Vibrationofsingledegreeof freedomsystems y

Assoc.Prof.Dr.PelinGundesBakir gundesbakir@yahoo.com

CourseSchedule
Ashort h review i onthe h d dynamic i b behaviour h i of fthe h single i l d degreeof ff freedom d systems Ashortreviewonthedynamicbehaviourofmultidegreeoffreedomstructures Objectivesforvibrationmonitoring FourierSeriesExpansion,FourierTransforms,DiscreteFourierTransform Digitalsignalprocessing,problemsassociatedwithanalogtodigitalconversion,sampling, aliasing, l leakage, l k windowing, d filters fl Stepsininstrumentingastructure,selectionandinstallationofinstruments,maintenance, vibration ib ti i instrumentation, t t ti exciters, it t transducers, d performance f specification, ifi ti d data t acquisition i iti systems,strongmotiondataprocessing

CourseSchedule
Random R d variables, i bl stochastic h i processes,statistical i i lanalysis, l i correlation l i and dconvolution, l i coherence,timeandfrequencydomainrepresentationofrandomdynamicloads Dynamicresponseofsingleandmultidegreeoffreedomsystemstorandomloads Modalanalysis Applicationsinbridges,buildings,mechanicalengineeringandaerospacestructures MATLABexercises TermProjects

References
Modal M d lanalysis: l i HeylenW.,LammensS.AndSasP.,ModalAnalysisTheoryandTesting,Katholieke UniversiteitLeuven,1997. EwinsD D.J., J ModalTesting Testing,Theory Theory,Practice Practice,andApplication(MechanicalEngineering ResearchStudiesEngineeringDesignSeries),ResearchStudiesPre;2edition(August2001) ISBN13:9780863802188 Maia,N.M.M.andSilva,J.M.M.TheoreticalandExperimentalModalAnalysis,Research StudiesPressLtd,,Hertfordshire,1997,488pp.,ISBN0863802087 Signalprocessing: Blackburn, ,JamesA, ,Moderninstrumentationf forscientistsandengineers g ,NewYork: Springer,2001 StearnsS.D.andDavid,R.A.,SignalProcessingAlgorithmsinMatlab,PrenticeHallInc,1996 MitraS.K.,DigitalSignalProcessing,AComputerbasedapproach,McGrawHill,3rdEdition, 2006. HeylenW.,LammensS.AndSasP.,ModalAnalysisTheoryandTesting,Katholieke UniversiteitLeuven,1997. KeithWordenSignalProcessingandInstrumentation,LectureNotes, http://www.dynamics.group.shef.ac.uk/people/keith/mec409.htm

References
Signalprocessing: Lynn,P.A.IntroductoryDigitalSignalprocessingWithComputerApplications.JohnWiley& Sons,1994. StearnsD.D.andDavid,R.A.,SignalProcessingAlgorithmsinMatlab,PrenticeHallInc,1996 Ifeachor E.C.andJervisB.W.DigitalSignalProcessing:APracticalApproach,AddisonWesley, 1997

Generalvibrationtheory RaoS.S.,Mechanicalvibrations,Pearson,PrenticeHall,2004. InmanD.J.,EngineeringVibration,PrenticeHall,1994. MeirovitchL.,Fundamentalsofvibrations,McGrawHill,2001.

References
R d vibrations: Random ib i
BendatJ.S.andPiersolA.G.,Randomdataanalysisandmeasurementprocedures,WileySeriesin Probability yandStatistics, ,3rdEdition, ,2004. LutesL.D.andSarkani S.,RandomVibrations:Analysisofstructuralandmechanicalsystems,Elsevier,631 pp,2004. NewlandD.E.,Anintroductiontorandomvibrations,spectralandwaveletanalysis,Longman, 1975/1984/1993. SoongT.T.andGrigoriu,Randomvibrationofmechanicalandstructuralsystems,PrenticeHall,1993. Wirsching P.H.andPaez T.L.andOrtizK.Randomvibrations:TheoryandPractice,JohnWileyandsons, 1995. 199 Bendat J.S.and Piersol A.G.Engineeringapplicationsofcorrelationandspectralanalysis,JohnWileyand Sons, ,2nd Edition, ,1993.

References
Vib i Instrumentation: Vibration I i Vibration,monitoring,testingandinstrumentationhandbook,CRCPress,TaylorandFrancis, Editedby by:ClarenceW W.DeSilva Silva. AszklerC.,Acceleration,shockandvibrationsensors,Sensorshandbook,Chapter5,pages 137159. 159 McConnellK.G.,Vibrationtesting,theoryandpractice,JohnWileyandSons,1995.

Prerequisites: Basicknowledgeonstructuralanalysis.

Vibrationbasedhealthmonitoring
B i Information: Basic I f ti
Instructor:Assoc.Prof.Dr.PelinGundesBakir (http://atlas.cc.itu.edu.tr/~gundes Email:gundesbakir@yahoo.com OfficehoursTBDbyemailappointment

Website: W b it http://atlas.cc.itu.edu.tr/~gundes/lectures Lecturetime:Wednesday14.00 14 0017.00 17 00 Lecturevenue:NH404

Vibrationbasedhealthmonitoring
Vibrationbasedstr structural ct ralhealthmonitoringis i amultidisciplinary ltidi i li researchtopic.Thecourseissuitablebothforundergraduateand graduatestudentsaswellasthefollowingdepartments: Civilengineering Earthquakeengineering Mechanicalengineering Aerospaceengineering Electricalandelectronicengineering

Vibrationbasedhealthmonitoring
BasicInformation:
70%attendanceisrequired.

Grading: Quiz+homeworks:35% Midtermproject:25% Finalproject:40%

Introduction
Conceptsfromvibrations Degreesoffreedom Classificationofvibration

Conceptsfromvibrations
NEWTONS LAWS Firstlaw: Iftherearenoforcesactinguponaparticle,thentheparticlewillmovein astraightlinewithconstantvelocity. Secondlaw: Aparticleacteduponbyaforcemovessothattheforcevectorisequalto thetimerateofchangeofthelinearmomentumvector. Thirdlaw: Whentwoparticlesexertforcesupononeanother,theforcesliealongthe linejoiningtheparticlesandthecorrespondingforcevectorsarethe negativeofeachother.

Definition
The h minimumnumber b of findependent d d coordinates d required dtod determine completelythepositionsofallpartsofasystematanyinstantoftime definesthedegreeoffreedomofthesystem.A singledegreeoffreedom system requiresonlyonecoordinatetodescribeitspositionatanyinstant oftime.

Singledegreeoffreedomsystem
Forthe F th simple i l pendulum d l in i th thefi figure,the th motion ti canbe b stated t t deither ith in i terms t of f orxand dy.Ifth the coordinatesxandyareusedtodescribethemotion,itmustberecognizedthatthesecoordinatesarenot independent.Theyarerelatedtoeachotherthroughtherelation

x2 + y2 = l 2
wherelistheconstantlengthofthependulum.Thusanyonecoordinatecandescribethemotionofthe pendulum.Inthisexample,wefindthatthechoiceof astheindependentcoordinatewillbemore convenientthanthechoiceofxandy.

Twodegreeoffreedomsystem
Someexamples S l of ft twod degreeof ffreedom f d systems t areshown h i inth thefi figure.Th Thefi first tfi figureshows h at two mass twospringsystemthatisdescribedbytwolinearcoordinatesx1 andx2.Thesecondfiguredenotes atworotorsystemwhosemotioncanbespecifiedintermsof1and2.Themotionofthesysteminthe thirdfigurecanbedescribedcompletelyeitherbyXand orbyx,yandX.

Discreteandcontinuoussystems
Alarge l number b of fpractical ti lsystems t canbe b d described ib dusing i afinite fi it number b of fd degreesof ff freedom, d such has thesimplesystemshowninthepreviousslides. Somesystems,especiallythoseinvolvingcontinuouselasticmembers,haveaninfinitenumberofdegrees offreedomasshowninthefigure.Sincethebeaminthefigurehasaninfinitenumberofmasspoints,we needaninfinitenumberofcoordinatestospecifyitsdeflectedconfiguration.Theinfinitenumberof coordinatesdefinesitselasticdeflectioncurve.Thus,thecantileverbeamhasinfinitenumberofdegrees offreedom.

Discreteandcontinuoussystems
Systems S t with ithafi finite it number b of fd degreesof ff freedom d arecalled ll ddiscrete di t or lumpedparametersystems,andthosewithaninfinitenumberofdegrees offreedomarecalledcontinuous ordistributedsystems. Mostofthetime,continuoussystemsareapproximatedasdiscrete systems,andsolutionsareobtainedinasimplemanner.Although treatmentofasystemascontinuousgivesexactresults,theanalytical methodsavailablefordealingwithcontinuoussystemsarelimitedtoa narrowselectionofproblems,suchasuniformbeams,slenderrodsand thin hi plates. l Hence, ,mostofthep practicalsystems y arestudiedby ytreating gthemasfinite lumpedmasses,springsanddampers.Ingeneral,moreaccurateresults areobtainedbyincreasingthenumberofmasses,springsanddampers thatisbyincreasingthenumberofdegreesoffreedom.

Classificationofvibration
Freevibration: ibration Ifasystem, t after ft ani initial iti ldisturbance di t b i isl left ftt to vibrateonitsown,theensuingvibrationisknownasfreevibration. Noexternalforceactsonthesystem.Theoscillationofasimple pendulumisanexampleoffreevibration. vibration Forcedvibration:Ifasystemissubjectedtoanexternalforce(often arepeating ti type t of fforce), f ) the th resulting lti vibration ib ti is i known k asforced f d vibration.
Ifthefrequencyoftheexternalforcecoincideswithoneofthenatural frequenciesofthesystem,aconditionknownasresonanceoccurs, andthesystemundergoesdangerouslylargeoscillations.Failuresof suchstructuresasbuildings buildings,bridges bridges,turbines turbines,andairplanewings havebeenassoicatedwiththenoccurrenceofresonance.

Classificationofvibration
Undamped d dvibration: ib i If fnoenergyislost l ord dissipated dinf frictionorother h resistanceduringoscillation,thevibrationisknownasundampedvibration. Ifanyenergyislostinthiswayhowever,itiscalleddampedvibration.

Whilethespring p gformsaphysical p y modelforstoring gkineticenergy gyandhence causingvibration,thedashpot,ordamper,formsthephysicalmodelfor dissipatingenergyanddampingtheresponseofamechanicalsystem.A dashpot p consistsofapiston p fitintoacylinder y filledwithoil.Thispiston p is perforatedwithholessothatmotionofthepistonintheoilispossible.The laminarflowoftheoilthroughtheperforationsasthepistonmovescausesa damping p gforceonthepiston. p

Classificationofvibration
Linearvibration: Li ib ti If all llth theb basic i components t ofavibratorysystemthespring,themass, andthedamper,behavelinearly,the resultingvibrationisknownaslinear vibration.Thedifferentialequationsthat governthebehaviourofvibratorylinear y arelinear.Therefore, ,theprinciple p p of systems superpositionholds. Nonlinearvibration:Ifhowever,anyofthe basiccomponentsbehavenonlinearly,the vibrationiscallednonlinearvibration.The differentialequationsthatgovernthe behaviourofvibratorynonlinearsystems arenonlinear.Therefore,theprincipleof superpositiondoesnothold.

Classificationofvibration
Linearand Li dnonlinear li vibrations ib ti contd: td Thenatureofthespringforcecanbe deducedbyperformingasimplestatic experiment Withnomassattached experiment. attached,the springstretchestoapositionlabeledasxo=0 inthefigure. Assuccessivelymoremassisattachedtothe spring,theforceofgravitycausesthespring tostretchfurther.Ifthevalueofthemassis recorded,alongwiththevalueofthe displacementoftheendofthespringeach timemoremassisadded,theplotofthe force(massdenotedbym,timesthe accelerationduetogravity,denotedbyg), versusthisdisplacementdenotedbyx,yields acurvesimilartothatshowninthefigure.

Classificationofvibration
Linearand dnonlinear l vibrations b contd: d Notethatintheregionofvaluesforx between0andabout20mm, ,thecurveis astraightline.Thisindicatesthatfor deflectionslessthan20mmandforces lessthan1000N, N theforcethatisapplied bythespringtothemassisproportional tothestretchofthespring. Theconstantofproportionalityistheslope ofthestraight g line.

Classificationofvibration
Deterministic i i i vibration: ib i If fthe h value l ormagnitude i d of fthe h excitation i i (f (forceor motion)actingonavibratorysystemisknownatanygiventime,theexcitationis calleddeterministic.Theresultingvibrationisknownasdeterministicvibration. Nondeterministicvibration:Insomecases,theexcitationisnondeterministic or random;thevalueofexcitationatagiventimecannotbepredicted.Inthese cases,alargecollectionofrecordsoftheexcitationmayexhibitsomestatistical regularity.Itispossibletoestimateaveragessuchasthemeanandmeansquare valuesoftheexcitation.

Classificationofvibration
Examples l of frandom d excitationsarewind dvelocity, l road droughness, h and d groundmotionduringearthquakes. Iftheexcitationisrandom, ,theresulting gvibrationiscalledrandom vibration.Inthecaseofrandomvibration,thevibratoryresponseofthe systemisalsorandom:itcanbedescribedonlyintermsofstatistical quantities. quantities

Mathematicalbackground
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients Nonhomogeneous N h ODEs ODE

Introduction
Th Thedynamic d i behaviour b h i of fmechanical h i lsystems t i isd described ib db bywhat h t wecallsecondorderOrdinaryDifferentialEquations. Theinputtothemechanicalstructureappearsontherighthand sideoftheequationandistheForceandthesolutionofthe equationgivestheoutputwhichisusuallythedisplacement. Inordertobeablesolvetheseequations,itisimperativetohavea solidbackground g onthesolutionofhomogeneous g and nonhomogeneousOrdinaryDifferentialEquations. HomogeneousOrdinaryDifferentialEquationsrepresenttheFree Free VibrationsandthenonhomogeneousOrdinaryDifferential EquationsrepresentForcedVibrations.

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Weshall h llnowconsider d second dorder d h homogeneousl linearODEswhose h coefficientsaandbareconstant.

y + ay + by y=0 y + ky = 0

ThesolutionofafirstorderlinearODE:

Byseparatingvariablesandintegrating,weobtain: Takingexponentsonbothsides:
y ( x) = ce
y=e
kdx

dy = kdx y

ln y = kdx + c *

= ce kx

Letstry ytheabovesolutioninthefirstequation. q Using gaconstant coefficientk: x

Substituti Subs u ng g its s de derivative v ves : y = e x (2 + a + b)e x = 0 and d y = 2 e x

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Henceif f isasolution l of fthe h importantcharacteristic h equation( (or auxiliaryequation)

2 + a + b = 0

y = e x isasolutionofthe Thentheexponentialsolution

y + ay + by y=0
Nowfromelementaryalgebrawerecallthattherootsofthisquadratic equationare: 1 = (a + a 2 4b)
2 1 2 = (a a 2 4b) 2
1

Thefunctionsbelowaresolutionsto y + ay + by = 0
y1 = e 1x and y 2 = e 2 x

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Fromalgebra l b weknow k that h the h quadratic d equationbelow b l mayhave h three h kindsofroots: 2 + a + b = 0 CaseI:Tworealrootsif a 2 4b > 0 CaseII:Arealdoublerootif a 2 4b = 0 CaseIII:Complexconjugaterootsifa 2 4b < 0 CASEI:Inthiscase case,abasisofsolutionsof y + ay + by = 0 x x inanyintervalis: y1 = e and y2 = e becausey1 andy2 aredefinedandrealforallxandtheirq quotientisnot constant.Thecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis:
1 2

y = c1e 1x + c2 e 2 x

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEII:Real ldouble d bl root=a/2 / a 2 4b iszero,weseefrom Ifthediscriminant
1 2 1 2 = (a a 2 4b) 2

1 = (a + a 2 4b)

thatwegetonlyoneroot:

= 1 = 2 = a / 2,
hence only one solution : y1 = e ( a / 2) x

Toobtain T b i asecond dindependent i d d solution l i y2 needed d dfor f abasis, b i weusethe h methodoforderofreduction.Setting

y2 = uy1 , Substituting this and its derivatives y 2 ' = u ' y1 + uy1 ' and y2 ' ' into

y + ay + by = 0

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEII:Real ldouble d bl root=a/2 / + uy1 ) + a (u y1 + uy1 ) + buy1 = 0 Wehave: (uy1 + 2uy1 Collectingterms uy + u(2 y + ay ) + u( y + ay + by ) = 0 Thisexpressioninthelastparanthesisiszero,sincey1 isasolutionof
1 1 1 1 1 1

y + ay + by = 0

2 y = ae Theexpressioninthesecondparanthesisiszerotoosince Wearethusleftwith
1

ax / 2

= ay1

u y1 = 0 Hence u = 0

By two integrations u = c1 x + c2

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEII:Real ldouble d bl root=a/2 / Togetasecondindependentsolutiony2=uy1,wecansimplychoosec1=1 andc2=0andtakeu=x.Theny2=xy y1.Sincethesesolutionsarenot proportional,theyformabasis.Henceinthecaseofadoublerootof 2 + a + b = 0 abasis b i of fsolutions l i of f onanyintervalis:
y + ay + by b =0

e ax / 2 , xe ax / 2

Thecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis: y = (c1 + c2 x)e ax / 2

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEIII:Complexrootsa/2+i a/2+i anda/2 a/2i Thiscaseoccursifthediscriminantofthecharacteristicequation

2 + a + b = 0

isnegative.Inthiscase,therootsoftheaboveequationandthusthesolutionsoftheODE comeatfirstoutcomplex.However,weshowthatfromthemwecanobtainabasisofrealsolutions:

y + ay + by = 0

where

y1 = e ax / 2 cos x ,

y 2 = e ax / 2 sin i x

2 = b a2
Thisisprovedinthenextslides.Itcanbeverifiedbysubstitutionthatthesearesolutionsinthepresent case.Theyformabasisonanyintervalsincetheirquotientcotxisnotconstant.Hence,arealgeneral solution l ti i inC CaseIIIi is:

1 4

y = e ax / 2 ( A cos x + B sin x )

( A , B arbitrary )

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients:Proof
Complex l number b representationof fh harmonicmotion:Since r r X = OP thisvectorcanberepresentedasacomplexnumber: r X = a + ib r X .Components i = 1 andaandbdenotexandycomponentsof where aandbarealsocalledtherealandtheimaginarypartsofthevectorX.IfA denotesthemodulusortheabsolutevalueofthevectorX,and denotes r X can theargument g oftheangle g betweenthevectorandthexaxis, ,then alsobeexpressedas:

HomogeneouslinearODEswithconstantcoefficients: P f Proof
Complexnumberrepresentationofharmonicmotion

r r X = OP
r X = a + ib
r X

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients:Proof
A apparent As twehave h two t complex l roots. t These Th are:
1 = a + i and 1 = a i
1 2 1 2

Weknowfrombasicmathematicsthatacomplexexponentialfunctioncan beexpressedas: r + it r it r
e = e e = e (cos t + i sin t )

ThustherootsofthesecondorderOrdinaryDifferentialEquationcanbe e x = e ( a / 2) x +ix = e ( a / 2) x (cos x + i sin x) expressedas:

1

e 2 x = e ( a / 2 ) x ix = e ( a / 2) x (cos x i sin x)

Wenowaddthesetwolinesandmultiplytheresultby.Thisgives: y1 = e ax / 2 cos x Thenwesubtractthesecondlinefromthefirstandmultiplytheresultby 1/2i.Thisgives: y 2 = e ax / 2 sin x

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Case I Roots Distinctreal 1,2 II Realdoubleroot =a/2 III Complex conjugate
1 2 1 2 = a i 2

Basis

General solution

e 1x , e 2 x

y = c1e 1x + c2 e 2 x y = (c1 + c2 x)e ax / 2

ax / 2

, xe

ax / 2

1 = a + i

y1 = e ax / 2 cos x y2 = e ax / 2 sin x

y = e ax / 2 ( A cos x + B sin x )

NonhomogeneousODEs
Inthis h section,weproceed dfrom f homogeneous h tononhomogeneous h ODEs.

y + p ( x) y + q ( x) y = r ( x)

Thegeneralsolutionconsistsoftwoparts:
y ( x) = yh ( x) + y p ( x) where yh = c1 y1 + c2 y2 is a general solution of the homogeneous ODE. ODE

Terminr(x)

Choiceforyp(x)

kex
kx n (n = 0,1,2,...)

Cex
K n x n + K n 1 x n 1 + .... + K1 x + K 0

k cos x k sin x
kex cos x kex sin x

K cos x + M sin x

ex ( K cos x + M sin x)

NonhomogeneousODEs
Choicerulesforthemethodofundeterminedcoefficients
a) Basicrule:Ifr(x)isoneofthefunctionsinthefirstcolumnintheTable, chooseyp inthesamelineanddetermineitsundeterminedcoefficients bysubstitutingyp anditsderivativesinto y + p ( x) y + q ( x) y = r ( x)

b) Modificationrule:Ifaterminyourchoiceforyp happenstobeasolution ofthehomogeneousODEcorrespondingtotheaboveequation,multiply yourchoiceofyp by y yx( (orx^2ifthissolutioncorresponds p toadoubleroot ofthecharacteristicequationofthehomogeneousODE) c) Sumrule:Ifr(x)isasumoffunctionsinthefirstcolumnofthetable, chooseforyp thesumofthefunctionsinthecorrespondinglinesofthe secondcolumn.

FreeVibrationofSingleDegree ofFreedomSystems y
HarmonicMotion FreevibrationofundampedSDOFsystems Freevibrationofdamped p SDOFsystems y

Harmonicmotion
O Oscillatory ill t motion ti mayrepeat tit itself lfregularly, l l as inthecaseofasimplependulum,oritmay displayconsiderableirregularity irregularity,asinthecaseof groundmotionduringanearthquake. Ifthemotionisrepeatedafterequalintervalsof time,itiscalledperiodicmotion. Thesimplesttypeofperiodicmotionisharmonic motion.

Harmonicmotion
Showninthefigureisavector OPthatrotates counterclockwisewith g velocity y. constantangular Atanytimet,theanglethat OPmakeswiththehorizontal is=t.

Letybetheprojectionof OPontheverticalaxis.Then y=Asint.Herey,a functionoftimeisp plotted versust.

Harmonicmotion
Aparticlethatexperiencesthis motionissaidtohaveharmonic motion. Themaximumdisplacementofa vibratingbodyfromitsequilibrium positioniscalledtheamplitudeof vibration.AmplitudeAisshownin thefigure. Range2Aisthepeaktopeak displacement. Nowconsidertheunitsof.LetC bethecircumferenceofthecircle showninthefigure.

Harmonicmotion
ThusC=2A. A OrwecanwriteC=A, where=2 foronerevolution.Thus defined, issaidtobeinradiansandis equivalentto360.Therefore,one radianisapproximatelyequalto58.3. Ingeneral,foranyarclength, s=A ,where isinradians.Itfollows that inthefigurewouldbeinradians persecond. Asseeninthefigure,thevectorial methodofrepresentingharmonic motionrequiresthedescriptionofboth thehorizontalandverticalcomponents. Theti Th timet taken k to t complete l t onecycle l ofmotionisknownastheperiodof oscillationortimeperiodandis denotedby.Theperiodisthetimefor themotiontorepeat(thevalueof in thefigure).

Harmonicmotion
Notethat =2 where denotesthe angularvelocityofthecyclicmotion.The angularvelocity isalsocalledthe circular i l frequency f . Themovementofavibratingbodyfrom itsundisturbedorequilibriumpositionto itsextremepositioninonedirection, thentotheequilibriumposition,thento itsextremepositionintheother direction,andbacktoequilibrium position i i is i called ll dacycle l of fvibration ib i . Onerevolution(i.e.,angular displacement p of2 radians) )ofthep pinP inthefigureoronerevolutionofthe vectorOPinthefigureconstitutesa cycle.Cycleisthemotioninoneperiod, asshowninthefigure.

Harmonicmotion
Frequencyisthe h number b of fcycles l perunittime. Themostcommonunitoftimeusedinvibrationanalysisisseconds. seconds CyclespersecondiscalledHertz. ThetimethecycletakestorepatitselfistheperiodT.Intermsofthe period,thefrequencyis: 1

f =

Thefrequencyfisrelatedto: f = 2 = 2f

Harmonicmotion
Phase h angle: l Consider d twovibratory b motionsdenoted d dby: b
x1 = A1 sin t x2 = A2 sin(t + )

Thesetwoharmonicmotionsarecalledsynchronous becausetheyhave thesamefrequencyorangularvelocity.Twosynchronousoscillations neednothavethesameamplitude,andtheyneednotattaintheir g maximumvaluesatthesametimeasshowninthefigure.

Harmonicmotion
Inthis h figure, f the h second dvectorOP2 leads l d the h first f oneOP1 by b anangle l knownasthephaseangle.Thismeansthatthemaximumofthesecond vectorwouldoccur radiansearlierthanthatofthefirstvector.These twovectorsaresaidtohaveaphasedifferenceof.

Harmonicmotion
Fromintroductory d physics h and ddynamics, d the h fundamental f d lkinematical k l quantitiesusedtodescribethemotionofaparticlearedisplacement, velocityandaccelerationvectors. Theaccelerationofaparticleisgivenby:

dv d 2 x & a= = 2 =& x dt dt
Thus,displacement Thus displacement,velocity velocity,andaccelerationhavethefollowing relationshipsinharmonicmotion:

x = A sin t & = A cos t v=x

& = A 2 sin t a=& x

Operationsonharmonicfunctions
Usingcomplex l number b representation,the h rotatingvector be X canb writtenas:
r X where denotesthecircularfrequency(rad/sec)ofrotationofthevector r

incounterclockwisedirection.Thedifferentiationoftheharmonicsgiven b the by h above b equation i gives: i

Thusthedisplacement,velocityandaccelerationcanbeexpressedas:

Operationsonharmonicfunctions
Itcanbe b seenthat h the h accelerationvectorleadsthe velocityvectorby90degrees andthevelocityvectorleads thedisplacementvectorby90 degrees. g

Harmonicmotion
Natural lfrequency: f If fasystem,after f aninitial ldisturbance, d b isleft l f to vibrateonitsown,thefrequencywithwhichitoscillateswithoutexternal forcesisknownasitsnaturalfrequency.Aswillbeseen,avibratory systemhavingndegreesoffreedomwillhave,ingeneral,ndistinct naturalfrequenciesofvibration. Beats: Whentwoharmonicmotions, motions withfrequenciesclosetoone another,areadded,theresultingmotionexhibitsaphenomenonknown asbeats.Forexampleif:
x1 (t ) = X cos t x2 (t ) = X cos( + )t where is a small quantity.

Theadditionofthesetwomotionsyield:
x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) = X [cos t + cos( + )t ]

Harmonicmotion
Beats:
x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) = X [cos t + cos( + )t ]

Usingtherelation

A+ B A B cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos 2 2

Thefirstequationcanbewrittenas:

x(t ) = 2 X cos

cos( + )t 2 2

Harmonicmotion
Beats: Itcanbeseenthattheresultingmotionx(t)representsacosinewave + withfrequency q y whichisapproximately pp yequal q to andwithavarying y g 2 t amplitude 2 X cos 2 .Whenever,theamplitudereachesamaximumitis calledabeat. Inmachinesandinstructures,the structures thebeatingphenomenonoccurswhenthe forcingfrequencyisclosetothenaturalfrequencyofthesystem.Wewill laterreturntothistopic.

Harmonicmotion
O Octave: t Wh the When th maximum i value l of farangeof f frequencyistwiceitsminimumvalue,itisknown asanoctaveband. band Forexample example,eachoftheranges75150Hz, Hz 150 300Hz,and300600Hzcanbecalledanoctave band. Ineachcase case,themaximumandminimumvalues offrequency,whichhavearatioof2:1,aresaidto yanoctave. differby

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Consider d the h single l degree d of ffreedom f d ( (SDOF) )systemshown h inthe h f figure. Thespringisoriginallyintheunstretchedpositionasshown.Itisassumed thatthespringobeysHookeslaw.Theforceinthespringisproportional todisplacementwiththeproportionalityconstant(springconstant)equal tok.

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
The h stiffness ff inaspringcanb berelated l dmoredirectly d l tomaterial land d geometricpropertiesofthespring.Aspringlikebehaviourresultsfroma varietyofconfigurations,includinglongitudinalmotion(vibrationinthe directionofthelength),transversemotion(vibrationperpendiculartothe length),andtorsionalmotion(vibrationrotatingaroundthelength).

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Aspringisgenerally ll made d of fanelastic l material. l Foraslender l d elastic l materialoflengthl,crosssectionalareaAandelasticmodulusE(or Youngsmodulus),thestiffnessofthebarforvibrationalongitslengthis givenby: EA
k= l

ThemodulusEhastheunitsofPascal(denotedPa)whichareN/m2 N/m2.

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
When h the h massm(weight ( h W) )isapplied, l d the h springwill lldeflect d fl toastatic equilibriumpositionst. Atthisposition,wefindthat:
W = mg = k st

Ifthemassisperturbedandallowedtomovedynamically,the displacementx,measuredfromtheequilibriumposition,willbeafunction oftime.Here, ,x(t) ( )istheabsolutemotionofthemassandtheforceinthe springcanbeexpresssedas: k ( x + st ) Tod T determine i the h position i i asaf function i of ftime, i the h equations i of fmotion i areemployed;thefreebodydiagramsaredrawnasshowninthefigure. Notethatxismeasuredpositivedownward.

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Applying l Newtons second dlaw, l
& W k ( x + st ) = m& x

Butfromthestaticcondition condition,notethatW=kst. st Thus, Thus theequationof motionbecomes: & + kx = 0 m& x Withthestandardformof:

k x=0 m ThisisCaseIIIthathascomplexrootswherethegeneralsolutionwas computedas: x = e ax / 2 ( A cos t + B sin t ) & &+ x

Sinceintheaboveequation:
a=0

2 = b a2

1 4

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Itisshown h that h
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

whereAandBareconstantsofintegrationand
k (rad / sec) m Heren definesthenaturalfrequencyofthemass.Thisisthefrequencyat whichthemasswillmoveregardlessoftheamplitudeofthemotionas longasthespringinthesystemcontinuestoobeyHooke Hookes slaw law.The naturalfrequencyinHertzis:

n =

fn =

1 2

k m

( Hz )

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems

&=x & o at t = 0 are used The h initial lconditions d x = xo at t=0 0 and d x d to evaluate l the constants of integration A and B. When substituted into the equation

x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

weget:
A = xo and B =

&o x

andconsequently x(t ) = xo cos n t +

&o x

sin n t

Thesumintheequation

x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

C = A2 + B 2 canalsobecombinedtoap phaseshiftedcosinewithamplitude p andphaseangle=arctan(B/A).Forthispurposelet:

A = C cos and B = C sin

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Introducing d the h newvalues l of fAand dBinto x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt weget: Since

x(t ) = C cos cos nt + C sin sin n t

cos( x y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y x(t ) = C cos(nt )
2

x(t) ( )canb beexpressed das:

Where=arctan(B/A) arctan(B/A)andconsequently:
x &o x &o 2 2 2 = + = + C A B x = arctan and o n xo n

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems

x(t ) = xo cos n t + o sin i n t isah The h equation harmonicf functionof f

& x

time.Thus time Thus,thespringmasssystemiscalledaharmonicoscillator. oscillator The natureofharmonicoscillationisshowninthefigure.IfCdenotesavector ofmagnitudeC,whichmakesananglent withrespecttotheverticalx x(t ) = C cos(nt ) canbeseentobethe axis thenthesolution axis, projectionofvectorConthexaxis.

Damping
Undamped U d dand dd damped dvibration: ib ti The Th responseof faspring i massmodel d lpredicts di t thatthesystemwilloscillateindefinitely.However,everydayobservationindicates thatmostfreelyoscillatingsystemseventuallydieoutandreducetozeromotion. Th choice The h i of frepresentative i model d l f forthe h observed b d d decayi inanoscillating ill i system isbasedpartiallyonphysicalobservationandpartiallyonmathematical convenience.Thetheoryofdifferentialequationssuggeststhataddingatermto &(t ) + kx(t ) = 0 oftheform & ,wherecisaconstant, m& x cx equation constant willresultina solutionx(t)thatdiesout. Physicalobservationagreesfairwellwiththismodelanditisusedvery successfully f ll to t model d lth thed damping i ord decayi inavariety i t of fmechanical h i lsystems. t Thistypeofdampingiscalledtheviscousdamping.

Damping
The h l laminarfl flowof fthe h oil lthrough h hthe h perforations f asthe h pistonmoves causesadampingforceonthepiston. Theforceisp proportional p tothevelocity yofthep piston, ,inadirection oppositethatofthepistonmotion.Thisdampingforcehastheform: & (t ) f c = cx where h c i isaconstantof fproportionality i li related l dtothe h oil ilviscosity. i i The h constantc,calledthedampingcoefficient,hasunitsofNs/m,orkg/s.

DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem
Consider d the h springmasssystemwith hanenergydissipating d mechanism h describedbythedampingforceasshowninthefigure.Itisassumedthat thedampingforceFD isproportionaltothevelocityofthemass,asshown; thedampingcoefficientisc.WhenNewtonssecondlawisapplied,this modelforthedampingforceleadstoalineardifferentialequation,

& + cx & + kx m& x k =0

DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem
The h ODEishomogeneous h l linearand dhas h constantcoefficients. ff The h characteristicequationisfoundbydividingthebelowequationbym:
s2 + c k s+ =0 m m

Bytherootsofaquadraticequation,weobtain:
s1 = + , s2 = , where c = 2m and = 1 c 2 4mk 2m

Itisnowmostinterestingthatdependingontheamountofdamping (much,mediumorlittle)therewillbethreetypesofmotion correspondingtothethreecasesI,IIandIII.

DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem
C Case I Roots Definition fi i i Overdamping s1,s2 II

c > 4mk
2

Distinctrealroots

c 2 = 4mk

Realdoubleroot

Criticaldamping p g

III

c 2 < 4mk

Complexconjugateroots

Underdamping

DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem
Define f the h critical ld dampingcoefficient ff ccasthat h value l of fcthat h makes k the h radicalequaltozero,
cc = 2m k = 2mn m

Definethedampingfactoras:
=

c c = cc 2mn

Introducingtheaboveequationinto
s1, 2 k c c = 2m 2m m
2

Wefind: s1, 2 = 2 1 n Thenthesolutioncanbewrittenas:

x(t ) = Ae

2 + 1 n t

+ Be

2 1 n t

Threecasesofdamping
Heavydampingwhenc>cc Criticaldampingc=cc Lightdamping0<c<cc

Heavydamping(c>cc or>1)
The h rootsareb both hreal. l The h solution l tothe h differential d ff lequationis:

x(t ) = Ae s1t + Be s2t

whereAandBaretheconstantsofintegration. integration Boths1 ands2 willbe 2 = 2 k / m < 2 .Since negativebecause >0, >0,and
s1 = + , s2 = , where = c 2m and = 1 c 2 4mk 2m

Thus,givenanyinitialdisplacement,themasswilldecaytothe equilibriumpositionwithoutvibratorymotion.Anoverdampedsystem doesnotoscillatebutratherreturnstoitsrestp positionexponentially. p y 2 2 x(t ) = Ae ( + 1 )nt + Be ( 1 )nt

Criticaldamping(c=cc,or=1)

= c 2 4mk iszerointhis Since h case,s1=s2==cc/2m= / n. 2m x(t ) = ( A + Bt )e t . Bothrootsareequalandthegeneralsolutionis: &=x & o at t = 0 Substituting gtheinitialconditions, ,x = xo at t=0 and x &o + n xo A = xo and B = x
n

and the solution becomes : &o + n xo )t ]e nt x(t ) = [xo + ( x

Themotionisagainnotvibratoryanddecaystotheequilibriumposition.

Lightdamping(0<c<cc or<1)
This h caseoccursif fthe h damping d constantcissosmall llthat h

c 2 < 4mk imaginary Then isnolongerrealbutpureimaginary.

1 k c2 2 4mk c = = i * where * = 2m m 4m 2

Therootsofthecharacteristicequationarenowcomplexconjugate:
s1 = + i*, with = c 2m s2 = i *

Hencethecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis:
x = e t ( A cos * t + B sin * t ) = Ce t cos( * t o ) where C 2 = A 2 + B 2 and tan o = B/A

Lightdamping(0<c<cc )
The h solution l canalso l be b expressed das:

x(t ) = e nt A cos 1 2 nt + B sin 1 2 nt

Therootsarecomplex.Itiseasilyshown,usingEulersformulathatthe t generalsolutionis: x(t ) = [C cos(d t o )]e whereCand aretheconstantsofintegration.Thedampednatural 2 frequencydisgivenby d = n 1

Lightdamping(0<c<cc )
Forthe h initial lconditions d
x(t = 0) = xo & (t = 0) = x &o x

Theequation

x(t ) = e nt A cos 1 2 nt + B sin 1 2 nt

canbeexpressedas:

x(t ) = e
where

n t

&o + x n xo 2 2 sin 1 nt xo cos 1 nt + d

=
c 2mn

Natureoftherootsinthecomplex plane
For=0, F 0 weobtain bt i th thei imaginary i roots t in andin andasolutionof
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

For0<<1,therootsarecomplex conjugateandarelocatedsymmetrically abouttherealaxis. Asthevalueof approaches1, bothrootsapproachthepoint nontherealaxis. axis If isgreaterthan1,bothrootslieonthe realaxis,oneincreasingandtheotherdecreasing.

Logarithmicdecrement
The h logarithmic l h d decrementrepresentsthe h rateatwhich h hthe h amplitude l d of f afreedampedvibrationdecreases.Itisdefinedasthenaturallogarithm oftheratioofanytwosuccessiveamplitudes. Lett1 andt2 denotethetimescorrespondingtotwoconsecutive amplitudes(displacements)measuredonecycleapartforan underdampedsystemasshowninthefigure.

Logarithmicdecrement

t Using ,wecanform f the h ratio: x(t ) = [ A cos(d t )]e

n

x1 X o e nt1 cos(d t1 o ) = x2 X o e nt2 cos(d t 2 o )

Butt2=t1+d ,hence

Logarithmicdecrement
The h l logarithmic h d decrementcanb bef found df from:

Forsmalldamping,theaboveequationcanbeapproximatedas:

Logarithmicdecrement
Figureshows h the h variationof fthe h logarithmicdecrement with asshownintheequations:

Itcanbenoticedthatforvaluesupto =0.3,thetwocurvesaredifficultto distinguish.

Logarithmicdecrement
Thelogarithmicdecrementisdimensionlessandisactuallyanotherform ofthedimensionlessdampingratio.Once isknown, canbefoundby solving: g

Ifweuse

insteadof wehave:

Logarithmicdecrement
If fthe h damping d inthe h givensystemisnotknown, k wecandetermine d it experimentallybymeasuringanytwoconsecutivedisplacementsx1 and x2.Bytakingthenaturallogarithmoftheratiox1 andx2,weobtain.By using

wecancomputethedampingratio. Infactthedamping p gratio canalsobefoundby ymeasuring gtwo displacementsseparatedbyanynumberofcompletecycles.Ifx1 andxm+1 denotetheamplitudescorrespondingtotimest1 andtm+1=t1+md wherem isaninteger integer,weobtain:

Logarithmicdecrement
Sinceanytwosuccessivedisplacements d l separated dby b onecycle l satisfy f the h equation:

theequation becomes: Theaboveequationyields whichcanbesubstitutedintotheeitheroftheequations q toobtainthe viscousdampingratio:

ForcedVibration
Harmonicexcitation Baseexcitation

Harmonicallyexcitedvibration
Amechanical h lorstructural lsystemissaid dtoundergo d forced f dvibration b wheneverexternalenergyissuppliedtothesystemduringvibration. Externalenergycanbesuppliedtothesystemthrougheitheranapplied forceoranimposeddisplacementexcitation. Theappliedforceordisplacementexcitationmaybeharmonic, nonharmonicbutperiodic, periodic nonperiodicorrandominnature. nature Theresponse ofasystemtoharmonicexcitationiscalledharmonicresponse. Thenonperiodicexcitationsmayhavealongorshortduration.The responseof fad dynamic i systemtosuddenly dd l applied li dnonperiodic i di excitations i i iscalledtransientresponse. Inthisp partofthecourse, ,weshallconsiderthedynamic y response p ofa singledegreeoffreedomsystemunderharmonicexcitationsoftheform
F (t ) = Fo ei (t + ) or F(t) = Fo cos (t + ) or F(t) = Fo sin (t + ) h where Fo is the amplitude, is the frequency, and is the phase angle of the harmonic excitation.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Somesingle l degree d of ffreedom f d (SDOF) ( )systemswith hanexternal lforce f are showninthefigure.ForcecanbeappliedbothasanexternalforceF(t),or asabasemotiony(t),asshown.Thecoordinatex(t)istheabsolutemotion ofthemass.TheforcesWandkst areignoredinthefreebodydiagrams asweknowtheywilladdtozerointheequationofmotion.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Consider d the h force f excited dsystemof fthe h figure, f where h the h applied l dforce f is F (t ) = Fo sin t harmonic, Applying pp y gNewtonssecondlaw, ,theequation q ofmotionbecomes: & + cx & + kx = Fo sin t m& x Thegeneralsolutionforthissecondordernonhomogeneouslinear diff differential i lequation i is i x(t ) = xh (t ) + x p (t ) wherexh isthecomplementarysolutionorsolutiontothehomogeneous equation. q Butthissolutiondiesoutsoon.Ourinterestfocusesonxp,the particularsolution.Invibrationtheory,theparticularsolutionisalsocalled thesteadystatesolution.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
The h variationsof fh homogeneous,particular, l and dgeneral lsolutions l with h timeforatypicalcaseareshowninthefigure. (t) )diesoutandx(t) ( )becomesxp( (t) )aftersometime( Itcanbeseenthatxh( inthefigure). Thepartofthemotionthatdiesoutduetodamping(thefreevibration part)iscalledtransient.Theparticularsolutionrepresentsthesteady statevibrationandispresentaslongastheforcingfunctionispresent.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
The h vertical lmotionsof famassspringsystemsubjected b dtoanexternal l forcer(t)canbeexpressedas:

mx + cx + kx = r (t )

Mechanically,thismeansthatateachtimeinstantt,theresultantofthe internalforcesisinequilibriumwithr(t).Theresultingmotioniscalleda forcedmotionwithforcingfunctionr(t) r(t),whichisalsoknownastheinput forceorthedrivingforce,andthesolutionx(t)tobeobtainediscalledthe output ortheresponseofthesystemtothedrivingforce. Ofspecialinterestareperiodicexternalforces,andweshallconsidera drivingforceoftheform: r (t ) = Fo cos t ThenwehavethenonhomogeneousODE:
m x + c x + kx = Fo cos t

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
SolvingthenonhomogeneousODE
Tofindyp,weusethemethodofundeterminedcoefficients:

x p (t ) = a cos t + b sin i t x p (t ) = a sin t + b cos t (t ) = 2 a cos t 2 b sin t x p

Substitutingtheaboveequationsinto m x + c x + kx = Fo cos t Andcollectingthecosineandthesineterms,weget
[( k m 2 ) a + cb b ] cos t +[ ca + ( k m 2 )b ] sin t = Fo cos t

Thecosinetermsonbothsidesmustbeequal,andthecoefficientofthe sinetermontheleftmustbezerosincethereisnosinetermontheright.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
This h givesthe h twoequations:
(k m 2 )a + cb = Fo ca + (k m 2 )b = 0

fordeterminingtheunknowncoefficientsaandb. b Thisisalinearsystem. system Wecansolveitbyeliminationtofind:

k m 2 a = Fo (k m 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2 c b = Fo (k m 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2 2 m(o 2) a = Fo 2 2 m (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2 c b = Fo 2 2 m (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2

= ,weobtain: Ifweset m
o

WethusobtainthegeneralsolutionofthenonhomogeneousODEinthe form: x(t ) = xh (t ) + x p (t )

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
CaseI:Undamped d dforced f doscillations: ll Ifthedampingofthephysicalsystemissosmallthatitseffectcanbe neglected g overthetimeintervalconsidered, ,wecansetc=0.Then
a = Fo b = Fo
2 m(o 2) 2 m 2 (o 2 ) 2 + 2c 2

c m ( 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
2 2 o

reducesto Hence becomes

a=

Fo m(o2 2 )

b=0

x p (t ) = a cos t + b sin t
x p (t ) = Fo Fo = cos cos t t 2 2 2) m(o k[1 ( ) ]

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Wethus h have h the h general lsolution l of fthe h undamped d dsystemas:
x(t ) = C cos(o t ) + Fo cos t 2 m(o 2)

Weseethatthisoutputisasuperpositionoftwoharmonicoscillationsof thenaturalfrequencyo/2 [cycles/sec]ofthesystem,whichisthe f frequency of fthe h undamped d dmotion i and dthe h f frequency/2 / [cycles/sec] [ l / ] ofthedrivingforce.

Harmonicmotion
Beats: Asmentionedbefore,ifthefrequencyoftheforcingfunctionandthe frequencyofthesystemareveryclosetoeachother,thenagainbeatingeffect shouldbeexpected. Ifweforexampletaketheparticularsoluton:
x(t ) =

Fo (cos t cos ot ) 2 2 m(o )

( o )

which can be rewritten as : x(t ) = 2 Fo o + o t sin t sin 2 m(o 2) 2 2

Since isclosetoo,thedifferenceo issmall.Hencetheperiodofthelast sinefunctionislarge.Thisisbecausethegreaterthequantityunderthesine, thesmallertheperiodis.

Harmonicmotion
Beats:
Tb = 2TTo 4 = o T To

4 + o

x(t ) =

Fo o + o sin t sin t 2 2 m(o ) 2 2

Harmonicmotion
Beats: Thisphenomenonisalsofrequentlyobservedinlightlydampedsytemswithclosecouplingofthetorsional andtranslationalfrequencies. AtypicalexampleisthethirteenstoreysteelframedSantaClaraCountyOfficeBuildingasreportedin: CelebiandLiu,Beforeandafterretrofit responseofabuildingduringambientandstrongmotions, JournalofWindEngineeringandIndustrialAerodynamics,77&78(1998)259268. Theproximityofthetorsionalfrequencyat0.57Hztothetranslationalfrequencyat0.45Hzcausesthe observedcouplingandbeatingeffectinthisstructure.

Harmonicmotion
Comparisonofthefrequenciesofthebuilding ThirteenstoreysteelframedSantaClaraCountyOfficeBuildingasreportedin: CelebiandLiu,Beforeandafterretrofit responseofabuildingduringambientandstrongmotions, JournalofWindEngineeringandIndustrialAerodynamics Aerodynamics,77&78(1998)259268. 268

Resonance
Ifthe th damping d i of fth thesystem t is i sosmall llthat th tits it effect ff tcanbe b neglected l t d overthetimeintervalconsidered,wecansetc=0.Thentheparticular responsecanbeexpressedby:
xp = Fo Fo cos t = cos t 2 m( o ) 2 k 1 o
2

Putting gcost=1, ,weseethatthemaximumamplitude p ofthep particular solutionis: F

ao =
o

where =

1
2

If

1- o o , then and ao tend to infinity.

Thisexcitationoflargeoscillationsbymatchinginputandnatural frequenciesiscalledresonance.

Resonance
2 & + o x x = o cos ot Inthe h caseof fresonanceand dnod damping,the h ODE & m becomes: m& & + cx & + kx = Fo cos t x Thenfromthemodificationrule, rule theparticularsolutionbecomes:

x p (t ) = t (a cos ot + b sin ot )

Bysubstitutingthisintothesecondequation,wefind:
x p (t ) = Fo t sin ot 2mo

Weseethatbecauseofthefactort,theamplitudebecomeslargerand larger Practicallyspeaking, larger. speaking systemswithverylittledampingmayundergo largevibrationsthatcandestroythesystem.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
CaseII:Damped dforced f doscillations: ll If fthe h damping d of fthe h massspring systemisnotnegligiblysmall,wehavec>0andadampingtermcxin & + cx & + kx = r (t ) m& x & + cx & + kx = 0 m& x Thenthegeneralsolutionyh ofthehomogeneousODEapproacheszeroas tgoestoinfinity.Practically,itiszeroafterasufficientlylongtime.Hence thetransientsolutiongivenby

y (t ) = yh (t ) + y p (t )

approaches pp thesteady ystatesolutionyp.Thisp provesthefollowing: g Steadystatesolution:Afterasufficientlylongtime,theoutputofa d damped dvibrating ib i systemunder d apurely l sinusoidal i id ldriving d i i force f will ill practicallybeaharmonicoscillationwhosefrequencyisthatoftheinput.

Responseofadampedsystemunder harmonicforce
If fthe h forcing f function f isgivenby b the h equationof fmotion becomes: Theparticularsolutionisalsoexpectedtobeharmonic;weassumeitin thefollowingform: whereXand areconstantstobedeterminedthatdenotetheamplitude phaseangle g oftheresponse, p ,respectively. p y By ysubstituting gthe andthep secondequationintothefirst: U i the Using h trigonometric i i relations l i b below l i inthe h above b equation i

Responseofadampedsystemunder harmonicforce
Weobtain: b Ifwesolvetheaboveequation equation,wefind:

Ifweinserttheaboveintothe,wefindthe particularsolution.Using:

r=

Responseofadampedsystemunder harmonicforce
Weobtain: b

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
The h quantityM=X/ /st isknown k asthe h magnification f factor f ,amplification lf factor ortheamplituderatio.Theamplitudeoftheforcedvibration becomessmallerwithincreasingvaluesoftheforcingfrequency(thatis, M0asr)
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Afact f that h createsd difficulty ff l f ford designersisthat h the h responsecanb become largewhenriscloseto1orwhen iscloseton.Thisconditioniscalled resonance.ThereductioninMinthepresenceofdampingisvery significantatornearresonance.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Foranundamped d dsystem(=0), ) the h phase h angle l iszerofor f 0<r<1and d180 degreesforr>1.Thisimpliesthattheexcitationandresponseareinphase for0<r<1andoutofphaseforr>1when=0.
= arctan
2r 2 1 r

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
For>0and d0<r<1,the h phase h angle l isgivenby b 0<<90,implying l that h the h responselagstheexcitation.
= arctan
2r 2 1 r

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
For>0and dr>1,the h phase h angle l isgivenby b 90<<180,implying l that h the h responseleadstheexcitation.
= arctan
2r 2 1 r

Response p ofadamped p system y under

F (t ) = Fo e it
Usingcomplex l algebra, l b let l the h harmonic h force f be: b
F (t ) = Fo eit whereFo isarealconstantandi istheimaginaryunit. unit Assumethatthe responsehasthesamefrequencyastheforce,butis,ingeneral,outof phasewiththeforce

~ X isthecomplex whereXo istheamplitudeofthedisplacementand displacement, p , ~ i

~ x(t ) = X o e i (t + ) = Xe it
X = X oe

Substitutingthisintothedifferentialequationofmotion
~ (m 2 + ic + k ) Xeit = Fo eit

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Define f the h transfer f function f ( (orf frequencyresponsefunction) f )H( ()asthe h complexdisplacementduetoaforceofunitmagnitude(Fo=1).Thus,

H ( ) =

1 (k m 2 ) + ic

Rationalizing,thetransferfunctionbecomes:
(k m 2 ) ic H ( ) = (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

Thisisalsotheratiobetweenthecomplex p displacement p response p andthe complexinputforcingfunction.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Define f the h gainfunction f asthe h modulus d l of fthe h transfer f function f

H ( ) = H ( ) H * ( ) = (Re H ) 2 + (Im H ) 2
whereH*isthecomplexconjugate.Fortheforceexcitedsystemunder consideration,
H ( ) = 1 (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

ThegainfunctionistheamplitudeofthedisplacementforFo=1.Thus,
Xo = H ( ) Fo

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Itisconvenienttodevelop d l anondimensional d lform f of fthe h gainfunction. f Firstdefinethefrequencyratio
r=

n
1

Multiplyingtheequation
H ( ) = (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

bykandemployingthedefinitionsfor,cc andn,itiseasilyshownthat
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

andthep phaseangle g is:

= arctan

2r 2 1 r

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Transfer T f f functions ti expressing i the th velocity l it and dacceleration l ti responsescan bewrittenbasedonequation bymultiplyingH()inequation
H ( ) =

x(t ) = X o e

i (t + )

~ i t = Xe

1 (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

byi and(i)^2=^2 respectively.Theresultinggainfunctionforthe velocityoutputwouldbederivedbymultiplyingbothsidesoftheabove equationandtheequation

Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

by andnotingthatXoistheamplitudeofthevelocity.Similarly,the gainfunctionfortheaccelerationcanbeobtainedbymultiplyingboth sidesby^2.

Qualityfactorandbandwidth
Forsmall llvalues l of fd dampingwecantake: k
X st X max st 1 = =Q 2 = n

where X denotes the amplitude of the response and F st = o = deflection under the static force Fo k

Thevalue Th l of fthe h amplitude li d ratio i atresonanceis i called ll dthe h Qfactor f orthe h qualityfactorofthesystem.ThepointsR1 andR2,wheretheamplification factorfallstoQ/2,arecalledhalfpowerpointsbecausethepower absorbed(W)bythedamper(orbytheresistorinanelectricalcircuit), respondingharmonicallyatagivenfrequency,isproportionaltothe q oftheamplitude. p square

Qualityfactorandbandwidth
The h d differences ff b betweenthe h frequencies f associatedwiththehalfpowerpointsR1 andR2 iscalledthebandwidth ofthesystem. system TofindthevaluesofR1 andR2,weset sothat

or Fromwhich,wecanget:

Qualityfactorandbandwidth
Forsmall llvalues l of f,the h roots

canbesimplifiedas:

Then

Qualityfactorandbandwidth
Usingthe h relation l inthe h equation wefindthatthebandwidth isgivenby: Combiningtheaboveequationandtheequation
X st X max st 1 = =Q 2 = n

W obtain: We b i

ItcanbeseenthatthequalityfactorQcanbeusedforestimatingthe equivalentviscousdampinginamechanicalsystem.

Electricalsystems
Anelectroniccircuitisaclosedpathformedbytheinterconnectionof electroniccomponentsthroughwhichanelectriccurrentcanflow. WehavejustseenthatlinearODEshaveimportantapplicationsin mechanics.Similarly,theyaremodelsofelectriccircuitsastheyoccuras portionsoflargenetworksincomputersandelsewhere. Thecircuitsweshallconsiderherearebasicbuildingblocksofsuch networks. Theycontainthreekindsofcomponents,namely,resistors,inductorsand capacitors. KirchhoffsVoltageLaw(KVL): Thevoltage(theelectromotiveforce) impressedonaclosedloopisequaltothesumofthevoltagedropsacross p theotherelementsoftheloop.

Electricalsystems
Figureshows Fi h such haRLCcircuit. i i I Ini itaresistor i of fresistance i R (ohms),aninductorofinductanceLH(Henrys)anda capacitorofcapacitanceCF(farads)arewiredinseriesas shown, ,andconnectedtoanelectromotiveforceE(t) ( ) V(volts)(ageneratorforinstance),sinusoidalasshownin thefigureorsomeotherkind. R,L,C,andEaregivenandwewanttofindthecurrentI(t) A(Amperes)inthecircuit. AnODEforthecurrentI(t)intheRLCcircuitinthefigureis obtainedfromtheKirchhoffsVoltageLaw. Inthefigure,thecircuitisaclosedloopandtheimpressed voltageE(t)equalsthesumofthevoltagedropsacrossthe threeelementsR,L,C,oftheloop.

Electricalsystems
Voltage l drops: d Experimentsshow h that h the h currentIfl flowingthrough h ha resistor,inductorandcapacitorcausesavoltagedrop(voltagedifference, measuredinvolts)atthetwoends.Thesedropsare: RI(Ohmslaw)VoltagedropforaresistorofresistanceRohms dI LI = L l d dropf forani inductor d of fi inductance d Lh henrys( (H) ) dt Voltage Q VoltagedropforacapacitorofcapacitanceCfarads(F)
C

HereQcoulombsisthechargeonthecapacitor,relatedtothecurrentby
I (t ) = dQ equivalently Q(t) = I(t)dt dt

Electricalsystems
Table bl Elements l inanRLCcircuit
Name Ohms resistor Inductor Capacitor p Symbol Notation Ohms resistance,R Inductance,L Unit Ohms () henrys (H) Voltage Drop RI LdI/dt Q/C

Capacitance, p C farads (F)

AccordingtoKirchhoffvoltagelawwethushaveanRLCcircuitwith electromotiveforceE(t)=E ( ) o sint( (Eo constant) )asamodelfortheintegro g differentialequation. 1

LI + RI + C Idt = E (t ) = Eo sin t

Electricalsystems
T get To trid idof fth thei integral t li in
LI + RI + 1 Idt = E (t ) = Eo sin t C

Wedifferentiatetheaboveequationwithrepecttot,obtaining:
LI + RI + 1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C

ThisshowsthatthecurrentinanRLCcircuitisobtainedasthesolutionof thisnonhomogeneoussecondorderODEwithconstantcoefficients. 1 LI + RI + Idt = E (t ) = Eo sin t andnotingthatI=QandI=Q,we Using C havedirectly: 1

LQ + RQ + C Q = Eo sin t

Butinmostpracticalproblems,thecurrentI(t)ismoreimportantthanthe chargeQ(t)andforthisreason,weshallconcentrateonthebelow q ratherthantheabove. equation

LI + RI + 1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C

SolvingODEforthecurrent
A general solution of
LI + RI + 1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C

is the sum I I=I Ih+Ip , where Ih is a general solution of the homogeneous ODE corresponding to the above equation and Ip is a particular solution. We first determine Ip by the method of undetermined coefficients. We substitute:
I p = a cos t + b sin t I p = ( a sin t + b cos t )
2 I p = ( a cos t b sin t )

into the first equation. Then we collect the cosine terms and equate them to Eocost on the right, and we equate the sine terms into zero because there i no sine is i term on the h right. i h
a = Eo C b L 2 (b) + R ( a) + = 0 C L 2 ( a) + Rb + (Cosine terms) (Sine Si terms t )

SolvingODEforthecurrent
Tosolve T l this thi system t for f aand db b,wefi first ti introduce t d acombination bi ti of fLand dC C, calledthereactance: 1
S = L

Dividingtheprevioustwoequationsby,orderingthemandsubstitutingS gives: Sa + Rb = E
o

Ra Sb = 0

WenoweliminatebbymultiplyingthefirstequationbySandthesecondbyR, andadding.ThenweeliminateabymultiplyingthefirstequationbyRand secondbyS,andadding.Thisgives:

a= Eo S R2 + S 2 b= Eo R R2 + S 2
I p = a cos t + b sin t I p = ( a sin t + b cos t )
2 I p = ( a cos t b sin t )

EquationforIpwithcoefficientsaandbasgivenaboveisthedesired particularsolutionofthenonhomogeneousODEgoverningthecurrentIinan RLCcircuitwithsinusoidalelectromotiveforce.

SolvingODEforthecurrent

a= 2 o 2 b = 2 o 2 wecanwriteIp intermsof Using fphysically h ll E S R +S ER R +S

visiblequantities, quantities namely, namely amplitudeIo andphaselag ofthecurrent behindtheelectromotiveforce,thatis,

I p (t ) = I o sin(t )

where
Io = a2 + b2 = a S = b R R 2 + S 2 is called the impedance. p Our formula shows that the impedance p equals q the ratio Eo . Io Eo R2 + S2

tan =

The q quantity y

This is somewhat analogous to E/I = R (Ohm' s law)

SolvingODEforthecurrent
Ageneral lsolution l of fthe h h homogeneousequationcorresponding d to
LI + RI +

is:

1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C

I h = c1e 1t + c2 e 2t

where1 and2 aretherootsofthecharacteristicequation:

2 +
R 1 + =0 L LC

Wecanwritetherootsintheform1=+ and2=,where
R R2 1 1 4L 2 = , = = R 2L 4 L2 LC 2 L C

Nowinanactualcircuit,Risneverzero(henceR>0).Fromthis,itfollowsthat pp zero, ,theoretically yast,butpractically p yafterashorttime. Ihapproaches

SolvingODEforthecurrent
Hencethe h transientcurrentI=Ih+Ip tends d tothe h steady d statecurrentIp and d aftersometimetheoutputwillpracticallybeaharmonicoscillation, whichisgivenby:
I p (t ) = I o sin(t )

andwhosefrequencyisthatoftheinput(oftheelectromotiveforce)

Analogyofelectricalandmechanical quantities
Entirely E ti l diff different tphysical h i lorother th systems t mayhave h the th same mathematicalmodel.Forinstance,theODEofamechanicalsystemand theODEofanelectricRLCcircuitcanbeexpressedby:
LQ + RQ + 1 Q = Eo sin t C

m y + c y + ky = Fo cos t

TheinductanceL corresponds p tothemass,andindeedaninductor opposesachangeincurrent,havinganinertiaeffectsimilartothatofa mass. TheresistanceR correspondstothedampingconstantcandaresistor causeslossofenergy,justasadampingdashpotdoes. Thisanalogyisstrictlyquantitativeinthesensethattoagivenmechanical systemwecanconstructanelectricalcircuitwhosecurrentwillgivethe exactvaluesofthedisplacementinthemechanicalsystemwhensuitable scalefactorsareused.

Analogyofelectricalandmechanical quantities
The h practical i limportance i of fthis hi analogy l is i almost l obvious. b i The h analogy l maybe b usedforconstructinganelectricalmodelofagivenmechanicalmodel,resulting insubstantialsavingsoftimeandmoneybecauseelectriccircuitsareeasyto assmeble, bl and delectric l t i quantities titi canbe b measured dmuch hmorequickly i kl and d accuratelythanmechanicalones. 1 m y + c y + ky = Fo cos t LQ + RQ + Q = Eo sin t C Table:Analogyofelectricalandmechanicalquantities Electricalsystem Inductance,L Resistance,R Reciprocalofcapacitance capacitance,1/C ElectromotiveforceEo sint Current, ,I(t)=dq/dt ( ) q/ Charge,Q(t) Mechanicalsystem Massm Dampingc Springmodulusk DrivingforceFocost Velocity y,v(t)=dy/dt ( ) y/ Displacement,y(t)

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion
Consider d the h base b excited dsystem ofthefigure.Thegoaloftheanalysis willbetodeterminetheabsolute responsex(t)(typicallyaccelerationor displacementofthemass)giventhebase motiony(t). Fromthe F h free f body b d diagram, di application li i ofNewtonssecondlawleadsdirectlyto thedifferentialequation:

& + cx & + kx = ky + cy & m& x

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion
Assumethat h the h base b motionisharmonic, h

y (t ) = Yo e it
Andassumethattheresponsewillbeharmonic, harmonic

~ x(t ) = Xe it
~ X isthecomplexresponse.Thetransferfunctionandthegain where functionarederivedinthesamemannerasfortheforceexcitedsystem. Thetransferfunctionis: k + ic H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic

Thegainfunctionis
Xo k 2 + (c ) 2 1 + (2r ) 2 = H ( ) = = 2 2 2 2 Yo (k m ) + (c ) (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r )

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion

Xo 1 + (2r ) 2 Innondimensional d lform f = Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Thegainfunctionfortheabsolutedisplacementforthebaseexcited systemisshowninthefigure.

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion
The h value l of fTd is i unity i atr=0 0and dclose l tounity i for f small llvalues l of fr. Foranundampedsystem=0,Td atresonance(r=1). ThevalueofTd islessthanunity(Td<1)forvaluesofr>2(foranyamountof damping) ThevalueofTd isequaltounity(Td=1)forallvaluesof atr=2

Xo 1 + (2r ) 2 = Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion
The h equations
Xo 1 + (2r ) 2 = Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2 Xo k 2 + (c ) 2 = H ( ) = Yo (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

canbeinterpretedasthegainfunctionsforaccelerationoutputgiven accelerationinput input.Andagainnotethatthetransferfunctionforvelocity andaccelerationresponsescanbederivedbymultiplyingtheequation k + ic H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic byi and^2,respectively.

Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion
Consider C id th thefree f body b d diagram di in i the th figure.Nowtheresponsevariableunder considerationwillbetherelative displacement, displacement

z (t ) = x(t ) y (t )
Inthemodel,thespringrepresentsa structuralelement.Thestressinthat elementwillbeproportionaltoz.Thus, thisproblemwouldberelevantto designersofstructuressubjectedtobase motions,forexample,earthquakes. Lettingz=x-y intheequationofmotion & &+ z & + kz = m& eadsd directly ec yto o m& leads z y

Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion
Assumingthat h the h base b motionisharmonic, h

y (t ) = Yo e it
Andassumingtheresponseisalsoharmonic,

~ z (t ) = Z eit
Followingtheprocedureasdescribedabove,thetransferfunctionis:

m 2 H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic Andthegainfunctionis
Zo m 2 = H ( ) = Yo (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion

2 Z r o Innondimensionless d l f form, = Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Thegainfunctionfortherelativemotionforthebaseexcitedsystemis showninthefigure:

Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion
Againnotethat h the h transfer f function f for f relative l velocity l and dacceleration l responsescanbederivedbymultiplying

m 2 H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic
byi and^2,respectively. Thegainfunctionsforvelocityandaccelerationresponsescanbeobtained bymultiplyingbothsidesoftheequations Zo m 2 Zo r2 = H ( ) = = 2 2 2 Yo Yo (k m ) + (c ) (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2 by and^2,respectively.

Gainfunctionsforforceexcited systems

Gainfunctionsforbaseexcited systems

Example
Afi fixed d b bottom tt offshore ff h structure t t is i subjected bj t dto t oscillatory ill t storm t waves. Inafirstapproximation,itisestimatedthatthewavesproduceaharmonic forceF(t)havingamplitudeF=122kN.Theperiodofthesewavesis=8 sec Thestructureismodeledashavingalumpedmassof110tons sec. concentratedinthedeck.Theweightofthestructureitselfisassumedto benegligible.Thenaturalperiodofthestructurewasmeasuredasbeing n=4 4.0 0sec sec.Itisassumedthatthedampingfactoris=5%. =5% Itisrequiredto determinethesteadystateamplitudeoftheresponseofthestructure. Solution: Asmodeled,thiswillbeaforceexcitedsystem,andthe responsecanbecomputedfromthegainfunctionof
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Theproblemreducestooneoffindingthefrequencyratiorandthe stiffnessk.

Example
Becauseristhe h ratioof fthe h forcing f frequency f tothe h natural lfrequency, f it followsthatrwillalsobetheratioofthenaturalperiodtotheforcing period.Thus, 4
8 Tocomputek,firstnotethatthenaturalfrequencyis
fn = 1

r=

= 0 .5

= 0.25 Hz.

Thennotingthattheexpressionforthenaturalfrequencyis
fn = 1 2 k W /g

Wecomputek=27667N/m

Example
Finally ll substituting b into
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Xo=5.87m.

Resonance
ForresonancepleasedownloadtheMillenium g andTacomaBridge g videosinthe bridge websiteofthecourse.

Backgroundforresponseof SDOFsystem y torandomforces

ResponseofSDOFsystemtoimpulsiveforces Responseofsingledegreeoffreedomsystemtoarbitraryloading Relationshipbetweentheimpulseresponseandthetransfer function Relationship pbetweentheFouriertransformofdisplacement p and force

Responseunderanonperiodicforce
WewillseethatperiodicforcesofanygeneralwaveformcanberepresentedbyFourierseriesasa superpositionofharmoniccomponentsofvariousfrequencies. Theresponseofalinearsytemisthenfoundbysuperposingtheharmonicresponsetoeachofthe excitingforces forces. WhentheexcitingforceF(t)isnonperiodic,suchasthatduetoblastfromanexplosion,adifferent methodofcalculatingtheresponseisrequired. Variousmethodscanbeusedtofindtheresponseofthesystemtoanarbitraryexcitationas follows:
RepresentingtheexcitationbyaFourierintegral Usingthemethodofconvolutionintegral UsingthemethodofLaplacetransforms FirstapproximatingF(t)byasuitableinterpolationmodelandthenusinganumericalprocedure Numericallyintegratingtheequationsofmotion.

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
Anonperiodicexcitingforceusuallyhasamagnitudethatvarieswithtime time; itactsforaspecifiedperiodoftimeandthenstops. Thesimplestformistheimpulsiveforce aforcethathasalarge magnitudeFandactsforaveryshortperiodoftimet. Fromdynamics dynamics,weknowthatimpulsecanbemeasuredbyfindingthe changeinmomentumofthesystem. TheunitimpulseFactingatt=0isalsodenotedbytheDiracdelta function,(t).TheDiracdeltafunctionattimet=,denotedas (t ) hastheproperties

(t )dt = 1
0

(t ) F (t )dt = F ( )
0

where0<<.Thusanimpulsiveforceactingatt= canbedenotedas:
F (t ) = F (t )

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
Consider d aSDOFsystemsubjected b dtoimpulsive l l loading d asshown h inf figure. Theexternalforceis: where(t)istheDiracdeltafunction.
F (t ) = Fo (t )

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
The h equationof fmotionof fthe h masswill llb besimilar l to

& + cx & + kx = Fo sin t m& x

withtheimpulsiveforceof
F (t ) = Fo (t )

ontherighthandside.TheunitimpulseisdefinedasFo=1.Theresponse x(t)totheunitimpulseisdenotedash(t):

&& + ch & + kh = (1) (t ) mh

Physicallyspeaking speaking,fort0, 0 aradicalchangeinthesystemmotiontakes placewhentheshortdurationhighamplitudeforceexcitesaninitial motioninthesystem.Butfort>0,theresponsewillbefreevibration. U i elementary Using l mechanics, h i F(t)=m( ) (v) ) i itcanb beshown h that h the h velocityofthesystemjustaftertheimpulseis: & (0 + ) = 1 h m

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
U i th Using thei initial iti lconditions: diti

& (0 + ) = 1 h m

h(0) = 0

&o + n xo x n t 2 2 = + x ( t ) e x cos 1 t sin 1 t Intheequation: n n o d

Thefreevibrationresponseis:
h(t ) = 1 nt e sin d t md t >0

Hereh(t)isknownastheforceexcitedabsolutedisplacementresponse, impulseresponsefunctionofthesingledegreeoffreedomsystem.Notethat h(t)characterizesasystemjustlikethetransferfunctionH()does. does The velocityandaccelerationimpulseresponsefunctionscanalsobeobtainedas derivativesofh(t).

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
IfthemagnitudeoftheimpulseisF &o is x insteadofunity,theinitialvelocity F/mandtheresponseofthesystem becomes:
x(t ) = F nt e sin d t = Fg (t ) md

IftheimpulseFisappliedatanarbitrary timet= byanamountF/masshownin thefigure,itwillchangethevelocityat t= byanamountF/m.Assumingthatx=0 untiltheimpulseisapplied,the displacementhatanysubsequenttimet, causedbyachangeinthevelocityattime isgivenbytheaboveequationwitht replacedbythetimeelapsedafterthe applicationoftheimpulse,thatis,t .As showninFig.b,weobtain
x(t ) = Fg (t )

ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Foralinear l system,the h impulse l responsef functioncanbe b used dtoderive d theresponseofasystemunderanarbitraryloadinghistory.Considerthe forceshowninthefigure

ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
The h i impulse l d during i is i F( () .The h responsetothisimpulseatanytime t> isapproximately[F()]h(t ). Th the Then th responseat ttis i the th sumof f theresponsesduetoasequenceof impulses.Inthelimitas0
x(t ) =

F ( )h(t )d

wheretheinputF(t)isaccountedfor ast,forexample,F(t)couldbe definedaszerofort<0.Theexpression forx(t)iscalledtheconvolution integral.

ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Notethath(t)=0when>t.Thus, wecanexpandthelimitstothe interval(,):

x(t ) =

F ( )h(t )d

Anotherusefulformisobtainedby letting=t:
x(t ) =

F (t )h( )d

ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
B substituting By b tit ti th theequation ti
h(t ) = 1 nt e sin d t md

t >0

into weobtain:

x(t ) =
1 x(t ) = md
t

F ( )h(t )d
n ( t )

F ( )e
0

sin d (t )d

whichrepresentstheresponseofanunderdampedsingledegreeof freedomsystemtothearbitraryexcitationF(t). Notethattheaboveequationdoesnotconsidertheeffectofinitial conditionsofthesystem. Theintegralineitherofthetwoaboveequationsiscalledtheconvolution orDuhamelintegral.

Relationshipbetweenh(t)andH()
Animportantresult l f fromFouriertransform f theory h isthat h h(t) h( )and dH( () formaFouriertransformpair.Thisrelationshipisusefulwhenderiving responsesofdynamicsystemstorandomvibrationinputs.Let,
F (t ) = eit
x(t ) = H ( )e it = h(t )e i d

Then, h

= h( )e i (t ) d

=e

it

whichimpliesthath(t)andH()formaFouriertransformpair.
H ( ) = h( )e
i

h( )e

1 h(t ) = 2

H ( )e

it

Relationshipbetweenh(t)andH()
Based B donth theF Fourier i transform t f of faconvolution, l ti the th expression i for f the th responsetoanarbitraryinputinequation

x(t ) =
andrepresentationin

F ( )h(t )d
1 h(t ) = 2

H ( ) = h( )e i d

H ( )e

i t

itisclearthatwecanalsoexpresstheresponsetoanarbitraryinputas:
1 x(t ) = 2

F ( ) H ( )e

it

whereF()istheFouriertransformofF(t).Thisexpressionisusefulforthe analysisornumericalcomputationofsystemresponseorasthebasisfor randomvibrationcomputations.

RelationshipbetweenX()andF ()
The h relationship l h b betweenthe h Fouriertransforms f of fx(t) ( )and dF(t) ( )isused dto deriveresponsesofdynamicsystemstorandomvibrationinputinrandom vibrationtheory.TaketheFouriertransformofbothsidesof
x(t ) =

F (t )h( )d

tofind fi d

i t F t h d ( ) ( ) e dt Let = t , dt = d 1 X ( ) = 2 i ( + ) F ( ) h ( ) d d e Rearranging : 1 X ( ) = 2

X( ) = h( )e
-

-i

1 d 2

F ( )e

RelationshipbetweenX()andF ()
From
H ( ) = h( )e i d

andthebasicrelationshipoftheFouriertransform:
1 u ( ) = 2
+ it ( ) g t e dt

it follows that X( ) = H( )F( )