History of stainless steel

Harry Brearley was born on Feb 18, 1871 and by 1907 was in charge of the Brown-Firth Research Labratory in Sheffield, England. The lab was investigating ways to eliminate rust in gun barrels, when by accident, Mr Byerly noticed a discarded steel sample from an earlier test was not rusting, while other samples were. The result was a chrome alloy steel, much more rust resistant than seen before. The date was June 4, 1912. Two months later, on August 20, 1912, stainless steel was cast for the first time.

This Day in Science History - February 18 - Stainless Steel

STAINLESS STEEL OVERVIEW:

Classification andComposition of Stainless Steel

The composition of stainless steel first starts with Chromium. When steel is combined with 10.5% Chromium the resultant alloy is classified as "stainless steel". When Chromium is added to steel, its natural affinity for Oxygen creates a stable Oxide surface film. This protects the surface of the metal from further physical or chemical changes. The composition of stainless steel falls into four groups: Martenistic, Ferritic, Austenitic and Duplex.

Martenistic Group
This group of stainless steel contains 12 to 14% Chrome and 0.08 to 2.0% Carbon. The addition of Carbon makes the steel respond well to heat treatment, resulting in different mechanical strengths, such as hardness and corrosion resistance. These mechanical properties make this magnetic steel perfect for a wide variety of applications.

Type 410 Stainless Steel contains 13% Chrome and .15% Carbon. This alloy exhibits good ductility and resistance to corrosion. This steel alloy is easily forged and machined, as well as showing good cold working properties. Type 416 is usually supplied is bar form and is similar to Type 410, however machinability is improved by the addition of Sulphur. Type 431 stainless steel is another steel alloy more often seen in bar form. This composition of stainless steel includes 17% Chrome, 2.5% Nickel, 0.15% Carbon, which gives it a better corrosion resistance than 410 and 416.

Ferritic Group
This group of stainless steel starts with a minimum of 17% Chrome and 0.08 to 0.2% Carbon. The higher percentage of Chromium increases the metal's resistance to corrosion at high temperatures, but its uses are limited because it cannot be heat treated. This is another stainless steel alloy that is magnetic. Type 430 is a typical Ferritic steel with good corrosion resistance in temperatures up to 800C. However, because it does not machine well, it is usually seen as strip and sheet metal.

Austenitic Group
The composition of this non-magnetic stainless steel consists of 17 to 25% Chromium and 8 to 20%. Other elements are then added so the steel will have certain properties. Steels in this group have a useful range of physical and mechanical properties. Type 304 is an economic alloy that displays good corrosion resistance in unpolluted and freshwater, but is not recommended for seawater. Type 321 is similar to Type 304, but has Titanium added in direct proportion to the metal's carbon content. The resultant stainless steel has improved high temperature properties. Type 347 stainless steel uses Niobium instead of the Titanium used in Type 321. Type 316 stainless steel has 2 to 3% Molybdenum added which increases the corrosion resistance. While used in offshore environments, this alloy still pits when fully immersed in seawater, although the 12% Nickel does ensure the metal maintains the austenitic structure. Type 317 while similar to 316, is more resistant to pitting when in cold seawater due to the 3 to 4% Molybdenum. 6 Moly, aka UNS S31254, with its higher levels of Molybdenum and Chromium has a high resistance to seawater.

L Grades of Austenitic grades have a reduced tensile strength due to the lower Carbon content of 0.03 to 0.035%.

Duplex Stainless Steels

Often identified by UNS numbers, with a balance of Molybdenum, Chromium, Nickel and Nitrogen, this group of steels is a mix of ferrite and austenite. These are highly resistant to corrosion and have high strength. Due to dangers of embrittlement, temperature ranges for extended use range from -50 to +300C. UNS S31803 has a composition of stainless steel that includes 0.03% max Carbon, 0.15% N, 3% Mo, 22% Cr, and 5.5% Ni. It is typical of Duplex stainless steels and the most widely used. UNS S32304 is a low alloy Duplex somewhat similar to 316's corrosion properties, but with a tensile property that is approximately double that of 316. It is most often used in structures where mechanical strength is vital. The composition of stainless steel of this type is 0.1% N, 4% Ni, 0.03% max Carbon and 23% Cr. UNS S32750 is a super Duplex with enhanced resistance to corrosion and good mechanical properties. The typical composition of stainless steel of this type of 0.28% N, 4% Mo, 7% Ni, 0.03% max Carbon and 25% Cr.

ROLE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STAINLESS STEEL CARBON

Carbon is always present in stainless steel. The amount of carbon is the key. In all categories except martensitic, the level is kept quite low. In martensitic grade the level is deliberately increased to obtain high strength and hardness. Heat treating by heating to a high temperature, quenching and then tempering develops the martensitic phase. Carbon can have an effect on the corrosion resistance. If the carbon is allowed to combine with the chromium (to form chrome carbides), it may have a detrimental effect on the ability of the passive layer to form. If, in localized areas, the chrome is reduced to below 10.5%, the layer will not form

CHROMIUM
Chromium is a highly reactive element and accounts for the passive nature of all stainless steels. The resistance to the chemical effects of corrosion and the typical rusting (oxidation) that occurs with unprotected carbon steel, is the direct result of the presence of chromium. Once the composition contains at least 10.5% chromium, an adherent and insoluble surface film is instantaneously formed that prevents the further diffusion of oxygen into the surface and prevents the oxidation of the iron in the matrix. The higher the chromium level the greater the protection.

NICKEL
Nickel is the essential allying element in the 300 series stainless steel grades. The presence of nickel results in the formation of an austenitic structure that gives these grades their strength, ductility and toughness, even at cryogenic temperatures. It also makes the material non-magnetic. While the role of nickel has no direct influence on the development of the passive surface layer, it results in significant improvement in resistance to acid attack, particularly with sulfuric acid.

MOLYBDENUM
The addition of molybdenum to the Cr-Fe-Ni matrix adds resistance to localized pitting attack and better resistance to crevice corrosion (particularly in Cr-Fe ferritic grades). It helps resist the detrimental effects of chlorides (316 with 2% moly is preferred over 304 in coastal and de-icing salt situations). The higher the molybdenum content (there are stainless steels at 6% moly), the better the resistance to higher chloride levels.

MANGANESE
Generally manganese is added to stainless steels to assist in de-oxidation, during melting, and to prevent the formation of iron sulfide inclusions which can cause hot cracking problems. It is also a austenite stabilizer and when added in higher levels (from 4 to 15%) replaces some of the nickel in the 200 series stainless steel grades.

SILICON & COPPER

Small amounts of silicon and copper are usually added to the austenitic stainless steels containing molybdenum to improve corrosion resistance to sulfuric acid. Silicon also improves oxidation resistance and is a ferrite stabilizer. In austenitic stainless steels, high silicon contents improves resistance to oxidation and also prevents carburizing at elevated temperatures (309 and 310 are examples)

NITROGEN
In austenitic and duplex stainless steels, nitrogen increases the resistance to localized pitting attack and inter-granular corrosion. Low carbon austenitic grades (designated with an L since they contain less than 0.03% carbon), are suggested for welding operations, since the lower carbon minimizes the risk of sensitization. The low carbon levels, however, tend to reduce the yield strength. The addition of nitrogen helps to raise the yield strength levels back to the same level as standard grades.

NIOBIUM
Niobium additions prevents inter-granular corrosion, particularly in the heat effected zone after welding. Niobium helps prevent the formation of chrome carbides, that can rob the microstructure of the required amount of chromium for passivation. In ferritic stainless steels the addition of niobium is an effect way to improve thermal fatigue resistance.

TITANIUM
Titanium is the main element used to stabilize stainless steel before the use of AOD (Argon-Oxygen Decarburization) vessels. When stainless steel is melted in air, it is difficult to reducing the carbon levels. 302, the most common grade before AODs, was allowed to have a maximum carbon level of 0.15%). At this high level, something was needed to stabilize the carbon and titanium was the most common way. Titanium will react with the carbon to form titanium carbides and prevent the formation of chrome carbides, that could affect the formation of the passive layer. Today all stainless steel are finished in an AOD vessel and the carbons levels are generally low due to the absence of oxygen. The most common grade today is 304 (with 0.08 max carbon, although in reality the levels are lower).

SULFUR
Sulfur is generally kept to low levels as it can form sulfide inclusions. It is used to improve machinability (where these inclusion act as chip breakers). The addition of sulfur, however, does reduce the resistance to pitting corrosion.

Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment that alters a material to increase its ductility and to make it more workable. It involves heating material to above its critical temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature, and then cooling. Annealing can induce ductility, soften material, relieve internal stresses, refine the structure by making it homogeneous, and improve cold working properties.

Work hardening, also known as strain hardening or cold working, is the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material.[1] Many non-brittle metals with a reasonably high melting point as well as several polymers can be strengthened in this fashion[citation needed]. Alloys not amenable to heat treatment, including low-carbon steel, are often work-hardened