Chapter 5 MODELS OF ATOM DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY Dalton proposed that: An element is composed of tiny, indivisible, indestructible particles

s called atoms. All atoms of an element are identical and have the same properties. Atoms of different elements combine to form compounds. Compounds contain atoms in small whole number ratios. Atoms can combine in more than one ratio to form different compounds THOMSON MODEL OF THE ATOM. After Daltons proposal, there was disturbing evidence that the atom was divisible after all. The evidence was shown by passing electricity through sealed glass tubes. These glass tubes glowed in different colors. This eventually led to the discovery of negatively charged particles called Electrons and positively charged particles called Protons. The electrons has a charge of 1- while the proton has 1+ Thomson calculated the mass of electron as 9.11x 10-28 whiles the mass of proton as 1.67x 10-24. RUTHERFORD MODEL OF THE ATOM Rutherford was working in the field of radioactivity. He coined out the terms alpha-ray, beta-ray and later gamma-ray. Rutherford proposed a new model of the atom. He suggested that negatively charged electrons were distributed about a positively charged nucleus. He was able to estimate the size of the atom and its nucleus. James Chadwick, Rutherfords student (1932) discovered the Neutron. Subatomic Particle Electron Proton Neutron Symbol eP+ n Relative Charge Outside nucleus Inside nucleus Inside nucleus Relative Charge 11+ 0 Mass 1/1836 1 1

ATOMIC NOTATION Atomic number is the number of proton in atomic nucleus. Mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. zSy Where A is the mass number (number of protons+ number of neutrons) Z is the atomic number (number of protons) Sy is the symbol of the element Since atoms are neutral, the number of protons = number of electrons. ISOTOPES Twenty elements occur naturally with fixed number of neutrons, while for most elements, the number of neutrons vary. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. Number of neutrons varies as well as mass number. Example: 1 H - Protium 2 H - Deuterium 3 H Tritium (unstable/ radioactive) We often refer to an isotope by stating the name and the mass number, for example, Carbon-14, Cobalt-60. Carbon atom with mass number (Z) of 14 and atomic number (A) of 6, Cobalt atom with mass number (Z) of 60 and atomic number (A) of 27. ATOMIC MASS Due to the minute mass of atoms, scientists determine the mass relative to each other. With a special magnetic field instrument, the mass of an atom can be composed to the mass of Carbon-12 atom. The Carbon-12 was chosen as the reference standard and is assigned a value of exactly 12 atomic mass units. Atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to 1/12 the mass of Carbon-12. ATOMIC MASS OF AN ELEMENT Atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of all naturally occurring isotopes. Isotope Mass Abundance 12 C 12.000amu 98.89% 13 C 13.003amu 1.11%

12

C : 12.000 amu x 0.9889 = 11.87 2

13.003 amu x 0.011 = 0.144 12.014 PERIODIC TABLE We often refer to atomic number and atomic mass of an element. 43 Tc (99) 43 = atomic number (99) = mass number in bracket because the element is radioactive and unstable THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT Wavelength is the distance the light wave travels to complete one cycle. Frequency refers to the number of wave cycles completed in each second. The velocity of light is constant 3.00 x 108 m/s The wavelength depends on the frequency and energy. The longer the wavelength, the lower the energy and frequency and vice versa. Light refers to radiant energy that is visible. Visible spectrum is the visible light that our eyes can see (400nm- 700nm) but not the ultraviolet and infrared region A spectrum is an arrangement of electromagnetic radiations in the increasing order of their wavelengths. Radiant energy spectrum is an uninterrupted band, or continuous spectrum, of visible and invisible light that ranges from short through long wavelength. Light from the sun, a lit candle or an incandescent bulb is called white light. When resolved through a prism gives a continuous spectrum. A rainbow forms when sunlight passes through rain drops. Each rain drop acts as miniature prism and separates sunlight into various bands of color. QUANTUM CONCEPT Max Plancks introduced the quantum concept, he stated that the energy radiated by an object is not continuous, but rather the radiation is emitted in small bundles. When an object radiates light, it releases a unit of radiant energy called PHOTON. BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM Bohr speculated that electrons orbital around the atomic nucleus just as planets circle round the sun. 3

Energy Level A fixed-energy orbit in which electron travel. Bohr suggested that electrons travel in circular orbits about the nucleus. The electron possesses a specific energy and is said to occupy energy level. If an electron changes orbit in the Bohr atom, there is a quantum change. Bohr argued that an emission line spectrum results from electrons dropping from higher energy levels to lower levels. Each time an electron drops, a photon light in released whose energy corresponds to the difference in energy between the two levels. The concept of electron of electron energy levels was supported by the line spectrum of hydrogen. ATOMIC FINGERPRINT A line spectrum is sometimes referred to as Atomic Fingerprint because different elements exhibit unique set of spectral lines. ENERGY LEVELS AND SUBLEVELS A closer look at the emission line spectra from gases revealed energy sublevels within main levels. The number of sublevels corresponds to the number of energy level. Energy level 1- 1S Energy Level 2- 2S 2P Energy Level 3- 3S 3P 3d Energy Level 4- 4S 4P 4d 4f DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS BY ENERGY LEVEL Energy Level Energy sublevel Maximum Maximum electron in electron in sublevel Energy level 1 1S 2e 2e 2 2S 2e 2P 6e 8e 3 3S 2e 3P 6e 3d 10e 18e 4 4S 2e 4P 6e 4d 10e 4f 14e 32e

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION Each energy level is filled sublevel by sublevel. The inner shell (s) filled and the others. The first electron fills the energy closest to the nucleus. A partial list of sublevels in order of increasing energy: 1S<2S<2P<3S<3P<4S<3d<4P<5S<4d<5P<6S Configuration 2P2 2= energy level P= energy sublevel Subscript 2= number of electrons For example, writing the configuration of an element, Find atomic number from periodic table Write sublevels according to increasing energy For example, iron, the atomic number is 26, the configuration will be, 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d6 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM In the 1920s our understanding of electrons in atoms became very sophisticated. Werner Heisenberg suggested the uncertainty principle- that is, it is impossible to simultaneously know both the precise location and energy of an electron. Instead, the energy of an electron can be known only in terms of its probability of being located somewhere within an atom. This description gave rise to the Quantum Mechanical atom. A location within the atom where there is a high probability of finding an electron having certain energy is called an ORBITAL. An orbital is a region about the nucleus having a given energy, size, and shape. The shape of an S orbital is spherical, and a P orbital resembles the shape of a dumbbell.