INTRODUCTION The transfer of heat from one substance to another is a common occurrence in the process industry.

In many operations it is in fact necessary to supply or remove heat in order to achieve or maintain the condition necessary for the operation. The necessary conditions for the operation have to be achieved, for example, when the operation has to take place at a specific temperature and this temperature must be reached by applying or removing heat and have to be maintained in exothermic operation. These may be not only chemical transformation but also physical operation. For example, heat must be removed during condensation and crystallization (exothermic), and heat must be supplied for vaporization and dissolution (endothermic). As we know from physics, heat is a form of energy associated with molecular motion. A quantity of heat is expressed in calories (cal) or kilocalories (kcal). 1 kcal is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1C in temperature. Consequently, to bring 1 kg of water from 0C to boiling point (100C) we shall need 100 kcal. How much energy does 1 kcal represents? 1 kcal is 427 kgfm, i.e.1 kcal is the quantity of energy required to lift a weight of 427 kgf 1 meter. 2. EXAMPLE OF HEAT AS ENERGY

To vaporize only 1 kg of water requires a large quantity of energy: this conversion of liquid into vapour in fact requires some 500 kcal! On burning 1 kg of oil, about 10,000 kcal are released. To transfer heat from the one substance to the other we need a driving force that causes the heat to change place. Heat would appear to flow by itself from a high to a low temperature. The driving here, however, is the temperature difference. If something is to be heated, we must find something that is hotter and if something is to be cooled, then we have to find something that is cooler. It follows that it is important not only to know how great the number of calories is in a quantity of heat but also at what level this heat lies. (In other words, we must know how high temperature is.) The level at which heat lies is indicated by the temperature. This can is fact be defined in various ways. The best-known scale is the centigrade (or Celsius) scale. This shows 0C at the point at which water solidifies and 100 at the point at which it boils under normal pressure. The space in between is subdivided into one hundred equal parts. Centigrade temperatures can, of course, also be given above 100C and below 0C.

In addition to the centigrade sub-division, there is the Kelvin (or absolute) scale (K).

Centigrade

Kelvin

Boling point of water (1 atm)

100

373

Solidification point of water

273

Absolute zero

-273

Fig. 3.1 The relationship between these two temperature scales is shown in Fig. 3.1 3. HOW DOES THE TRANSFER OF HEAT TAKE PLACE?

Heat can be transferred in three different ways, i.e. by: 1. 2. 3. Radiation; Conduction; Convection;

We shall now consider these three forms of heat transfer in detail. 3.1 RADIATION

By radiation we mean the transfer of heat from one body to another without contact, the energy being conveyed by electromagnetic waves. All bodies radiate heat, but only to an appreciable degree when their temperature rises considerably above that of the surroundings.

The radiation of heat is in fact proportional to the difference between the fourth powers of the absolute temperatures (K) of the heat-radiating article and the surrounding. The temperatures are usually divided by 100 to keep the numbers to a manageable size. The driving force is therefore in this case defined as:

T1 100

T2 100

may be ignored. In that case, T2 100 The quantity of heat radiated per hour is determined by means of the formula: T1 4 4

Q = x O x 100 , provided that the surrounding temperature compared with the radiating body is so low as to be ignored, Q = the total number of kcal radiating per hour. = the radiation factor (kcal/m k hour). O = the radiating surface (m). T = the absolute temperature (Kelvin). Not only the temperature but also the nature of the radiating surface has a major influence on the quantity of calories radiated. The smoother and lighter in color the surface, the less heat It will radiate. Thus a polish copper surface at a specific temperature radiates only half the heat of an equal of bare steel surface at the same temperature. If the steel is allowed to rust, radiation will in fact increase five to six-fold. Two important points are that: 1. 2. Point Radiated heat travels in a straight line; No medium (e.g. liquid or gas) is necessary for travel. 1

We can feel radiated heat, for example, when standing in front of an open oven. If we take a step sideways, we no longer feel this heat.

In technology, heat transfer by means of radiation alone is fairly limited. This method of heat transfer is only employed when the temperature of the heat-radiating article is very high. Point 2

In space, however, this method of heat transfer seems to be the only one because it requires no intermediate substance. Unlike other methods of heat transfer, therefore, radiation can transfer heat through a vacuum. Note The great radiation source of heat transmitted to the earth is the sun. For our earth, the sun is in fact the only natural supplier of heat. We partly receive the suns heat direct and partly make use of solar energy that reached us long in the past and is now used in the form of oil, coal, etc. The energy that we derive from the wind and water also originates indirectly from the sun. Wind results from the irregular way in, which the earth is heated. Rain results from the vaporization of water, followed by condensation of the water vapour, which again falls to earth in the form of drops. In this way, rivers are formed which are often used to generate electricity with the aid of dams. Waterpower, therefore, also originates indirectly from the sun. The radiated heat from the sun also has an effect on the measurement of temperature in the open air; the thermometer must always be hung in the shade. If this is not done, it will initially show the air temperature and then continue to rise as solar heat is absorbed by means of radiation. So far, we have spoken only of radiation or emanation, but in technology, radioactive absorption is also important. Here, the same laws apply. Light and smooth surfaces therefore restrict the absorption of heat. Dark and dull surfaces promote the transfer of heat through a wall.