Lectures 14 and 15

Geological Materials: Soils

Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar School of Earth Sciences SRTM University, Nanded 431 606 Maharashtra, INDIA (E-mail: vijay_kumar92@hotmail.com)

Elements of Earth
8-35 km crust % by weight in crust O Si Al Fe Ca Na K Mg other = 49.2 = 25.7 = 7.5 = 4.7 = 3.4 = 2.6 = 2.4 = 1.9 = 2.6

82.4%

12500 km dia
Geotechnical engineers are interested mainly in the top 100 metres of the earth crust. As you can see from the table, 82% of the elements are oxygen, silicon and aluminium.
2

Soil: definition

Solid earth material that has been altered by physical, chemical and organic processes so that it can support rooted plant life.
Engineering definition: Anything that can be removed without blasting

Soil is a mixture of mineral and organic matter lacking any inherited rock structure.

Soil

Saprolite is weathered rock that retains remnant rock structure.

Saprolite

Soil Components
Soil separate particle diameter (mm)
____________________________ Sand . . . . . . . . . 2.0 - 0.05 Silt . . . . . . . . . . 0.05 - 0.002 Clay . . . . . . . . . . <0.002

SAND SILT CLAY

Note: clays are microscopic in size !

Soil Components (volume ba

Three Phases in Soils

S : Solid W: Liquid A: Air Soil particle Water (electrolytes) Air

Soil Classification
Residual soil ~ in situ weathering (by physical & chemical agents) of parent rock

Transported soil ~ weathered and transported far away

by wind, water and ice.

Parent Material to the Soils

~ formed by one of these three different processes
igneous sedimentary metamorphic

formed by cooling of molten magma (lava) e.g., granite

formed by gradual deposition, and in layers

e.g., limestone, shale

formed by alteration of igneous & sedimentary rocks by pressure/temperature

e.g., marble

Residual Soils
Formed by in situ weathering of parent rock - to remain at the original place
the top layer of rock is decomposed into residual soils due to the warm climate and abundant rainfall . Type of rock strongly influences type of soil

Limestone clayey soils Sandstone coarse, acidic soils Granite coarse, acidic soils Slate, shale clayey soils

Transported Soils
Transported soils- to be moved and deposited to other places.

The particle sizes of transported soils are selected by the transportation agents such as streams, wind, etc. Interstratification of silts and clays. The transported soils can be categorize based on the mode of transportation and deposition (six types).

Transported Soils
(1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers.

(2) Alluvial soils: transported by running water and deposited along streams.
(3) Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes (4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas (5) Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by the wind

(6) Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such as during landslide

Soil Classification (based on grain size)

Soil Classification (based on grain size)

Very coarse soils BOULDERS > 200 mm

COBBLES
G GRAVEL coarse medium

60 - 200 mm
20 - 60 mm 6 - 20 mm

fine
coarse

2 - 6 mm
0.6 - 2.0 mm 0.2 - 0.6 mm 0.06 - 0.2 mm 0.02 - 0.06 mm 0.006 - 0.02 mm 0.002 - 0.006 mm < 0.002 mm

Coarse soils

S SAND

medium fine coarse

Fine soils

M SILT

medium fine C CLAY

Soil Classification (based on grain size)

0 100 10 90 20 30
Siz es (% )

80 70 Clay 60
y Cla e Siz

40

50 Sandy Clay Clay-Sand Silty Sand Silty Clay

Sa n d

60

50

) s (%

70 80 90 100 0 Sandy Silt Clay-Silt

40

30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Silt Sizes (%) 70 80 90 100 Sand

LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY DIVISION,

Soil Classification (based on grain size)

Soil formation (Weathering of rocks)

Physical and Chemical Weathering of the rocks is responsible for the formation of Soils (1) Physical disintegration of rock to form smaller rocks or individual mineral particles and the

(2) Chemical decomposition of minerals to form dissolved substances and new minerals

Physical Weathering:
A disintegration process that decreases particle size and increase particle surface area. Occurs through the affect of: Temperature Differential heating or cooling of rocks exfoliation Freeze-thaw: water expands upon freezing, exerting tremendous force Abrasion by water and water-borne sediments, windblown particles, and ice in glaciers Organisms Plant roots Soil animals

Humans

Chemical Weathering
Alters the composition of minerals Conversion of primary minerals into secondary minerals, and secondary into other secondary minerals Most rapid with warm temperatures, high precipitation, and small particle size There are geochemical and biochemical agents of change Water is required

Chemical Process of weathering

Hydrolysis
reaction with water involving solubility of silica and alumina

Chelation
Involves the complexing and removal of metal ions .

Cation exchange
is important to the formation of clay minerals

Oxidation and reduction

is responsible for relative stability and mobility of elements

Carbonation
is the combination of carbonate ions such as the reaction with CO2

Goldich Weathering Series

Primary Minerals

Minerals in Soils
Smectite

Illite
Kaolinite Montmorillonite Chlorite Muscovite

Hydrous Alumina Silicates

Soil Development (internal mechanisms)

Soil Development (internal mechanisms)

Soil Profiles
Over time different levels of a soil can differentiate into distinct horizons that create soil profiles. Chemical reactions and formation of secondary minerals (clays). Leaching by infiltrating water.

Deposition and accumulation of material leached from higher levels in the soil.

Basic soil profile Horizon O A E B C R Characteristics Organic (litter) Mineral soil high in organic matter Eluviated (leached, loss of clay) Accumulation (Fe, Al oxides, clay) Fractured parent material Fresh Rock

Soil Profile on Granite and Volcanic Ash

VI

Residual soils

V IV III
II I

Completely decomposed
Highly decomposed Moderately decomposed Slightly decomposed Fresh

Factors controlling Soil Development

Soil is a dynamic natural body formed by the combined effects of climate and biota, as moderated by topography, acting on parent materials over time. Soil = (climate, biota, topography, parent materials, time)

Climate:
Temperature and precipitation Indirect controls (e.g., types of plants) Weathering rates
Chemical and biological reaction rates double for every 10 C increase Climates with extreme T, physical weathering (e.g., freeze-thaw) more significant than chemical weathering Evapotranspiration increases with increasing T As rainfall increases, chemical and physical weathering rates increase Profile depth increases Nutrient status changes Loss of base cations Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+ Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+, H+ increase Soil acidity increases

Parent Material: Chemistry

Mineralogy
Grain size

Topography:
Ground slope

Elevation
Aspect (e.g., north facing vs. south facing slopes)

Organisms: Types of native vegetation Weathering is dependent of plant growth Plant and animal activity produces humic acids that are powerful weathering agents. Plants can physically as well as chemically break down rocks.

Plants stabilize soil profiles, Animals (including humans) tend to increase erosion.

Time: Development and destruction of soil profiles Typical reaction rates are slow, the longer a rock unit has been exposed, the more likely it is to be weathered.

Factors controlling Soil Development in summary

Factors that may retard soil development:

1. Low rainfall 2. Low Relative Humidity 3. High CaCO3 content (soil materials less mobile)

4. Sandy parent material

5. High clay (poor aeration, slow water movement). 6. Resistant parent material (quartzite) 7. Steep slopes - lots of erosion renewal

Factors that may retard soil development:

8. High water tables (slow leaching, decomposition). 9. Cold temperatures (low biota, slow chemical reactions)

10. Constant deposition (like steep slopes, alluvial,

aeolian deposits) 11. Severe wind or water erosion

13. Toxics - serpentine, etc.

SOIL Types in the World

Prairie soils have a dark surface layer (horizon), are rich in minerals, and form in grasslands widespread across Earths middle latitudes.

Forest soils have a light gray upper horizon, a horizon rich in aluminum and/or iron, and form in warm to cool humid regions where coniferous forests grow.

Tropical soils are reddish and iron-oxide rich, depleted in nutrients, and form in humid and warm regions.

Organic soils are dark colored, rich in decomposed organic matter, and form in poorly drained lowlands such as swamps and wetlands.

Desert soils form in arid settings and are commonly rich in calcium carbonate.

Tundra soils form in Arctic environments, have a dark organic-rich upper layer, and a mineral rich layer over frozen ground.

1. Red soils

SOILS IN INDIA

2. Laterites and laterite soils

3. Black soils 4. Alluvial soils 5. Desert soils 6. Saline and alkaline soils 7. Peaty and marshy soils

SOILS IN INDIA
1. Red soils: Derived from crystalline, metamorphic rocks, which consist of granites, gneisses and schists, red or reddish brown, either in situ or from the decomposed rock materials washed down to lower level by rain 2. Laterites and laterite soils: Formed in situ condition under conditions of high rainfall with alternating wet and dry periods, to reddish yellow, low in N, P, K, lime and magnesia. Formed due to the process of laterization in which silica is removed while Fe and Al remain behind in the upper layers 3. Black soils: Highly clayey, 35 to 60% even up to 80% in valleys or depressions dark colored, from deep cracks during dry seasons, characterized by swelling and low permeability, neutral to slightly alkaline, High CEC, high content of K, exchangeable Ca and Mg poor in org. matter, N, P.

SOILS IN INDIA
4. Alluvial soils: Develop from water deposited sediments. Do not show any prominent profile development. Varies in nature and properties which depends on sediments from which they develop the percent material in the respective catchments area and the place of deposition in valleys. Mostly poor drained, grayish colour, acidic but develop into saline and alkali soils in dry regions. 5. Desert soils: Formed in arid regions, as a result of physical weathering, sandy. Both wind and water erosion is severe in such soils, well supplied with soluble salts. Low in N and org. matter has a high pH. 6. Saline and alkaline soils: Soils show white crustation of salts of Ca, Mg and Na on the surface, poor drained and infertile. Occur in semi-arid areas 7. Peaty and marshy soils: Soils are black, clayey, highly acidic (pH3.5) and contain 10 to 40% org. matter, poorly drained, high ground water table.

Rate of Soil formation

it takes 500 years to form an inch of topsoil.

Thats less than 0.01 mm yr-1

Modern rates of soil loss are 100 to 1000 times rates of soil formation (typically mm yr-1 to cm yr -1 in agricultural settings).

Soil and the Life-Cycle of Civilizations

How long would it take to erode 1 m thick soil? Thickness of soil divided by the difference between Rate of soil erosion and production.

1m 1mm - .01 mm

1000 years

This is about the life-span of most major civilizations...

We know more about the movement of celestial bodies than about the soil underfoot. - Leonardo Da Vinci
Mandespite his artistic pretensions, his sophistication, and his many accomplishmentsowes his existence to a six-inch layer of topsoil and the fact that it rains. - Author Unknown

In summary
Soil is the topmost layer of the earths crust formed

by weathering processes
Soil is classified based on grain size and process of formation

Goldich Weathering series documents the sequence

of weathering of primary minerals

In summary
Climate, topography, parent rock, organisms and time control the rate and type of soil formation

Indian soil types are classified based on parent

and process of formation