energy etc. This environment further classified as a) Social environment b) Organizational environment 1.2 SEGMENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT i) Atmosphere ii) Hydrosphere iii)Lithosphere iv) Biosphere. Atmosphere : is the cover of air that envelops the earth. Hydrosphere : All water on the surface of the earth 75% of earths surface is either as oceans, seas, rivers, lakes and streams etc. Lithosphere : It is the layer of rock that forms outer part of the earth. It mainly includes soil, earth, rocks and maintains etc. Biosphere : Is the part of the earths surface and atmosphere in which plants and animals can live this comprises of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

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1.3 COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT A biotic or non living components e.g. light, humidity and water, temperature, atmospheric gases. ii) Biotic or living components: These includes plants (flora and fauna). Animals including humans parasites and micro-organisms , decomposers. iii) Energy components : It includes solar, geothermal, thermo-electric and nuclear energy. Energy from other sources like radiation also plays on important role for sustaining life process. 1.4 PUBLIC AWARENESS : Most of the peoples are not aware of environmental impact on their bodies and what will be the adverse effects. For e.g. Air pollution what are the standard levels and what are the existing levels of CO. SO2 and other harmful components in the air. In most of the polluted cities the percentage hemoglobin in the blood of human being is decrease because of the higher levels of CO which forms carboxy hemoglobin in the blood and their by reducing percentage of hemoglobin and ultimately resistant power of the body. Organometallic lead which was carrying out of exhaust of the I.C. engines has caused general health problems similarly SO2 and NO2 causes respiratory problems. Regarding the pollution of water awareness is essential common man thinks that water which is clear and glass like transparent is a good quality of water but this water may contains dissolved salts which are harmful. In this regards for everyone it is essential to know at least essential standards of drinking water for better survival of life. Polluted water when used for cultivation of vegetable has also caused adverse affects which has been verified by different scientists . Noise pollution is one of the major problem in the crouded cities it was analysed that peoples living in the noise polluted area are suffering from various hearing , brain and nervous system problems at the later age. Other pollutions have tremendously adversed our life hence it is very much essential to have awareness in each and every one to brain environment. Clean and suitable for the better future public should be guided what precautions to be taken when emergency like MIC lekage in Bhopal arises. HUMAN ACTIVITIES : Responsible for the change of environment. Rapid industrilisation, growth in population, development of unplanned cities has totally disturbed the environmental activities. Besides this as the peoples are not aware how they are helping in the destruction of environment they go on carrying such activities like cutting of trees, burning of forest, throwing garbage at any places. If the awareness is developed in public it will definitely help to maintain environmental standards. 1.5 EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT OF HUMAN BEINGS : Several observations have proved that if the environment is not maintained properly it has caused adverse effects on human being. Many peoples are suffering from brain, kidney, liver problems (cancer). Peoples those who are eating polluted or contaminated food will have adverse effects on their digestive systems and ultimately on the span of life. In West Bengal many peoples have suffered from nervous system problems ultimately it was proved that they were eating fishes which was contaminated with cadmium. Cd, Pb, As, Hg are the most harmful elements causes various health problems. I)

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1.6 NEED AND IMPORTANCE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES : As it is very important part of our life clean environment mean clean life or proper environment mean proper health it is very much essential to study the environment by everybody so that each can help in maintaining environmental standards for better future of life. 1.6.1 Environmental studies is the systematic study of human inter action with their environment. This includes natural environment, built or man made environment, social environment. Organisational environment and the relationships between them is also a study of principles of ecology and environmental sciences with associated subjects such as policy, law economics, politics, social aspects, planning, pollution control, natural resources and the interaction of human beings in nature. Various sets of complex interdisciplinary issues of politics, ecology, economics, Biology, physics, Social are in consideration. Modern environmental studies must include the study of the urban environment as well as natural environment. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES is not only to collect information about the environment but decides the way we all should live or it is the need to lead more sustainable life styles. It is the systematic study of human interaction with their environment. This includes natural environment,built or man made environment,social environment. MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE brings about appreciation of our natural world and human impacts on its integrity to make human civilization sustainable, biology, geology, physics, chemistry, sociology, engineering, health anthropology , statistics, economics, computer and philosophy are the resources. Our surroundings is a combination of forest, river, mountain, desert etc. We are dependent on it as these are our food suppliers. Our daily lives are linked with environment, we cannot continue to live without protecting the environmental resources. Thus most traditions refers to our environment as Mother nature. Agricultural and industrial developments led to the environmental degradation. 1.7 Need for public awareness : Prevention of environment, degradation, must become a part of all our lives. Prevention is better than cure. To prevent ill effects it is more economically valuable than disposal of the waste. This can be only done by mass public awareness through media (T.V, newspapers etc), discussions with friends and relations, joining local movements, recycling waste, Using the environmentally friendly products. Changing our habits of chewing tobacco and spitting, throwing garbage on road smoking and urinating in public places. Organizations e.g. BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society ) began in 1983. World wide fund for nature (WWF-I) was initiated in 1969. Centre for Scienceand Environment (CSE) Delhi organizes workshops and conferences Environmental Education centre Madras (EEC) set up in 1988. It focused attention on NGOS, teachers, women, youth and children to generally promote conservation of nature and natural resources by conducting various programs. EEC has also produced large number of publications. The centre for environment education (CEE) was initiated in 1989. BVIEER (Bharti Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research pune) has undergraduate, postgraduate and doctorate programs in their Institute. It has also produced several hand books. Various Institutes :

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Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN) Almora . Salim Ali centre for Ornithology and natural History (SACON), Coimbatore. Wild Life Institute of India (WIT) Dehradun. Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Calcutta. Environmental Studies for undergraduate Courses Zoological survey of India ( ZSI). S.P. Godrej was one of the Indias greatest supporters of wild life conservation and nature awareness programming. In 1982 Anil Agrawal wrote the first report on State of Indias Environment. Medha Patkar is known as Indias Champions who has supported the cause of downtrodden tribal people whose environment being affected by dams on the river of Narmada. 1.8 QUESTIONS : 1 2 3 4 5 6 What do you understand by the term environment? Explain need and importance of environmental studies. How human activities are responsible for the change of environment. Which are the different types of environements. What are the components of the environment. Why public awareness in environmental studies is essential.

CHAPTER II :

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NATURAL RESOURCES : OBJECTIVES : Renewable and Non-renewable sources. Natural sources and associated problems. Water resources Mineral resources Food resources Energy resources Land resources 2.0 INTRODUCTION :

Energy is the capacity to do work . Energy consumption, economic growth and population increase are interlinked. The energy demands of developing and developed countries are increasing day by day. There is a rapid increase in energy consumption in India is due to the increase in population, industrialization, urbanization and other developmental activities. The population of India crossed one billion in the year 2000 which is about 16% of world population. India consumes only 3.4% of the total energy produced in the world, is lower than that of Germany , Japan , China and Unites States . The United States consumed 24.5% of worlds commercial energy with its population share of only 4.6% in the world. Energy consumption is also one of the indicators of the development of a country There is also a need to keep a watch on the environment. The development, of course, should not be the cost of environmental degradation . We should use the resources available to us very cautiously for the sustainable development. 2:1 SOURCES OF ENERGY The energy resources can be classified as follows : Energy Resources : Conventional (Non-renewable) Coal Oil Natural gas

Non-Conventional (Renewable) Solar Wind Geothermal Tidal Fuel Cells and Biomass

Nuclear

In India coal accounts for a little more than 50% energy consumption . Mainly the energy generated by coal is used by power sector which is followed by heavy industry. Petroleum meets 34.54% of the energy demand while natural gas accounts for 6.53% followed by hydroelectricity which is 6.35%

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Nuclear energy has a very small share of 1.70% whereas solar, geothermal and wind energy all combined together yield only 0.2% of the total amount. Coal is the most abundant commercial energy source and during 1970-2001, its production has shown an average annual growth rate of 5.1%. However, its share in energy supply has decreased which used to be 60.49% in 1970-71 and is about 44.81% in 2001-2002. In India power generation favours this fuel as its availability is quite high. About 70% of coal produced is consumed in the power sector. Other industries like steel, cement, fertilizer, chemicals, paper and other small and medium industries also depend upon coal for their energy demands. Although, production of petroleum and natural gas has increased over the years, India depends heavily upon crude oil imports. During 1970-2000, the oil production has increased at the rate of 5.33% per annum. This is mainly because the consumption of petroleum products has increased in all sectors, particularly in industry and transport. 2:2 UTILISATION OF VARIOUS ENERGY SOURCES Various sources of energy can be classified as primary or secondary sources. Primary sources are those which are obtained directly from the environment. These include conventional sources, nuclear sources, Geothermal sources and various forms of energy such as solar , wind and tidal. On the other hand, secondary sources include sources which are obtained from primary sources. The secondary sources are derived from other sources e.g. petrol, electricity, hydrogen etc. 2:3 CONVENTIONAL SOURCES The conventional sources of energy are also known as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels were formed from the incomplete biological decomposition of dead organic matter (mostly plants and marine organisms) They are also called carbon or hydrocarbon fuels because they are based on organic compounds which contain the elements carbon and hydrogen. 2.3.1 a. Coal When partially decomposed vegetation got deeply buried in a sedimentary environment, it slowly transformed into solid, brittle, carbonaceous, roc k called coal. Coal is considered by many people to be activity fuel as there are many environmental impacts associated with mining processing, transporting and use of coal. Coal can be classified into various types according to its carbon content. The characteristics of different types of coal are given Table 2:1. TABLE 2.1 TYPES OF COAL Type of Coal Lignite Sub-bituminous Bituminous Anthracite %C 60.70 75-83 78-90 92-98 %O 16-18 14-15 9-10 2-3 Volatile 45 40 20 05 % Moisture 35 17 06 01 Calorific Values 5000-6000 6100-6500 6600-7500 7500-8100

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In the due course of time, peat & a type of coal gets compacted to lignite which is sedimentary rock with woody texture and because more partially decayed organic material accumulated on it. After further compaction and cementing lignite transformed to bituminous coal which is soft black that burns with a smoky yellow flame. Hard black coal is called anthracite. It burns slowly but gives off intense heat. It is formed by folding And hardening of sedimentary strata containing bituminous coal. Anthracite has relatively low volatile constituents and lower percentage of moisture . The quality of coal is also rated according to its carbon content. The coal containing less sulphur is advantageous because it causes less environmental pollution. Thus, it is a more desirable fuel for power plants.Coal deposits are exploited mainly by strip mining.It involves removal of vegetation and topsoil using bulldozers , shovels and scrapers. Then, the exposed coal beds are drilled and blasted to fracture coal. The coal is then removed the land is filled, topsoil is replaced and the vegetation is restored. This land reclamation minimizes the damage caused by strip mining. The damage would otherwise include total destruction of the ecosystem and turning of such a land into a barren desert. Rainwater or surface water can infiltrate into rock debris left after removal of the coal. This water on reaction with sulphide minerals such as pyrite (FeS2) produces sulphuric acid which pollutes streams and ground water resources. Their strip mining can destroy water, biological and other land resources due to acid drainage. On the other hand underground has hazards of collapse, explosion and fire. Respiratory illnesses are common amongst miners. Land subsidence over mines may also occur.Transport of coal from mines to areas of actual usage over long distances is presently handled by railways.Burning of coal also produces sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide. Sulphur dioxide leads to acid rain whereas carbon dioxide is a significant contributor to global warming. 2.3.2 b. OIL AND NATURAL GAS The high temperature and pressure are responsible for the conversion of organic materials into oil and gas, which got buried with marine or lake sediments. India draws most of its oil from Bombay High, Upper Assam, Cambay, Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins. The consumption of petroleum products rose from 57 million tones in 1991-92, 368 million tones by 2005. Crude Oil is a thick greenish-brown flammable liquid. It can be refined to produce a number of valuable products including oil and petrol. The primary production method involves pumping the oil from wells under the natural pressure whereas the secondary recovery method involves the injection of steam, water or gases such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen into the reservoir to push the oil. Natural gas is a mixture of flammable hydrocarbon gases containing methane is the main component. It is mostly available in association with oil reserves. It is a convenient and clean fuel as far as the environmental aspects are concerned. It produces very low amounts of oxides of nitrogen on combustion.

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The use of oil, however caused environmental problems at the stage of extraction, refining, transportation and combustion. Some of these problems are damage of ecosystems, release of drilling muds. Disruption of land to construct wells, laying pipelines or storage tanks and other production facilities. Pollution of surface waters and ground water from run off or leakage. 2.3.3 c. OIL SHALE It is sedimentary rock containing organic matter .The destructive distillation of oil shale at 500 C yields hydrocarbons. Its disposaI causes a problem. Because of other available options shale oil although a fuel source has not been developed to its Full utilization. Fossil fuels are depleting at a very fast rate will not exist forever. These formation in nature took over millions of years and they will not be replaced so soon. Hence they are called non-renewable resources. Therefore to develop alternative sources of energy is the need of future. 2.4 NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES Secondary Energy Resources These energy resources do not occur in nature as such but they are derived from primary energy resources e.g. or gasoline, electrical energy from coal burning, hydrogen obtained by electrolysis of water etc. 2.4.1 : SOLAR ENERGY Sun is the primary source of energy and all forms of energy on the earth are derived from it. Solar energy originates from the thermonuclear fusion reactions that take place in the sun. Solar energy can be harnessed either by deriving energy directly from sunlight or by indirect methods. Solar energy can be obtained by (i) Solar thermal technology i.e. harnessing of solar heat into useful energy using collectors. (II) Photovoltaic energy conversion technology. (III) Solar hydrogen gas production technology. It is still at an embryonic stage. The indirect method is in the form of wind, biomass and biogas and through tides. Solar radiant energy is being utilsed through thermal as well as photovoltaic (pv) route in India. The thermal route has found many applications such as space heating and cooling using passive and/or active concepts, refrigeration and cold storages, cooking ,water/air heating, drying of food grains/fish/fruits/vegetables, purification of brakish water, drying of timber, generation of power etc. The PV cells are used for electric power generation. Solar Collector : Solar collector is a device to absorb incident solar radiation and to transfer the energy to a fluid passing in contact with utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. 2.4.2 WIND POWER :

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A wind mill is a machine for wind energy conversion. A wind turbine converts the kinetic energy of the winds motion to mechanical energy transmitted by the shaft. A generator further converts it to electrical energy, thereby generating electricity. A number of wind mills have been designed by different scientists. And broadly wind mills can be classified as __horizontal axis type and vertical axis type, depending on their axis of rotation. Most practically accepted wind mill is of airplane type propeller blades turning a generator geared to the shaft. It consists of machines with blades of diameter about 17m which can generate about 100 kilowatts. It has arrays of 50 to several thousand such machines, are non-producing power in a number of places around the world. 2.4.3 HYDROPOWER Hydropower is nothing but the power produced from water. It is possible to concert mechanical energy into potential energy and recover the potential energy on demand and provide storage for mechanical systems. Such a system, for example, can pump water into an elevated reservoir and recover the energy by running the water through a turbine when energy is needed. The power output from water wheel being low , so people started building high dams to obtain substantial head of hydrostatic pressure. Thus when the water under high pressure, flows through the base of the dam, it drives turbo-generators producing hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric power is a non-polluting renewable energy source. But it causes serious problems; such as, (i) Dams have drowned out beautiful stretch of rivers, wildlife, forests etc. The construction of dams have also rendered several farmers and tribals homeless. (ii) Due to dams, the spread of parasitic worms which in turn may cause serious diseases. (iii) Because of dams nearby areas may be flooded. (iv) Devastating earthquakes, observed near Koyana in India (Maharashtra) are attributed to the Koyana dam by some scientists. 2.4.4 ENERGY TO FLOWING WATER The phenomenon of generation of electricity by using the energy of flowing water is called hydroelectricity. It is done by an arrangement called hydro-electric power plant. The place where it is installed is called hydro-power station. The principle of the generation of hydro-electricity is explained below : The water flowing in a river is collected by constructing a high dam. The water so stored at a high altitude possesses a lot of potential energy. This water from the dam is allowed to fall on a waterturbine T which is located near the base of the dam. As the water falls on the blades of a turbine, the kinetic energy associated with the moving water rotates the turbine rapidly. The shaft of the turbine is further attached to the coil of a dynamo or generator (D). Therefore, as the water-turbine rotates rapidly, the generator coil fixed on its shaft also rotates rapidly and generates electricity. 2.4.5 BIOMASS ENERGY

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Biomass is defined as living matter or its residues and it is a renewable source. The common examples of biomass are wood, grass, herbage and bagasse. Biomass can play an important role as an alternative source of energy in some areas as: (i) Thermal applications (boilers; furnaces, kilns) (ii) Shaft power applications (internal combustion engine, spark ignition and compression ignition) (iii) For production of fuel. In all above applications, biomass is converted into solid or liquid or gaseous form to get better fuel. Such conversion can be done by two routes. 1. Thermochemical route : Temperature and or pressure is used to get better fuel e.g. charcoal from wood, cake from coal, producer gas from carbonaceous fuel etc. 2. Fermentation route via micro-organisms : Agricultural residue (having cellulose raw materials) such as cereal straw, byproducts of corin and beet cultivation are used for ethanol production by fermentation root. 2.4.6 BIOMASS PRODUCTION : The main sources of biomass can be of two types. 1 2 Growing energy crops Waste material including agricultural, forest and municipal waste.

2.4.7 BIOENERGY : The energy obtained from biological sources is known as bioenergy. The bioenergy can be used in two ways as biofuels (transportation) or to generate power (electricity, heat etc.) BIOFUELS : Biofuels are used for transportation and to generate electricity. They are good for environment as they add less emission to atmosphere than petroleum fuels and use waste that currently has no use. Unlike petroleum, which is a non-renewable natural resource, biofuels are renewable and inexhaustible source of fuel. e.g. ethanol, biodised etc. 2.4.8 MANUFACTURING OF BIOGAS FROM BIOMASS Methane is popularly called biogas or gobar gas. It is produced by anaerobic digestion (enzymatic breakdown) In absence of oxygen of biomass. It is a mixture of 50-70% methane, 30-40% CO2 and 1% H2S and traces of H2, O2, N2 and CO. Biomass is a solid organic waste from industrial, agricultural or domestic sources. Waste from sugar industry, food industry, garbage, human refuse, animal waste and crop residue are the common feed materials. Biogas production is a naturally occurring process that starts when organic matter enters anaerobic condition. The anaerobic digestion process consists of a complex series of reactions that are catalysed by a mixed group of bacteria. In these reactions, organic matter is converted step by step to mainly methane and carbon dioxide. A slurry of waste organic matter is fed to a enclosed biogas plant or digester (air-tight tank) in which as is formed. Gas is trapped in inverted drums and used as per requirement.Several designs of biogas plants are available. The most popular designs are developed by Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) and Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi. figure

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Biogas is a good domestic fuel because of following reasons: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Biogas burns without smoke and hence does not cause air pollution. Biogas has high calorific value It is a clean and convenient fuel There is no storage problem for biogas as it is supplied by pipes directly from gas plant. Biogas is cheaper than most common fuels.

2.4.9 HYDROGEN AS A FUEL Hydrogen is a clean burning gas without any pollution because the product of combustion is only water vapour 2H2 + O2 2H2O + energy However hydrogen does not exist in free state on earth hence it is produced by electrolysis of water. Solar energy can be used to produce hydrogen by electrolysis of water at a place where land is cheap and sunlight is plenty. 2H2O + Energy 2H2 + O2 Present vehicles could easily be adapted to run on hydrogen with some modifications in the fuel tank, fuel intake system and the type of service stations. The service stations should dispense hydrogen gas into vehicle fuel tanks which would consist of materials that would absorb large amount of hydrogen and release it only slowly, on being heated. This slow release would ensure safety against the hazard of explosion. Whilst its energy content on a mass-for-mass basis is better than petrol but hydrogen has difficulty competing with fossil fuel because it is a gas. Hydrogen is the most commonly used fuel in fuel cells. It can be supplied directly from a hydrogen cylinder or indirectly from other fuels through fuel processing unit. The most commonly used oxidant is oxygen or air. Some systems require high purity hydrogen. 2.5 FOREST RESOURCES : Timber and water which can be used and regenerated by natural processes such as regrowth or rainfall. If we continue to use them faster than nature can replace them e.g. Use of timber and fire wood from the forest is faster than the regrowth and regeneration of trees, it cannot replenish the supply. Loss of forest cannot be covered which affects out water resources. Deforestation floods in the monsoon and dry once the rains are over. Such effects impacts on human activities. In short environment resources can be compared with our bank deposits. If we use it fast the capital will be reduced to zero very shortly. If it is used properly or only interest is used, it can sustain as over the longer term. This is called sustainable development. 2.6 WATER RESOURCES : Water plays a vital role in our life. It is most abundant, wonderful and useful solvent. 80% of the earth crust is covered with water. Even though it is a most abundant commodity in nature it is the most misused one. The quality available for actual use in the form of rivers, lakes, ponds etc. Is hardly 0.5% because more than 96% of water is locked in oceans which is too saline to drink or to

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be used for agricultural, industrial and domestic purposes, 2% of water is locked in polar ice caps and 1% in the deep underground area. Due to the rapid industrialization and growth in population man has successfully polluted most of the water available on the earth. Industrial and domestic waste has caused significant pollution of the aquatic ecosystem (Trivedi and Goel 1986). Hence monitoring and control of pollution is essential for better future. 2.6.1 SOURCES OF WATER: I) Surface water It is the water present on the Rivers, lakes, streams, ponds etc. II) Underground water Well or spring water. Some part of rain water penetrates through the soil. III) Rain water It is purest form of water obtained by natural distillation process. 2.7 MINERAL RESOURCES : Mineral resources are limited and thus non renewable. The material extracted from soil have not been used for generating energy. The high consumption of minerals will lead to their depletion. Reserve Life Index expresses the number of years of production at current annual rates. For the pattern of production and consumption of Earths metals is not equitable in most of the cases. In 1991-92 USA, China, Japan and Russian Federation analysis shown that India was the 6th largest producer of iron or (34, 136, 000, metric tons) Australia was the largest producer of aluminium and USA Was the largest consumer of aluminium . Due to the high consumption of mineral resources there is a huge environmental burden on the countries which extract the mineral. Extraction process, disposal of wastes of minerals have caused several environmental problems. The land degradation by creating quarries, vast open pits and large amount of solid waste have amount of solid waste have polluted water at several places.

e.g.

Iron minerals Copper minerals Mangenese minerals Lead minerals Zink minerals

Fe2 O3 hematite, Fe3O4 magnetite,FeS2 Cu2O-Cuprite, Cu2S chalcosite etc. MnO2 pyrolusite, Rhodonits MnSiO3 PbS Galena, Cerussite PbCo3, Anglosite ZnO Zincite,Blende Zns etc.

The other groups of minerals are garnet, silicate, chlorite, Mica and fuels pathoid. 2.8 SOIL : The word soil is defined from latin word solumn means loose powdery earth in which plants grows. It is also defined as unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the surface of the earth which acts as a natural medium for the growth of plants and sustenance of terrestrial ecosystem. The definition can be also written as It is a complex mixture of different types of materials and is derived from the rock, organic matter and other materials carried by geologic agents and biotic community. Soil contains about 90-95% inorganic matter and 5-10 % of organic matter with water and air. The inorganic components of the soil are oxygen 46.6%,silicon 27.8%,aluminium 8.1%,iron 5.1%,calcium3.6%, sodium 2.8%,potassium 2.6% and magnisium2.1%.soil contains silicates like quartz sio2 ,albite(NaAlSi3O8),orthoclase(KALSi3O8)etc.Certain soil contains titanium and manganese oxides along with calcium carbonate.The organic components of soil are humas,lipid,saccharides, nitrogen containing organics, phosphorous compounds. Depending on the size of the rock particles soil may be classified as :

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i) Sandy Soil - Contains loose and dry sand particle of size 0.05 to 1.0 mm along with 10% clay and silt of 0.002 to 0.05 mm size. This type of soil has low nutrient contents and low water holding capacity. ii) Clay soil Contains clay particles of size less than 0.002 mm and inhibit free circulation of water and air. The sand,silt and clay are in the ratio 2:2:1. These are unsuitable for cultivation. iii) Loam soil - Sand, gravel, silt and clay are in the ratio of 2:2:1:1. They contains nutrients and have moisture retaining ability, most suitable of vegetation.

2.8.1 SOIL TYPES OF INDIA: Indian council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified Indias soil into following types : Alluvium derived soil West Bengal & Assam Brown red soils Parts of Eastern Himalaya Brown Forest and podzolic soils North west Himalaya Coastal alluvium derived soil Dominant in the eastern coastal plains and narrow strips along western coastal plains. Desert soils : Punjab< Haryana, Rajasthan, Kachchh etc. Grey brown soil Foot hills of Aravallis Medium and Deep black soil Narmada Valley, Malwa plateau, Bundelkhand, upland and central high land Mixed red and black soil - Telangana, Western part of, eastern Ghats, Karnataka plateau and Anantapur region. Red 10 amy soils Western Ghats, uplands of Tamilnadu and Eastern Himalaya. Red and yellow soils Eastern plateau adjoining the central highlands. Red and lateritic soils Western and Estern Ghats. Saline and alkaline soils Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and uttar Pradesh Sandy littoral soils Andaman, Nichobar and Lakshadeep, Islands Shallow and skeletal soil - Ladakh plateau, Kashmir and Himalaya Shallow and medium black soils - Deccan plateay, Central Maharashtra and Karnakata Tarai soil Foot hills of Central and Western Himalaya Deforestation, mining, rapid industrilisation, use of fertilizers and insecticides are mainly responsible for soil pollution. 2.9 CASE STUDY : Select an article that you use in daily life. Trace its components in our environment. How many of them are renewable. For every resources we must ask ourselves the following questions. Where does the resource originates. Who uses it most intensively and how? How is it being overused or misused by whom (whether by resource collector of the middle man or the final user) How we can help to prevent its unsustainable use. What way we can reduce, reuse and recycle that resource

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Once we start asking questions to ourselves we will begin to live more sustainable life style with the support of our environment. 2.10 CASESTUDY : (2) Think all of the activities that you do in day identity the resources of waste, reuse articles, recycled materials. Energy sources you use every day, whether you can reduce their use. 2.11 CASESTUDY : (3) Self learning about the environment Attempt to assess the level of damage to the environment due to your actions. e.g. plastic bag, plastic ball pens, papers etc. How can you reduce the use of plastic you use, what are the effects of plastics on our environment? What happens when it is thrown away? Where it goes. 2.11.1 e.g. FOSSIL FUEL How much do you use? Can you reduced your consumption. When fuel burns what are the effects on the environment and human beings. When each of use contributes our part in conserving fossil based energy we can make it last longer on it otherwise there may be an end of oil as a source of energy. 2.11.2 e.g. WATER How much water is actually needed how much is wasted during Teeth brushing, bathing, washing cloths, washing scooters, cars etc. What are the resources of water? How you get water in our house, where did the waste water goes. How can you change this so that it is more sustainable. 2.11.3 e.g. FOOD Where it is grown? How it comes to you what chemicals are used for its production. How much of the food is utilized properly and how much it is wasted? How waste is disposed off. 2.11.4 e.g. PAPER What are the materials used in manufacture ? How much is utilized and how much is wasted? How waste is disposed off. 2.11.5 e.g. ESSENTIAL ENERGY : How it is produced? How much is used every day, how much can be saved by proper use. We must recognize that every activity that we do in our daily lives has an adverse impact on natures integrity. Thus if we use up all our resources, kill off plants and animals, pollute air and water,

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degrade land and create enormous quantities of waste, we as a generation will leave nothing for future generations. 2.12 QUESTIONS :

What are the advantages and disadvantages of solar energy How biogas is produced from biomass What is hydropower? How energy is utilized form hydropower? What are the serious problems caused due to hydropower. What are conventional energy sources? What are their advantages & disadvantages How energy is obtained from wind? What are its advantages and disadvantages. Write notes i) Hydropower ii) Hydrogen as a fuel The production and consumption of earths minerals are equitable? Explain. CASESTUDY i) Fresh water running into the seas is wasted how it can be utilized? What are the advantages and disadvantages. How pollution of this water can be controlled (Select specific area) 2) How pollution of soil is controlled (Select specific area) Causes of pollution ,adverse effects and controlling majors. 2.13 PROJECTS 1)Hydrogen is the best fuel, explain production, storage, utilization advantages and disadvantages. 2)How solar energy is utilized economically comment. 3)DAM AND RESERVOIRS i) Type ii) Objectives iii) Suitability of different rocks iv) Some Indian Dam sites v) Reservoir sites vi) Ground water conditions vii) Permeability investigations viii) Environmental problems after construction. 4) TUNNELLING i) Types ii) Objectives iii) Detail survey iv) Permeability of rocks investigations v) Explorations during construction vi) Difficulties vii) Environmental impact. 5)ROADS HIGHWAYS i) Geological considerations ii) Weathering iii) Ground water levels iv) Complicated regions for road v) Rock considerations vi) Environmental problems after road construction. .

CHAPTER 3 ECOSYSTEMS OBJECTIVES

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Concepts of ecosystem Structure and functions of ecosystem, Producer, Consumer and decomposes. Energy in ecosystem Ecological succession Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids Forest ecosystem Grass land ecosystem Desert ecosystem Aquatic ecosystems Representation of the biosphere (shaded portion) 3.0 INTRODUCTION : Biosphere is the area of contact between atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere can be represented as shown in fig. 3.1. As it is here that the entire life is contained and basic processes of life, the photosynthesis and respiration occur. It is extremely important. The living organisms confined to biosphere received solar radiation during the day . Biosphere extends from the floor of the ocean, 11,000 m below the surface of the earth to the top of the highest mountain about 9,000 m above the sea level. The most densely populated region is just above and below the sea level. The life in biosphere exists mostly between 600 m below the surface of the ocean and about 6000 m above the sea level. The nutrients necessary for living organisms come from air, water and soil and the energy comes from the sun. The necessary conditions that are essential to support life are : Availability of air, water Area of interface between the earths crust, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Suitable temperature, nutrients and supply of energy of radiation from the sun. The availability of nutrients in the biosphere in terms of macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients like carbon oxygen and nitrogen are available in atmosphere, nitrogen also available in 80% Hydrogen available in hydrosphere. Phosphorous, Calcium, Chlorine, Iron, Copper, Magnesium, Sulpher, Sodium, Potassium are available in Lithosphere. Like Aluminium, Boron, Bromine, Zinc, Cobalt, Iodine chromium. 3:1 BIOMES :

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Various regions of biosphere are called biomes. Each biome is characterized by its climate, vegetation, type of soil and animal life. The boundary of a biome is determined by the abundance of plants and animals found in each of them.The biomes are dependent on factors like temperature and precipitation of moisture. Various biomes in lithosphere along with their main features are given in table. 3.1 DIFFERENT BIOMES IN LITHOSPHERE BIOME ---------------------Tundra REGION ---------Region adjoining the ice bound poles Moderate temperature North Europe, Asia And North America. FLORA AND FAUNA ------------------------Only shrubs are present. Flora includes lichen and mosses. Vegetation evergreens-mostly The fauna Includes small birds, haws, furbearing carnivores,si berian tiger, wolves etc. Trees like peech, oak, apple and cherry etc(flora) The familiar vertebrates and invertebrates(fauna).

Taiga

Temperate Deciduous Temperature is moderate and abundant forest Rainfall. These are the agricultural areas of the earth. Parts of Central and Southern Europe, North America, China, Japan, New Zealand etc. Tropical Rain Forest l

Tropical areas of higher rainfall and high temperture

About 40% of theworld

Grass Lands

North America, Midwest and Ukraine

Desert

Low rainfall and low humidity Continental interiors.

Grasses, Fauna include large herbivores like Bison, antelope, cattle, rodents, Wolves and birds Flora like cacti, euphorbia etc. Fauna-reptiles, mammals and Birds.

3.2

ECOSYSTEMS

Biomes can be subdivided into smaller units; these are referred to as ecological systems of ecosystems. The ecosystems are the subdivisions of the biosphere. They may be natural i.e. pond, lake, river, an ocean or forest or it may be manmade artificial i.e. an aquarium, a dam, a garden, an orchard etc. In 1930 Roy Clapham combined physical and biological components of an environment. British ecologist Arthur Tansley later refined the term describing it as : The whole system what we call as the environment. Tansley regarded ecosystem not simply as natural units but as mental isolates. Later on he defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope.

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Ecosystem is the concept that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment. Eugene odum a founder of ecology stated Any unit that includes of all the organisms (i.e. the community) in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy, leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, & material cycles (exchange of materials between living and non living parts within the system is an eco system. The prefix eco means environment, so an ecosystem is an environmental system. It is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms i.e. the biotic community (living organisms) and abiotic community (nonliving constituents). ECOSYSTEMS : I) II) III) IV) V) Aquatic ecosystems, chapter, coral reef, desert Greater yellow stone ecosystem Human ecosystem Marine ecosystem savanna Surface litho autotrophic Microbial ecosystem - Taiga VI) Terestrial ecosystem - Tundra VII) Urban ecosystem Ecosystems are also classified on the basis ecological factors such as climate, elevation, human influence such as grazing, hydric regimes, and survival strategies such as seasonality. General classifications are available. 3.2.1 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

The ecosystems are broadly classified in following two types : i) Terrestrial Ecosystems They include grassland, cropland , forest, desert etc. ii) Aquatic Ecosystems They include pond, lake, silver, sea etc. Most of ecosystems contain all the components necessary for life processes, these are self sufficient for the survival of life. 3.2.2 COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEMS

An ecosystem has two main components (a) Abiotic components (non-living) (b) Biotic components (living components) i) ABIOTIC COMPONENTS (Non-living) The abiotic components or the physical components include the following : Soil, water, air and light. Inorganic components like carbon, sulphur, calcium, phosphorus etc. Atmospheric gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc. Organic components like amino acids, proteins; these are links between abiotic and biotic components and are synthesized by plants and living organisms by various biochemical procedures.

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Temperature, wind, humidity, heat etc. climate and weather conditions. (ii) BIOTIC COMPONENTS (Living components)

The biotic components of an ecosystem interact with abiotic components; this interaction is the basis of supporting life. These include the plants, animals and microorganisms. a. PRODUCERS : These are capable of synthesising their own food from simple substances like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight, e.g. include certain bacteria and algae etc. Green plants can synthesise their own food by the process of photosynthesis. These are the autotrophic members of the ecosystem. b. CONSUMER : These organisms cannot make their own food but depend on other organisms for food to meet their energy requirements to survive. These are referred to as heterotrophic members of the ecosystem because animals and humans which depend on other organisms for the food are the examples of consumers. Primary consumers or herbivores : Animals such as goat, cow, deer and insects etc. which eat green plants secondary consumers organisms that eat an herbivores like a bird that eats grasshoppers Tertiary consumers the organisms that eat secondary consumers. The secondary and tertiary consumers are carnivores while the primary consumers are herbivores. c. DECOMPOSERS : Microorganisms like certain bacteria and fund which attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and decompose them into smaller compounds are called decomposers. Inorganic nutrients are also released during this process of decomposition. The producers, consumers and decomposers interact with each other in many ways. These interactions constitute the food chain. 3.3 ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS

Energy used for all life processes is derived from sun in the form of solar energy. Solar energy is unidirectional absence of which the ecosystem is bound to collapse. Plants produce their food from carbon dioxide and water with the help of solar energy by the process known as photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants also incorporate in their protoplasm a number of inorganic elements and compounds. So the chemical energy is in the form of carbohydrates, fats and protein. A number of nutrients are also incorporated. When the animals consume plant materials, the solar energy find its way into the animals. Finally, after decay of the plants and animals the nutrients etc. are returned to the soil by the decomposers and are again taken up by plants. In this way, the energy flows. This is exhibited in Fig. 3.2 below.

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FIG.3.2

BALANCING THE ECOSYSTEM

When the trapped energy in plants is transferred to another system e.g. animals etc. it undergoes loss at each transfer along the chain. This is governed by the two laws of thermodynamics. First law of thermodynamics, the energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only change from one form to another. The solar energy is transformed into chemical energy in the plants in the form of carbohydrates etc. Thus, the energy is transformed but not lost. This chemical energy is transformed and used by the cells of the organisms via metabolism for numerous activities. As per second law of thermodynamics, part of the useful energy is degraded into unusable waste as heat energy during every heat transformation; the waster energy escapes into the surroundings. On the basis of this law, it is concluded that the ultimate source of all energy, which is required for the ecosystem to function, is the solar energy. About 30% of the total solar radiation which enters the atmosphere is reflected back by the earth-atmospheric system, remaining 70% of the radiation is absorbed by the earths atmosphere and the surface of the earth. Thus living world depends on the flow of energy and the circulation of nutrients through ecosystem.

3.4 : ECOLOGICAL SUCESSION : Many countries defines the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintainance of viable populations of species. This has created political necessary to spatially identify ecosystems. Ecosystem may be defined as a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their nonliving environment interacting as a functional unit. With the need of protecting ecosystem most effective physiognomic ecological classification was given by Vrengdenhil ,as ecosystem easily recognisable in the fields as well as on satellite images. Structure and seasonality of the associated vegetation, complemented with ecological data such as elevation, humidity and drainage) are each determining modifiers that separates partially distinct sets of species for plants animals, fungi and bacteria. The degree of ecosystem distinction is subject to the physiognomic modifier Which can be identified an image and/or in the field, where necessary, specific fauna elements can be added. In 1974 physiognomic ecological classification of plant formations of the earth based on the work of Mueller-Dombois and Heinz-Ellenberg was developed by UNESCO. It describes the vegetation structures and cover as observed in the field. Classification system also takes into account. Ecological factors such as climate, elevation, human influence such as growing, hydraulic regims and survival strategies such as seasonality. Land cover classification system (LCCS) developed by the food and agriculture organization (FAO).

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General aquatic classification on systems are available. From a philosophy of science, ecosystem are not discrete units of nature but can be identified using the right classification approach forest ecosystem, Grass land ecosystem, Dessert ecosystem and Aquatic ecosystem. 3.5 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICALPYRAMIDS Food chain is a simplified way of understanding trophic primary levels in ecosystem producers assimilate atmospheric carbon. The biomass thus produced becomes food to all other living organisms. The brass eagle chain is one of the simple food chain in nature. A grass hopper that eats grass is a primary consumer, a frog that eats the grasshopper is the secondary consumer, and egret that eats the frog is the tertiary consumer and the eagle that eats the egret will be the quaternary consumer. The pathway by which biomass from one living organism enters in another pathway is known as food chain. Grass > Grasshopper > Frog > Egret > Eagle

Primary producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer

Tertiary consumer Quaternary Consumer

GRASS EAGLE - FOOD CHAIN The way in which the number of resources are allocated amongst the different trophic levels tend to vary from ecosystem to ecosystem. The most general pattern is the allocation of resources are highest at the base trophic level and least at the upper one. As a result when Food Chains are constructed along the relative allocation of resources at the different trophic levels tend to look likes pyramid as shown in Fig. 3 -----------------------------------------------------------quaternary consumer -------------------------------------------------------------------------- tertiary consumer --------------------------------------------------secondary consumer-------------------------------------------------------primary consumer-----------------------------------------------------------------------primary--producer-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Fig. 3 (Ecological pyramid , pyramid of numbers) Three types of ecological pyramids are normally drawn in analyzing trophic pathways. I) Pyramid of numbers ii) Pyramid of biomass iii) Pyramid of energy. FOOD WEB : In other pathway food chains in an ecosystem tend to be branched or even in the form of network. Cow and sheep also need on grass. Spiders, lizards and birds eat grasshoppers. Snake eats frogs. Birds eat spider and some spiders eat small birds. Lizard may eat spiders, grasshoppers and small birds in eat and be eaten game of life creating a network of ecological path-way. Cow, Sheep and large herbivores are primary consumers like the grasshopper, fall prey directly to carnivores like tiger their by shortening food chain. The various food chains of varying length branch to form network together create food webs with in the ecosystem. There are parasites, pathogens and decomposers in every ecosystem. As they do not consume actually the biomass of their host organisms they are not considered as carnivores. These decomposers includes

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insects, fungi, bacteria and other micro-organisms. Since decomposers feed on dead organic matter or detritus they are called detritivores. In an ecosystem along with carnivores, herbivores and detritivores. There are also those that eat plants, flesh and dead organic matter without any specific preference. These are called ominivores. Crows, gulls, rats and domestic dogs are the best examples of omnivores. It is the presence of herbivores , carnivores, detritivores , omnivores, parasites and pathogens in an ecosystem makes the web of life complex. 3.6 FOREST ECOSYSTEM : Characteristics structures Vegetation characterised by a predominance of trees Deciduous of evergreen Seasonal monsoon, receive rain throughout year or dry during a part of year. Vegetation stratified into herb. Photosynthesis intense by plants and also by algap. e.g.s Tropical rain forests, deciduous forests, coniferons forests. 3.7 GLASS LAND ECOSYSTEM : Vegetation characterized by short on all grasses Seasonally dry Fire and grazing important to sustain ecosystem Photosynthesis intense and by plants Trees sparse or absent e.g. Savanna, Steppe, Prairie

3.8 DESERT ECOSYSTEM : Characterised by very low rainfall and extremes of cold and warmth. General lack of vegetation except seasonal grasses or shrubs Photosynthesis by plants Extensive sand dunes e.g. Sahara desert. 3.9 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM : These may be Marine, Inland (Housing), Inland (Stagant), Ice capped and glacial 1)

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3.9.1 MARINE :

i) Coastal - Photosynthesis by plants e.g. Coast line of India ii) Mangrove - Photosynthesis by plants e.g. Sundar ban (West Bangal), Krishna Mangrove (Andhra), Pichavaram (Tamil Nadu). iii) Coral Reef : Photosynthesis is by algae e.g. Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep Island. Great Barrier Reef. (Australia) iv) ESTUANINE : Photosynthesis by algae e.g. Estuaries created by Ganga, Godawari, Yamuna, Brahmaputtra, and other major rivers. v) Island photosynthesis by plants e.g. Andaman, Nicobar, Lakshadweep, Pacific, Islands. vi) Deep sea : Photosynthesis is poor or generally absent deep of oceans in the world. 3.9.2 INLAND (flowing) : RIPARIAN Rivers, mostly photosynthesis is carried out by algae and submerged plants. e.g. Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputtra and other rivers. STREAM - Photosynthesis is minimal by algae and submerged aquatic plants, e.g. Glacial and hill Streams. 3.9.3 INLAND ( Stagnant) : Ponds, lakes photosynthesis by aquatic plants and algap through out the world. Swamp, Marsh e.g. Himalayan, African & north American lakes, swamps of USA, north east India, Marsh of Nilgiri and Himalayan hills. 3.9.4 ICE CAPPED AND GLACIAL : POLES - These are Arctic and Antarctic characterized by freezing conditions. MOUNTAINS - Tops in the temperature zones, valley of flowers (Himalaya) TABLE / ANDS/ PLATEAU - Cold desert, characterized by winter dormancy and migration. e.g. Ladakh, Tibet and Mongolia.

3.11

QUESTIONS :

How ecosystems are classified? Discuss energy flows in ecosystem. Discuss with diagram any one food chain and food web. Explain the terms producer consumer and decomposer. How aquatic ecosystems of Inland are classified. Explain ecological pyramid.

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Define the term energy in ecosystem. 3.12 PROJECT

Select a particular area and study ecosystem i)region ii)type iii)energy

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