Introduction Measurement of any parameter, whether it be ambient temperature, air pressure in an automobile tire, or color implies that a certain

amount of accuracy is required in order to meet an accepted standard or to be able to compare one measurement against another. Without some level of reasonable accuracy, we're left with only a nebulous evaluation of the parameter in question: "It seems a bit cold;" "the tire looks OK;" or "the color is a shade of blue." Since the human perception of color is basically a subjective judgment, many people might reasonably question whether color can, in fact, be scientifically measured. In answer to this question, we can assert emphatically that color can definitely be measured in scientific terms by utilizing one of several different types of instrument. If then, we are going to rely on this instrumental measurement, it is essential that we understand how these different instruments "see" color differently. It is also important that some parameters be established for the methods used to take measurements, and that the user specify some tolerance or acceptable color difference.

Color Measurement Color measurement goes back to 1905 when Albert Munsell originated his "Munsell System of Color Notation" which assigns numerical values to various properties of color.

Munsell Color Space

Today, color measuring systems rely on instrumentation utilizing mathematics and computer technology rather than physical samples that are based on human perception, such as the Munsell scale. Thus, a system built on precise mathematical and computer models exists for measuring and interpreting color. But the accuracy of that system can break down if the techniques used for making color measurements are misunderstood or misapplied. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate important considerations in making color measurement so that the results will allow precise, objective judgment and comparison of color.

Instrumentation Different types of color-measuring instruments are designed for making different types of color measurements. It stands to reason that if the wrong instrument is selected, even though the instrument itself may be well-designed and properly calibrated, the measurement itself is not necessarily reliable. Today, the most commonly used instruments for measuring color are colorimeters, densitometers and spectrophotometers. A colorimeter is designed for the direct measurement of color and interprets light much like the human eye using red, green and blue receptors. A densitometer is similar to a colorimeter except that its responses are designed for measuring specific materials such as printing inks or photographic dyes. A spectrophotometer, on the other hand, measures light at many points on the visual spectrum and these multiple measurements result in a curve that describes the combination of individual components that make up the complete color measurement. Since the spectrophotometer interprets a series of points along the spectrum, its measurement is potentially more accurate than a measurement made by either of the other two devices. However, there are several different types of spectrophotometers, designed for measuring color having different kinds of surface finishes. Thus, a truly accurate measurement accomplished by a spectrophotometer requires an understanding of not only what the instrument was specifically designed for but also the type of surface or finish on which the color is being measured.

Figure 1 0/45 Instrument Geometry Instrument geometry's usually reference the illumination and detection angles in their name. The illumination angle is specified first, followed by the detection or pick-up angle. For example, a 0/45 instrument geometry (see Figure 1) describes illumination at 0, perpendicular to the sample plane, and the detectors or pick-ups are at 45 to the plane of illumination. The specular energy (1st surface reflectance, gloss) will be reflected back at the light source. This type of spectrophotometer is designed for measuring color on surfaces that are required to have a consistent gloss level and little or no texture. Since this instrument uses a direct light source, any changes in gloss or texture will be detected as a color difference. A measurement made with this type of instrument is typical of the view the human eye may have of a sample, since it excludes the specular energy. For example, when viewing a high gloss sample you can usually determine a point where the reflection of the light is "mirrored" or reflected directly back to you eyes. This makes it difficult, as well as uncomfortable, to see any detail of the color of the sample. By tilting the sample either away from you or towards you, you can exclude the glare. For this reason, specular excluded instruments will record color differences much the same way we visually compare samples. These types of instruments perform well in quality control situations where standards and samples have similar textures and gloss levels.

Spherical (diffuse/8) Geometry A sphere geometry or diffuse/ 8 geometry spectrophotometer can be used with surfaces that either have or do not have a varying gloss level or texture. The spherical instrument has a diffuse light source (see Figure 2) and can measure in two different modes. The specular excluded mode will detect gloss and/or texture differences. If gloss or texture differences should not be a consideration in the measurement, the specular included mode will ignore these differences.

Figure 2 When comparing two samples of identical pigmentation, one matte finish and the other high gloss, there appears to be two different colors due to the different surface characteristics. Samples that have a high gloss or highly directional surface will redirect the "gloss" or specular component in one general direction. Therefore, under normal viewing conditions, the high gloss sample will appear darker when compared to the matte sample. If measured with a 0/45 or sphere - specular excluded - the results would be nearly the same.

Figure 3 If however, we want to detect a pigmentation difference, or compare different textures of the same material, specular included provides us the required information. For example, figure 3 shows us four different readings from one piece of plastic. One side of the plastic is smooth while the other side is highly textured. Since the readings were taken on a single piece of plastic, we know they are pigmented the same. The specular included readings show us they are the same color, while the specular excluded readings show us a large appearance difference. The advantage of a sphere instrument over a 0/45 is that most sphere instruments can be operated in the included and excluded modes. In quality control of many materials we can first determine if a given sample looks different by evaluating the excluded data. If different, we can then examine the included data to see if the pigmentation needs to be adjusted. The sphere instrument also has an advantage in that it uses a diffuse illumination. This diffuse illumination allows the sphere instrument to take repeatable readings on a directional surface, while the 0/45 will not.. For example, if an area is marked on a directional surface, and measured 4 times, rotating the sample 90 between each measurement, the sphere instrument will give 4 nearly identical readings, while the 0/45 will give 4 very diverse readings.

Multi-Angle Geometry The third type of spectrophotometer is a multi-angle instrument. This is the device to use when evaluating any of the "effect" finishes: those that contain mica, aluminum flake, or an interference pigment to give a the

finish a special appearance. Since the color of these effect finishes changes as the surface is viewed from different angles, the multi-angle instrument uses a direct light source at 45 and measures reflected light at five discrete angles, 15, 25, 45, 75,and 110 (see Figure 4). These angles are considered aspecular and are measured from the specular angle. The various measurement angles allow the user to assess color variation as the viewing angles change.

Figure 4

Establishing Measurement Parameters When a color measurement is to be compared against a specified criterion or standard, it is essential that both evaluations be made using exactly the same parameters, including identical instrument types. Otherwise an apparent deviation may be totally inaccurate. Thus, measurement parameters must be established and agreed upon in order to validate any comparisons. For example, all color is both thermochromic (that is, color will shift with temperature) and hydrochromic (color also shifts due to humidity). It is not unusual for a given color to vary .04 in L*, a*, or b* for every 1 degree Fahrenheit shift in temperature. Therefore it is important that color only be measured at room temperature (approximately 72 F) and

in a controlled environment. What is equally important, however, is that these ambient conditions be specified as a standard and adhered to. Thus the color of a painted surface should never be measured immediately after the painted component has emerged from a high-temperature drying oven because that measurement will not be an accurate evaluation of the true color. Color measurement averaging is always a recommended practice, especially for large surfaces which are expected to exhibit a uniform color. By "averaging," we mean that color measurements should be made at a minimum of three different locations across the piece, and those readings are averaged to judge whether the piece as a whole meets the color specification. Averaging is absolutely essential in judging "effect" finishes because the color of these special finishes will vary somewhat from one spot to the next, although the overall effect should still be a uniform color appearance Care must be taken since averaging does offer an opportunity for two positions on the sample to be badly off specification but in opposite offsetting directions. The resulting average will be acceptable, but realistically this is not any more acceptable than a person with one hand in boiling water and the other frozen in ice can be considered "essentially" comfortable. The amount of permissible deviation from one spot to the next, as well as permissible deviation between the averaged measurement and the accepted standard must be established. If the sample is not opaque, there are two ways to make a color measurement. The contrast ratio can be used to calculate the color at opacity if we first measure the color over black, next measure it over white, and then measure the white background. Conversely, the color can also be measured as non-opaque with a constant background, typically white. Both measurements will produce somewhat different results, even though the color has not changed. Therefore the measurement technique must again be part of the overall specification. The physical form of the sample must also be a consideration. While standards are often flat panels or plaques, the sample may have a wide variety of configurations. The first consideration must be to locate a flat area on the sample that is as large or larger than the aperture of the measurement device. On many samples this may not be possible. If no flat areas are available, a curved area might be chosen. If this is the case, it is given that some color variation will exist between a curved part and a flat standard. This is caused by small amounts of light "leaking" during measurement. It is essential that this leakage be kept consistent

by the use of fixtures. A proper fixture will position the measurement device in precisely the same spot for every measurement. It is often desirable to establish a working standard for use with non-flat samples. A good working standard may be created be averaging a large number of acceptable parts, thus removing the variation caused when comparing a curved part to a flat standard.

What tolerance is acceptable? When money is being measured, absolutely no tolerance is generally allowed; you'll not settle for $49 on a $50 debt and the debtor will never pay $51 toward a $50 obligation (excluding interest, of course). Otherwise, most measurement criteria include an acceptable deviation, or tolerance. But such a tolerance must be included as an integral part of the specified measurement standard. In cases where an acceptable color deviation is to be established for a specific work piece, the numerical tolerance must conform to an agreedupon visual assessment of the color. How far off can the color be and still be considered acceptable? Computer software programs can help to establish an acceptable numerical tolerance by allowing a sample to be measured, labeling the sample as visually accepted (or rejected), and then adjusting the numerical tolerance to agree with the visual assessment (see figure 5).

Figure 5 This process will allow the best correlation between visual assessment and instrumental measurement. Included in this tolerance should be the illuminant and observer settings to be used. This process should be repeated for each new color. It may also be necessary to establish a different tolerance for the same color if it is produced in several forms. For example, if a molded textured plastic part must be made to match a painted metal part, the plastic parts may have a larger tolerance. This is due to the human eye being more critical of a color change in a smooth part than a textured part. Likewise, a curved part may require a different tolerance than a flat one.

Controlling Incoming Materials Incoming materials are often overlooked as elements that can influence color quality control and therefore color measurement. Yet such materials as pigments, mica, aluminum flakes, and other constituents can have a marked effect on final color. The tolerance on incoming materials should at least be equal, if not tighter, than the tolerance on the final product. Since deviations -- even minor deviations -- have an additive effect, several deviations often compound to an out-of-spec final product. One final note about pigments. They should always be tested in the same process as that in which the pigments will ultimately be used. This is

simply because the process can shift color.

Conclusion If the color of a product or component is of concern, then initiating a program of color measurement and color quality control is essential. This program should contain detailed information with regard to the type of instrument used, measurement parameters including averaging, and tolerance details. With a well designed program, color can not only be measured but measured and compared accurately . . . much more accurately than even a trained human eye. But color measurement is a disciplined system that includes a number of specific checks and balances. It is not simply a matter of pointing an instrument at a colored surface and taking a reading. And when it is conducted thoughtfully, color measurement can be achieved as accurately and dependably as any other scientific measurement.

References Billmeyer, F. W. Jr., & Saltzman, M., Principles of Color Technology, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1981 Judd, D.B., & Wysczecki, G., Color in Business, Science, and Industry, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1975 Judd, D.B., & Wysczecki, G., Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1982 Mouw, Timothy, Sphere versus 0/45, A Discussion of Instrument Geometry's and Their Areas of Application, X-Rite, Incorporated, 1994 Teunis, Brian, Multi-Angle Spectrophotometers for Metallic, Pearlescent, and Special Effect Colors, X-Rite, Incorporated, 1997