1

PROTECTIVE RELAY


Protective Relay:

It is a device that detects the faults in any system and initiates the operation of
the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the systems.

A protective relay does not anticipate or prevent the occurrence of a fault.
However, one exception in the Buchholz relay.

Nature and causes of faults:

In a power system the majority of faults occur due to failure of insulation which may
be caused due to:

1. Switching over voltages
2. Over voltage due to lightning
3. Insulators break down
4. Mechanical damage
5. Bridging of conductors by birds.

Function of Protective Relay:

Is to detect and locate a fault and issue / sends a command signal to the circuit
breaker to isolate the faulty element / parts.

Protective relays detects the normal and abnormal condition of the system by
constantly monitoring the electrical quantities, which are different under normal and
abnormal conditions.

The basic electrical quantities, which are likely to change during abnormal
conditions, are voltage, current, and phase angle, frequency. Protective relay utilizes
one or more of these quantities to detect abnormal conditions.























Relay coil
operating coil
S
CB
CT
NC
2
Essential qualities of a relay:

In order to perform its function satisfactorily it must posses the following qualities /
properties:

1. Selectivity / discrimination
2. Sensitivity
3. Speed
4. Reliability

Selectivity: It is the ability to discriminate between normal and abnormal
operating condition of the system.

Sensitivity: It is measured on the basis of least operating quantity in excess of
the set value to actuate the operating system of the relay.

Speed: To minimize the damage of the equipment due to fault a relay
should be able to communicate the abnormality as quickly as
possible.

Reliability: It must be reliable and function as and when calls for.

Certain operating terms of a relay:

Pick up value: Minimum operating quantity in excess of set value to
operate / actuate the operating mechanism.

Drop out value: The threshold value of the operating quantity below
which the relay fails to maintain its operated condition.

Operating time: The time which collapse between the instant when the
actuating quantities exceeds the pick-up value to the
instant when the relay contacts close.

Types of Protection: Normally two types of protection provided to the power system:

a. Primary protection and
b. Back up protection
Primary relays are the first line of defiance and operate as first as possible. Back
up relays operates only when primary relay fails. Back up relay normally have a large
time lag to allow sufficient time to the primary relay to operate.






R
3
R
2
R
1






A B
R
1
R
3
R
2
Fault Current
T
i
m
e


O
p
e
r
a
t
i
n
g


3
Classification of relays:

The relays are normally classified on the basis of the purpose for which it is being
installed.

1. Under voltage
2. Over voltage
3. Undercurrent
4. Over current
5. Under power
6. Over power
7. Direction or reverse current
8. Differential
9. Distance relay

They also sometimes classified on basis of time of operation:

1. Instantaneous
2. Definite time a lag
3. Inverse time lag
4. Inverse definite minimum time lag (IDMT)

Some times relays are also classified on the basis of construction and principle of
operation like

1. Electromagnetic attraction type
2. Electromagnetic induction type etc.

Depending upon the time of operation the relays are categorized as:

1. Instantaneous OCR
2. Inverse time OCR
3. Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) OCR
4. Very inverse relay and
5. Extremely inverse relay

OVER CURRENT RELAY:

Induction type over current relay:

It consists of a metallic disc, which is free to rotate in between the poles of two
electromagnets. The upper electromagnet has a primary and secondary winding. The
primary is connected to the secondary of a CT in the line to be protected and is provided
with tappings. These tappings are connected to a plug setting bridge which usually
arrange to give seven section of tapping, over current range between 50% to 200% .
4

These values are percentages of the current rating of the relay. The secondary
winding is connected with the lower electromagnet. The torque-exerted on the disc is
due to the interaction of eddy currents produced there in by means of the leakage flux
from upper and lower electromagnet.

The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges the fixed contacts
when the disc rotates through an angle, which is adjustable between 0 and 360. By
adjusting the angle of traverse the relay can be given any desired time setting which
will be indicated in a dial calibration from 0 to 1. Actual time of operation to be
obtained from the relay nameplate.

IDMT










1.0
0.8

0.6

0.4
Operating
Time(S)
Operating current (PSM)
5
PSM =
Primary Current


Primary setting current

=
Primary Current

Relay Current setting x CT Ratio

Rated current of the relay is equal to the rated secondary current of the CT.
From the fig. Operating time when the current setting multiplier is 10 and the
time multiplier setting is 1, is 3 seconds. This is sometimes called as basic 3/10 curve.
For getting the time of operation for 0.8 curve [ 3 x 0.8 = 2.4 Sec ]. The above
characteristic is known as IDMT. For DMT curve the upper electromagnet is allowed
to saturate for a particular value of current. This results in flattering of the time
current curve.

Directional Over current relay:

The upper magnet of the directional element carries a winding connected
through PT. The lower magnet carries another winding connected through CT and by
the fault current. This winding is carried over to the upper electromagnet of the non
directional element. The contacts of the directional elements are connected in series
with the lower electromagnet of the non-directional element.

It is seen the
movement of the non
directional element is
controlled by the directional
element. When the power
flows in a particular
direction only the relay will
operate.





A TYPICAL CONNECTION













(Phasor Diagram)
Max Torq.
I
V

I


u
o
Op. Region
Non Op. Region
Zero Torq. Line
V
AC

V
BA

V
CA

I
A

I
B

I
C

30
0

I
A

I
B

I
C

V
B
C

V
C
A

V
A
B

(a)
(b)
(c)
I
Directional
Unit
Trip
110 V
DC
V
OC Unit
6
The relay current I leads the relay voltage.

T
v

I
sin ( + u ) KVI sin ( + u )
T
max
occurs when + u = 90
And T = O when + u = 0 or 180

The directional element will operate only when I lies within 90. If its is more than
90 the relay will restrain.

There are two types of connection to get the relay current leading as shown in (b) and
(c)














OVER CURRENT PROTECTIVE SCHEME

























(a) Definite time
(b) IDMT
(c) Very Inverse
(d) Extremely Inverse
O
p
e
r
a
t
i
n
g

T
i
m
e

PSM
1.5 S
1 S
0.5 S
Time graded
80%
Current graded
7
DRAW BACK:

1. If the fault occurs near the power source the time of operation of the relay is large.
In this the relay takes longest time with heavy fault current.

In the current graded scheme:

1. The relay fails to differentiate between fault very close to B which may be of either
side.
2. Consequently relays are set to protect only a part of the feeder.














Distance Relay:

Distance relays are used to protect the transmission lines. This relay measures the
impedance or some components of the line impedance. As the measured quantity is
proportional to the distance along the line, the measuring relay is called a distance relay.

The most important and versatile family in these groups of relays are:
a. Impedance relay
b. Reactance relay
c. MHO relay

IMPEDANCE RELAY:











In an impedance relay operating torque produced by square of the current and the
restraining torque produced by the square of the voltage.

T = K
1
I
2
K
2
V
2
K
3
(Torque of control Spring)
= K
1
I
2
K
2
V
2
(Neglecting K
3
of the balance)
Combined instantenious factors and IDMT
IDMT
instant
A B C
CB
CB
PT
CT CB
F
1

F
2

B
A Z
L

8

For the operation of the relay K
1
I
2
> K
2
V
2
(operating torque > restraining torque)

Or V
2
< K
1

I
2
K
2

Z = \ ( K
1
) < constant impedence)
K
2

The operating characteristics of the relay may be explained through R X
diagram.















The locus of Z is a circle. Depending on the phasor relationship of current with
voltage the Z vector may coincide with R on (X , R ) zone. Since the operation of
the relay is independent of phase relation between voltage and current hance it gives a
non directional relay characteristic. As and when impedence falls below Z the relay
operates. A directional feature normally used to protect against fault behind the zone to
be protected in an impedence relay.
By providing a directional element in series with the relay the characteristic may
be expressed as
T VICos( o) > 0 when = ZVI
COS ( o) > 0
or ( o) < 90






















o
o

To Trip Circuit
F
A
P.T
C.T
B
C
u
Z
X
R
V
I
-X
OP Zone
Non-OP Zone
R
Directional features
X
Operating
Non-operating
o
9

MHO RELAY : (Admittance Relay )

The mho relay is similar in principle to an impedance relay but is made
inherently directional by the addition of a voltage winding known as polarising winding.
In such connection operating torque is obtained by the V-I element and the restraining
torque by the voltage element. This gives the mho relay a voltage restrained directional
relay whose torque equation may be written as

T = KVIcos (u-o)-K
1
V
2
-K
2


At balance, T=0,
K
1
V
2
= KVIcos (u-o)-K
2
I
V

=
1 K
K
cos (u-o) -
1
2
K
K


Z= K

cos (u-o) [neglecting spring effect]

This characteristic when drawn on impedance diagram is a circle passing through the
origin in X-R plane, and a straight line passing through the origin when drawn on
admittance diagram.


















Reactance relay:

In this relay the operating torque is obtained by current and the restraining torque by
current voltage directional element. This means, a reactance relay is an over current
relay with directional restraint.

The torque equation:
) ( cos
2
2
1
o u = VI K I K T
) 90 ( cos
2
2
1
= u VI K I K
where o = 90
0
for max. Torque angle.
u sin
2
2
1
VI K I K =
For operation ; K
1
I
2
> K
2
VI sin u
+R
-R
+X
-X
Z
+ve Torque
-ve Torque
2
1
K
K

-R




R
x




-x




o
R
+ ve Torque
- ve Torque
K
1

Z
10
2
1
2
sin
K
K
I
VI
( u
2
1
sin
K
K
X Z ( = u is out line on R-X plane.


Differential relay (Merz Price Protection)

A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of two or
more similar electrical qualities exceeds a predetermined amount/ value.

Almost any type of relay when connected in a certain way can be made to
operate as differential relay. Most differential relays are current differential type.











For an external fault the two current in the CTs are same. If they have the same
turns ratio no current will flow through the relay as shown in fig (1).

However when an internal fault occur at X as shown in fig (2) current may flow
from both the sides and the relay current i
1
+i
2
will operate the relay. A differential relay
current will be proportional to the phasor difference between currents entering and
leaving the protected circuit.

A differential relay is likely to operate in accurately with heavy through faults
due to inaccuracy on the secondary of CTS which may be due to turns ratio and the
saturation of the core. This disadvantage is overcome by percentage differential type
relay.


BIASED DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION (percentage differential protection)

The relay consists of an operating coil and restraining coil. The operating coil is
c is connected to the mid-point of the restraining coil. The operating current is a variable
quantity because of the restraining coil. Normally no current flows through the
operating coil under through fault conditions , but owing to the dissimilarities in CTS
the differential current through the operating coil is(i
1
-i
2)
and the equivalent in the
restraining coil is(i
1
+i
2
)/2 .

T -developed by the operating coil (i
1
-i
2
) N
o ,
where N
o
= no. of turns in OPC

T developed by the restraining coil (i
1
+i
2
) N
r
/2, N
r
= no of turns in restraining coil
At balance (i
1
-i
2
) N
o
= (i
1
+i
2
) N
r
/ 2.
(i
1
i
2
) / (i
1
+i
2
)/2 = N
r
/ N
o

RELAY
i
i
External Fault
RELAY
i
i
Internal Fault
11
The ratio of the differential operating current to the average restraining current is a fixed
percentage of turns. So it is called percentage differential relay.














EARTH FAULT PROTECTION:

An earth fault usually involves a partial breakdown of insulation leading to a
leading current earth. This leakage current considerably less than the Short-circuit
current. If earth leakage current continue for a long time if may develops a short circuit
and may damage the system if not removed form the system.

In order to ensure early removal earth leakage relays are normally simployed. An earth
fault relay is essentially an over current relay with low current setting. It is primarily a
core balance transformer protecting along with open circuit relay.

A typical earth leakage protection system is shown in the fig. Below for a
transformer earth leakage protection.



















Under normal condition the vector sum of the three phase currents is zero and
there is no resultant flux in core balance transformer no matter how much the load is out
of balance. However on the occurrence of a earth fault, the vector sum of the current is
no longer zero, this sets-up a flux in the core balance transformer which induces a
secondary; voltage and energies the relay operating coil to trip the circuit breaker.

i
1
i
2

i
1
- i
2

i
1
i
2

(i
1
+ i
2
) / 2
(i
1
- i
2
)
No Operation
Operation
R
Y
B
S
P
Power Transformer
CT Primary
Core Balance
Transformer
CT Secondary
To Trip Circuit
12

The core balance transformer protection described above suffers from the draw
back that it cannot protect against over loads. It is usual practice to provide combined
leakage and over load protection as shown below.















BUCHHOLZ RELAY:

Buchholz relay is a gas actuated relay used for protecting oil-immersed
transformer against all types of internal faults makes use of the fact that faults
decompress oil thesis generating gases. The generation of gas may be blow or violent
depending upon whether the fault in a minor or incipient one or heavy short circuit.

Buchholz relay is normally used with oil coded transformer with conservator
tank. It is insulated in the pipe connecting the main tank to the conservator tank.

The relay casuists of two highed floats in a metallic chamber cautioning mercury
switch. One float at the top of the chamber and the opposite the erifice of the pipe to the
transformer.

For a minor or incipient fault slow generation of gas fives rise to gas bubbles
which try to go to the conservator but are trapped in the upper post this exert pressive on
the upper float and cause it tilt there by closings the mercury switch which is connected
to an alarm circuit to inform the operator.

For a heavy fault large volume of gases are generated which causes violent
displacement of the oil and impinge on the baffle plate of the lower float which then tilts
and close the Hg switch which intern open the CB to disconnect the transformer.

S
R
Y
B
P
Power Transformer
To Alarm
Circuit
To Trip
Circuit
Release
Cock
Float
Mercury
Switch
13











14
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE RELAY:

A negative sequence relay provides protection to generators and motors against
unbalanced loading that may result from phase to phase faults.

The relay equipment consists of network energize from three current
transformers and a single phase IDMT characteristic relay is connected across the
network. The network casuists of four impedance Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4 of equal magnitude
connected as shown below. Z1 and Z2 arc non-inductive and Z3 and Z4 arc inductive.
The values of Z2 and Z4 arc so adjusted that current in this leg lag behind by 60 degree
from those of Z1 and Z3.


The negative sequence current in the three phases as shown above, the
equipment IZ1, IZ3, and IZ4, it is obvious that the relay current is Iy and will cause the
relay to operate as IZ1 and IZ$ caucus out.
COMPARATOR:
The relay normally works be campasing two quantities either in amplitude or in
phase. The phase relation and the amplitudes are a function of system condition. The
device which campers the two actuating quantities are called comparators.

DUALITY BETWEEN AMPLITUDE AND PHASE COMPARATORS:
Let the system be designated by quantity whose amplitudes are M and N. It
operates where M>N. If the inputs arc changed to shown.




Operates when |M| > |N| Operates when |M+N| > |M-N|
i.e., | <90
0

Amplitude comparator Amplitude comparator used for phase comparator

The above condition of /M+N/>M-N will be satisfied only when phase angle between
M&N is less than 90 digree as shown in the victor diagram.





|>90
0
|=90
0
Comparison |M+N| < |M-N| Comparison |M+N| =|M-N|







|<90
0

Comparison |M+N| > |M-N|
Output Amplitude
Comparator
M+N
M-N
Inputs
Amplitude
Comparator
M
N
Output
Inputs
M-N
M
M+N
-N N
|
N
M-N
M
M+N
-N
|
N
M-N
M
M+N
-N
|
15
It means the compactors with the modified inputs has now because a phase compactor
for the original input signal M&N.
Similarly a phase compactor can be modified to work as an amplitude compactor
this show the quality of compactor.




Operates when |<90
0
Operates when <90
0

i.e., when |M|>|N|







|M|<|N| |M|=|N|
Comparison i.e., >90
0
Comparison i.e., =90
0









|M|>|N|
Comparison i.e., <90
0


Phase
Comparator
M
N
Output
Inputs
Inputs
Phase
Comparator
M+N
M-N
Output
M
M+N
M-N
N

-N
N
M+N M-N
M
-N

N
M-N
M
M+N
-N

16
CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION:(Phase comparison)

In this scheme, the phase angel of the current entering one and of the protected
line section is compared with the current leaving the other and as shown in the figure
below.
When a voltage of positive porosity is impressed on the control circuit of the
transmitter it generated a high frequency output ranging from 50 KHz to 700 KHz with
a power level of 15W to 20 W. At both ends of the live to be protected carrier current
receiver and transmitter units arc installed. The receiver receives carrier current from
both ends and compares. If the currents arc in phase, there is no fault on the protected
line or zone. In case of faults on the protected line section the two currents will be 18-
degree ants of phase indicating an internal fault.
Line traps, a parallel reson out circuit tuned to power frequency to confine the
carrier signal within the protected zone and to avoid interference from other sources.
Coupling capacitors arc also used for injection into and receipt of carrier signals
from line. It consists of porcelain clad, oil filled stack of capacitors in series. It offers
very high impedance to power frequency but low impedance to carrier frequency
current.
Thus the transmitter and receivers are insulted from power line and effectively grounded
at power frequency current. But at carrier frequency it is effectively insulated from the
ground. Two possible types of connection is possible and arc known as phase to earth
coupling and the other phase to phase coupling: i.e., the transmission of carrier signal
either one phase with earth return or two phase conduction may be employed. Carrier
signals are transmitted during positive half of power frequency.


USE:
1. For EHV and UHV
2. For more than 10 miles long.

ADVANTAGES:
Faster and superior than distance relay.

DISADVANTAGES:
Expensive.
17

18
























High rupturing capacity cartridge Fuse (HRC)

The HRC fuses cope with the increasing rupturing capacity on the distribution system
and over came the serious dis-advantages suffered by the semi enclosed rewirable
fuses.

In its simplest form an HRC fuse consists of a ceramic body having metal end caps to
which are welded fusible silver (bimetallic) current carring elements. The space within
the body surrounding the elements is completely packed with a filling powder, usually
quartz, which has a excellent are extinguishing properties.

When the fuse carries normal rated current, the heat generated is not sufficient to melt
the fuse element. But when a fault occurs, the fuse elements melts before the fault
current reaches its first peak. As the elements melts, it vaporizes and disperses. During
the areing period, the chemical reaction between the silver vapour and the quartz
powder forms a high resistance substance, known as Powder Roping, which helps in
quenching the arc. Both rapid are extinction and proper attainment of temperature fall,
to reduce the risk of gas pressure tending to shatter the ceramic body, are achieved with
the filling powder which changes from high resistance into an insulator as the current is
cut-off due to the fusion of silver vapour with filling powder.

To indicate whether the fuse has blown out or not, an indicating device consisting of a
fine wire connected in parallel with the fuse element and led through a mild explosive
held in a pocket in the side of the fuse and covered by a label. When the fuse operates,
the fine wire automatically melts resulting in the combustion of the explosive material
chars the label indicating the fuse has blown out.

Advantage: 1. Capacity to clear large fault currents
2. High speed
3. Reliable discrimination
4. Consistent performance
Receiver
Comparer
squarer
Receiver
Comparer
Summation
Network
squarer
Transmitter
Summation
Network
Transmitter
To Auxiliary
Tripping Relay
To Auxiliary
Tripping Relay
19
5. Low cost
6. Inverse time current characteristic
7. No maintenance.

Disadvantage: 1. Requires replacement after each operation
2. Interlocking is not possible
3. Produce over heating.


















Static Relay: (Solid state relay)

In this type of relay, the comparison or measurement of electrical quantities is
performed by static circuit which gives an output signal for the tripping of a circuit
breaker. Most of the static relays include a DC polarized relay as a slave relay of the
slave relay. These slave relay is an output device and does not perform the comparison
or the measurement. It simply closes contacts. Same time a thyristor is used in place of
electromagnetic slave relay. A static relay normally semiconductor devices as they are
more reliable and compact.












Advantage: 1. Fast response; High resistance to shock of vibration; long life; quick
resetting and absence of over shooting; frequenent operation cause
no deterioration; less maintenance etc.
Disadvantage: 2. Temperature sensitive; needs auxiliary power supply; susceptible to
voltage transients; affected by surrounding interference.


Vcc
R
C
Slave
relay