Power Transformers

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Power Transformers
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Electrical File Reference: EEX10803
For additional information on this subject, contact W.A. Roussel on 874-1320
Electrical Power Transformers
CONTENTS INFORMATION
PAGES
Purpose and Usage Within Saudi Aramco ...................................................... 1 Applicable Standards....................................................................................... 1 Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards ................................................. 1 Saudi Aramco Material System Specifications.................................... 4 Saudi Aramco Design Practices........................................................... 9 Industry Standards ............................................................................. 12 CONSTRUCTION.................................................................................................... 15 Core ............................................................................................................... 15 Core Material ..................................................................................... 16 Core Assembly................................................................................... 20 Types of Transformer Core Construction .......................................... 22 Grounding of Core ............................................................................. 28 Coil or Winding Assembly............................................................................ 28 Core-Type Coils................................................................................. 29 Shell-Type Coils ................................................................................ 29 Coil Stress .......................................................................................... 29 Core and Coil Assembly Clamping Construction .............................. 32 Coil Material ...................................................................................... 38 INSULATION SYSTEM.......................................................................................... 40 Coordination of Insulation............................................................................. 40 Types of Insulating Materials ........................................................................ 43 Coil Assembly Insulation................................................................... 44 Functions of Solid Insulation......................................................................... 45 Classification of Solid Insulation................................................................... 46 Solid Insulation and Moisture ....................................................................... 47 Insulating System and Temperature .............................................................. 49 Insulating Mineral Oil ................................................................................... 49 Specification for Transformer Oil...................................................... 50 Importance of Insulating Oil .............................................................. 51 Insulation Coordination of Transformer Oil ...................................... 51 "Synthetic" Insulating Fluids ............................................................. 52 PCB (Askarels) .................................................................................. 53
POWER TRANSFORMER ENCLOSURES............................................................ 55 Enclosure Types for Power Transformers .................................................... 55 Sealed Tank ....................................................................................... 55 Conservator or Expansion Tank......................................................... 57 Inert Gas Preservation System ........................................................... 59 Gas Liquid Seal System ..................................................................... 60 Control Cabinets............................................................................................ 61 Fill and Drain Valves..................................................................................... 62 COOLING SYSTEMS.............................................................................................. 64 Cooling Circuits............................................................................................. 64 Temperature Gradient.................................................................................... 65 Methods Used for Cooling ............................................................................ 66 Cooling Classes ............................................................................................. 72 Self-Cooled ........................................................................................ 73 Self-Cooled and Forced-Air Cooled (OA/FA)................................... 73 Forced-Oil Circulation Cooling (Pumps)........................................... 74 Forced-Oil-Cooled Process................................................................ 74 TRANSFORMER ACCESSORIES.......................................................................... 78 Pressure Relief Devices................................................................................. 78 Mechanical Relief .............................................................................. 78 Diaphragm Relief............................................................................... 80 Fault Gas Detector Relays ............................................................................. 83 Sudden Pressure Relays ..................................................................... 84 Gas in Oil Detector Relay (Buchholz) ............................................... 86 Indicators....................................................................................................... 86 Liquid Temperature (Top-Oil) Gauge................................................ 86 Hot-Spot Temperature Indicator ........................................................ 89 Liquid-Level Indicator (Dial-type)..................................................... 99 Pressure/Vacuum Indicator.............................................................. 102 Pressure-Vacuum Bleeder and Regulator ........................................ 107 Bushings ...................................................................................................... 108 Ratings for Bushings........................................................................ 108 Types of Bushings ........................................................................... 108 Bushing Features.............................................................................. 112 Bushing Current Transformers (BCT)......................................................... 117 No-load Tap Changers (NLTC)................................................................... 120 Operation ......................................................................................... 120 Major Components .......................................................................... 121
POWER TRANSFORMER LOAD TAP CHANGER (LTC)................................. 129 Purpose of LTC Voltage Regulating ........................................................... 129 Tap Changer Compartment Construction.................................................... 132 Load Tap Changer Mechanism ................................................................... 134 Transfer Switches............................................................................. 138 Selector Switches ............................................................................. 138 Reversing Switch ............................................................................. 139 Motor Mechanism............................................................................ 140 LTC Operation ................................................................................. 140 Electronic Control System........................................................................... 142 Load Tap Changer (LTC) Operating Methods ............................................ 145 Automatic Operation........................................................................ 145 Remote Operation ............................................................................ 148 Manual Operation ........................................................................... 148 Parallel Operation of Two ALTC's .................................................. 149 Parallel Operation of Electrical Control Scheme ............................. 151 POWER TRANSFORMER NAMEPLATE DATA................................................ 154 Transformer Nameplate with NLTC............................................................ 154 Transformer Nameplate with LTC .............................................................. 157 RECEIPT OR ACCEPTANCE INSPECTION ....................................................... 160 Transformer Acceptance from Manufacturer/Vendor ................................. 160 Manufacture Test Results................................................................. 160 Transformer Specifications and Nameplate Data Verification......... 160 Transformer Receipt Inspection .................................................................. 161 General Precautions ......................................................................... 161 Exterior Tank Inspection (Oil-Filled) .............................................. 161 Accessories Inspection..................................................................... 162 TRANSFORMER RECEIPT TESTING................................................................. 167 TRANSFORMER INSTALLATION INSPECTION.............................................. 168 Transformer Location Verification.............................................................. 168 Transformer Installation Inspection and Testing (Form P-025) .................. 169
TRANSFORMER INSTALLATION TESTING .................................................... 172 Turns-Ratio Tests ........................................................................................ 175 TTR Testing Indications .................................................................. 179 Expected Test Results ...................................................................... 180 Interpretation of Data....................................................................... 180 Review of Sample Data ................................................................... 181 Winding-to-Winding Polarity Test.............................................................. 185 Polarity............................................................................................. 185 Three-Phase Polarity and Phase Sequence ...................................... 185 Voltmeter Flicks-Method Polarity Test............................................ 185 Winding Resistance Test ............................................................................. 190 Three Phase Transformer (Wye With a Neutral Bushing) ............... 194 Three Phase Transformer (Wye Without a Neutral Bushing).......... 194 Three Phase Transformer (Delta Connected)................................... 194 Winding Resistance (Second Method)............................................. 194 Winding Insulation Testing (Megger Test) ................................................. 195 Winding Insulation-Resistance Test ................................................ 196 Core-Ground Inspection and Test................................................................ 203 Transformer Tank Ground Test................................................................... 204 Tap Setting Verification .............................................................................. 206 Applied Voltage (Hi-Pot) Test..................................................................... 206 Insulation Power-Factor Test....................................................................... 207 Definition of Power Factor of Insulation per ANSI C57 ................. 209 Winding Insulation Test................................................................... 215 Temperature Correction ................................................................... 215 Instruments and Testing Procedure.................................................. 220 Power Factor Values ........................................................................ 220 Insulating Oil Testing .................................................................................. 221 Testing Categories ........................................................................... 221 Oil Specifications............................................................................. 222 Types of Transformer Oil Test......................................................... 223 Visual Examination.......................................................................... 232 Fluid Sampling Method ................................................................... 234 Comparing Oil-Test Data................................................................. 236 Gas Analysis of Operating Transformers .................................................... 237 Major Causes of Gases in Oil-Filled Transformers.......................... 237 Analysis of Transformer Combustible Gases................................... 238 Methods for Analyzing Combustible Gas........................................ 239 Solubility of Gases in Transformer Oil ............................................ 241 PCB Analysis Test ........................................................................... 251
TRANSFORMER SYSTEM PRE-OPERATIONAL CHECKOUT ....................... 253 Performance Testing.................................................................................... 253 Installation Checklist ................................................................................... 254 Electrical External Connections .................................................................. 256 Transformer Accessory Component Checkout............................................ 256 Pressure-Vacuum Gauge Test.......................................................... 257 Pressure Relief Test ......................................................................... 259 Oil-Level Inspection and Test.......................................................... 260 Top-Oil Temperature Inspection and Test ....................................... 262 Cooling-Fan Inspection and Test ..................................................... 262 Power Cable Termination Checkout ................................................ 263 TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL TESTING ..................................................... 264 Operational Test .......................................................................................... 264 Complete System Functional Test............................................................... 264 Types of Transformer Operational Testing ................................................. 265 Exciting Current Check.................................................................... 265 No-Load Voltage Output (Secondary) Check.................................. 265 Voltage Phasing (or Rotation).......................................................... 266 Synchronizing for Parallel Operation .............................................. 266 Transformer Noise Level ................................................................. 266 TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL OBSERVATION PERIOD CHECKS AND INSPECTIONS.............................................................................................. 269 Transformer and System Temperature Checks............................................ 269 Transformer Operational Inspection............................................................ 269 Transformer Operational Problem Inductors............................................... 270 Oil Leaks.......................................................................................... 270 Pressure (Over/Under) ..................................................................... 270 Overheating...................................................................................... 271 Load Voltage, Current, and Temperature Relationship Checks.............................................................................................. 271 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND FAILURE MODE ANALYSIS.............. 272 In-Service Inspections for Power Transformers .......................................... 272 Current and Voltage Readings ......................................................... 274 Temperature Readings ..................................................................... 275 Liquid-Level Indicators.................................................................... 275 Pressure/Vacuum Gauges ................................................................ 275 Gauges and Alarms .......................................................................... 276
Visual Inspection ............................................................................. 276 Analyzing Failure Modes................................................................. 277 Transformer Failure ......................................................................... 277 Out-of-Service Inspections for Power Transformers................................... 280 Insulation Testing............................................................................. 282 Gauges and Alarms .......................................................................... 282 Tap Changer..................................................................................... 283 Analyzing Oil Test Data in the Transformer Maintenance Records............ 283 Dielectric Test.................................................................................. 284 Oil Power Factor .............................................................................. 284 Interfacial Tension Test ................................................................... 285 Visual (Color) Examination ............................................................. 285 Neutralization Number (Acidity) ..................................................... 285 Water Content Test .......................................................................... 286 Gas-in-Oil Analysis.......................................................................... 286 Range of Combustible Gases (ppm) ................................................ 286 Combustible Gas Test ...................................................................... 287 Dissolved Combustible Gas Testing ................................................ 288 Dissolved Combustible Gas Analysis .............................................. 288 Analyzing Electrical Test Data in the Transformer Maintenance Records........................................................................................................ 290 Insulation Resistance ....................................................................... 290 Insulation Power-Factor on Power Transformers ............................ 291 Transformer Turns-Ratio ................................................................. 291 ANSI C57 TRANSFORMER FAILURE MODE ANALYSIS METHOD............. 292 Determination and Investigation of a Failure Occurrence........................... 292 Following a Suspected Failure......................................................... 292 Investigation Flow Chart.................................................................. 292 Failure Mode Data Collection ..................................................................... 293 General Approach ............................................................................ 293 On-Site Investigation ....................................................................... 293 Electrical Tests................................................................................. 298 Sampling and Tests of Gas and Insulating Fluid ............................. 299 Focused Tests................................................................................... 300
WORK AID 1: PRE-OPERATIONAL FIELD INSTALLATION CHECKLIST POWER TRANSFORMERS (OIL-IMMERSED) ........................... 309 WORK AID 2: FIELD TESTING.......................................................................... 310 WORK AID 3: TABLE OF FIELD INSPECTION ............................................... 311 WORK AID 10: TRANSFORMER TEST METHOD DATA............................... 312 Work Aid 10A: Work Aid 10B: Work Aid 10C: Work Aid 10D: Work Aid 10E: Work Aid 10F: Work Aid 10G: Work Aid 10J: Turns Ratio Test (TTR) ................................................. 312 Polarity Test (3 Methods).............................................. 314 Winding Resistance....................................................... 316 Winding Insulation Resistance (Four Types of Tests) .. 317 Core Ground Test .......................................................... 322 Transformer Tank Ground Test..................................... 323 Insulation Power-Factor Test ........................................ 324 Oil Test Results Comparison......................................... 328
ADDENDUM ......................................................................................................... 329
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Figure 7. Figure 8. Figure 9. Figure 10. Figure 11. Figure 12. Figure 13. Figure 14. Figure 15. Figure 16. Figure 17. Figure 18. Figure 19. Figure 20. Figure 21. Figure 22. Figure 23. Figure 24. Figure 25. Figure 26. Figure 27. SAES-P-121 Table of Contents....................................................................... 2 Sample Information from SAES-P-121........................................................... 3 14-SAMSS-531 Table of Contents.................................................................. 5 14-SAMSS-531 Table of Contents (contd).................................................... 6 Sample Information from 14-SAMSS-531...................................................... 8 SADP-P-121 Table of Contents .................................................................... 10 Hysteresis Effects on Magnetic Domains within the Core ............................ 17 Eddy Currents in a Solid Core....................................................................... 19 Eddy Currents in Insulated Core ................................................................... 19 Typical Core Construction and Lamination Configuration ........................... 21 Core-Type Construction and Shell-Type Construction ................................. 23 Shell-Type Unit ("Pancake" Coils)................................................................ 24 Conventional 3-Phase Core for the Rectangular-PancakeInterleaved-Coil Sructure (Shell Type) ......................................................... 25 Cruciform-Type Core .................................................................................... 26 Wound Core .................................................................................................. 27 Vertical (Axial) Forces .................................................................................. 30 Horizontal Repulsion (Axial) Force .............................................................. 31 A Vertical Cross-Section of Major Transformer Components ...................... 33 Hydraulic Dashpot,........................................................................................ 34 Typical Old Type Construction of Shell-Type Transformer ......................... 35 Typical Oil Type Construction of Core-Type Transformer........................... 36 Typical Bolted Clamping Structure ............................................................... 37 Typical Simplified Boltless Clamping Structure ........................................... 37 Continuously Transposed Multi-Strip Conductor.......................................... 39 Insulation Structure for a Core-Form Type Transformer .............................. 41 Oil-Filled Cellulose System........................................................................... 42 Impulse Strength of Paper Insulation ............................................................ 48 60 Hz Dielectric Strength of Paper Insulation............................................... 48
Figure 28. Figure 29. Figure 30. Figure 31. Figure 32. Figure 33. Figure 34. Figure 35. Figure 36. Figure 37. Figure 38. Figure 39. Figure 40. Figure 41. Figure 42. Figure 43. Figure 44. Figure 45. Figure 46. Figure 47. Figure 48. Figure 49. Figure 50. Figure 51. Figure 52. Figure 53. Figure 54.
Sealed Tank Oil Preservation Method........................................................... 56 Expansion Tank Oil Preservation Method..................................................... 57 Constant Oil Pressure System........................................................................ 58 Inert-Gas Preservation Method...................................................................... 59 Gas-Liquid Seal System ................................................................................ 60 Typical Combination Drain Filter Sampling Valve....................................... 63 Transformer Cooling Circuit ......................................................................... 65 Cooling of Core and Coils by Natural Oil Circulation or Thermosiphon Flow ...................................................................................... 67 Oil-Immersed, Self-Cooled ........................................................................... 68 Liquid Filled Transformer with Radiators ..................................................... 69 Oil-Immersed, Self-Cooled Forced-Air Cooled ............................................ 70 Liquid Filled Transformer with Radiators and Fans...................................... 71 Liquid Filled Transformer with Top Mounted Cooling Fans ........................ 75 Oil-immersed, Self-Cooled Forced-Air Cooled and 2-Stage ForcedOil-Cooled Transformer ................................................................................ 76 Oil Circulating Pump..................................................................................... 77 Mechanical Relief Device ............................................................................. 79 Diaphragm Relief Device (Sealed Position).................................................. 80 Typical Pressure Relief Device ..................................................................... 81 Diaphragm Relief with Alarm Device (Venting Position)............................. 83 Typical Sudden Pressure Relay ..................................................................... 85 Dial Type Liquid Temperature Indicator....................................................... 88 Components for Winding Temperature Indicator.......................................... 90 Typical Mounting Arrangement of Winding Temperature Indicator and Accessories ............................................................................................. 91 Temperature Gradient between Top-Oil, Heated-Sensor, ............................. 93 Hot-Spot Indicating Circuit........................................................................ 94 Connection Diagram for Current Transformer and Heating Coil (Used with Winding Temperature Indicator)................................................. 95 Thermal (or Winding Temperature) Relay .................................................... 96
Figure 55. Figure 56. Figure 57. Figure 58. Figure 58A. Figure 58B. Figure 59. Figure 60. Figure 61. Figure 62. Figure 63. Figure 64. Figure 65. Figure 66. Figure 67. Figure 68. Figure 69. Figure 70. Figure 71. Figure 72. Figure 73. Figure 74. Figure 75. Figure 76. Figure 77. Figure 78. Figure 79. Figure 80. Figure 81A.
Hot-Spot Temperature Indicator.................................................................... 98 Dial-Type Magnetic Liquid-Level Indicator ............................................... 100 Typical Transformer Nameplate.................................................................. 101 Pressure-Vacuum Gauge ............................................................................. 104 Typical Pressure/Vacuum Indicator ............................................................ 105 Pressure/Vacuum Gauge and Bleeder Valve Installation ............................ 106 Pressure-Vacuum Bleeder ........................................................................... 107 Bushing with Draw-Through Cable Leads .................................................. 109 Bushing with Hollow-Core Conductor........................................................ 111 Oil-Filled Bushing ....................................................................................... 113 Core of Condenser Type Bushing without Porcelain Cover and Skirts............................................................................................................ 114 Typical Oil-Filled and Condenser Type Bushing for 66 kV Transformer ................................................................................................. 115 Condenser Bushing - Oil Impregnated ........................................................ 116 Bushing Current Transformer Mounting ..................................................... 119 Bushing-Type Current Transformer ............................................................ 119 Wedge-Type Tap Changing Mechanism..................................................... 121 Operating Mechanisms................................................................................ 122 Operating Handle for No-Load Tap Changer Set to Position #5................. 123 Transformer Nameplate with No-load Tap Changer Voltages .................... 125 Typical Automatic Load Tap Changer Installation ..................................... 131 Position Indicator for Load Tap Changer .................................................... 133 Load Tap Changer Mounted on a Transformer ........................................... 135 UTT-B Load Tap Changer (Internal View) ................................................. 136 Phase Assembly........................................................................................... 137 UTT-B Load Tap Changer (External View)................................................ 138 Typical UTT-B Load Tap Changer Schematic Connection Diagram with Sequence Chart.................................................................................... 139 Control System Block Diagram................................................................... 142 Regulator Control Functions ....................................................................... 144 Typical Transformer Tap Changer Control Circuit ..................................... 146
Figure 81B. Figure 82. Figure 83. Figure 84. Figure 85A. Figure 85B. Figure 86. Figure 87. Figure 88. Figure 89. Figure 90. Figure 91. Figure 92. Figure 93. Figure 94. Figure 95. Figure 96. Figure 97. Figure 98. Figure 99. Figure 100. Figure 101. Figure 102. Figure 103. Figure 104. Figure 105. Figure 106.
Typical Transformer Tap Changer Control Circuit ..................................... 147 Installation Using Parallel Transformers ..................................................... 150 Typical Paralleling Control Scheme............................................................ 152 Typical Transformer Nameplate.................................................................. 156 Typical Transformer Nameplate.................................................................. 158 Typical Transformer Nameplate.................................................................. 159 Transformer Turn-Ratio (TTR) Test Set...................................................... 176 Schematic Diagram for Transformer Turns-Ratio (TTR) Test Set .............. 177 TTR Polyphase Transformer Connections .................................................. 178 TTR Set Indications when Balanced ........................................................... 179 Sample TTR Readings (Set One) ................................................................ 182 Sample TTR Readings (Set Two)................................................................ 184 LV/HV Winding Markings/ Polarity Voltage Reading Method Polarity Test ................................................................................................ 186 Voltmeter Flick-Method Polarity Test......................................................... 188 Angular Displacements ............................................................................... 189 Bridge Network Connections ...................................................................... 191 Wheatstone Bridge ...................................................................................... 192 Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter ............................................................. 193 Connections for Measuring Transformer Winding Resistance.................... 195 Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Insulation-Resistance of a Typical Single-Phase (Two-Winding) Transformer .................................... 200 Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Insulation-Resistance of a Typical Three-Phase Delta-Wye Transformer............................................. 201 Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter ............................................................. 205 Dielectric Loss of Each Capacitor Divided by Capacitive VoltAmperes is Equal to Power Factor .............................................................. 208 Typical Insulation Power Factor Test Data ................................................. 210 Typical Two-Winding Transformer Simplified Diagram............................ 211 Typical Power Factor Test Data and Calculated Test Results ..................... 213 Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Capacitance and Insulation Power Factor from the High-Voltage Winding to the Low-Voltage Winding and Ground for a Two-Winding, Single-Phase Transformer........ 216
Figure 107.
Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Capacitance and Insulation Power Factor from the High-Voltage Winding to the Low-Voltage Winding and Ground for a Three-Phase Delta-Wye Transformer............... 217 Insulating Fluid Dielectric Test Set ............................................................. 225 Effects of Water in Insulating Oil................................................................ 226 Field Test Kit for Insulating Fluid Acidity .................................................. 228 Electric Strength of Transformer Oil vs. Water Content ............................. 231 Insulating Fluid Sample Kit......................................................................... 235 Comparing Oil-Test Results ........................................................................ 236 Comparative Rates of Evolution of Gases from Oil as a Function of Decomposition Energy ................................................................................ 242 Gas Sample Kit............................................................................................ 248 Typical Sampling Kit for Gas-in-Fluid Analysis......................................... 250 Sampling Kit for PCB Analysis................................................................... 252 Pressure-Vacuum Gauge Calibration and Press-Relief Device Test ........... 258 Typical Transformer Nameplate.................................................................. 261 Transformer In-Service Inspection Report for Dry-Type and LiquidFilled Transformers ..................................................................................... 273 Typical Out-of-Service Inspection Report for Oil-Filled and PadMounted Transformers ................................................................................ 281 Suggested Investigation Flowchart that Forms the Basic for this Guide ........................................................................................................... 294 Form P-025 (7/94) Sheet 1 of 8................................................................... 338 Form P-025 (7/94) Sheet 2 of 8................................................................... 339 Form P-025 (7/94) Sheet 3 of 8................................................................... 340 Form P-025 (7/94) Sheet 4 of 8................................................................... 341 Form P-025 (7/94) Sheet 5 of 8................................................................... 342 Form P-025 (7/94) Sheet 6 of 8................................................................... 343 Form P-025 (7/94) Sheet 7 of 8................................................................... 344 Form P-025 (7/94) Sheet 8 of 8................................................................... 345 Ungrounded Specimen Test on Transformer Bushings............................... 362 Typical Field Test Data for a Large Transformer Bushing, Undergrounded Specimen Test (UST) ........................................................ 363
Figure 108. Figure 109. Figure 110. Figure 111. Figure 112. Figure 113. Figure 114. Figure 115. Figure 116. Figure 117. Figure 118. Figure 119. Figure 120. Figure 121. Figure 122. Figure 126. Figure 127. Figure 128. Figure 129. Figure 130. Figure 132. Figure 135. Figure 136. Figure C1. Figure C2.
Figure C3. Figure C4. Figure C5. Figure C6. Figure C7. Figure C8. Figure C9.
Hot-Collar Test Method for Testing of Bushing Insulators......................... 364 Typical Field Test DataBushing Hot-Collar Tests..................................... 365 Liquid Insulation Cell Connected for Ungrounded Specimen Testing........ 367 Measurement of Ie in a Single-Phase Transformer...................................... 369 Measurement of Ie in a Wye-Connected Transformer Winding.................. 370 Measurement of Ie in a Delta-Connected Transformer Winding................. 371 Variation of Power Factor with the Moisture Content of OilImpregnated Pressboard .............................................................................. 372
PURPOSE AND USAGE WITHIN SAUDI ARAMCO Power transformer are used in Saudi Aramco as the main power supply from distribution systems all the way up to transmission systems. The power rating of these devices can range from 750 kVA up to 1,000 MVA. All Saudi Aramco Plant facilities use power transformers with voltage levels from 230 kV primary and transformed down through several steps to the secondary distribution system at 480 V. The construction and application of these devices have rigid standards (ANSI) because of their importance, the amount of power they handle, and cost. Applicable Standards The engineer must consult these types of standards for specifications concerning Power transformers: Saudi Aramco Standards, Specifications, Practices and Form Saudi Aramco Engineering standards (SAES) Saudi Aramco Material System Specifications (SAMSS) Saudi Aramco Design Practices (SADP) Electrical Pre-Commissioning Form (Form P-025)
Industry Standards National Electrical Code (NEC) National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards For specifications on the power transformer, the engineer consults these Saudi Aramco standards: SAES-P-121 - Transformers, Reactors, Voltage Regulators, contains the minimum requirements for the design and installation of transformers, reactors, voltage regulating transformers, and instrument transformers. Do not deviate from the requirements of this standard. Any deviations that reduce the requirements must have written approval from the Saudi Aramco Chief Engineer, Dhahran. User/specifier requirements that exceed the minimum requirements need no waiver approval. The Saudi Aramco Chief Engineer also must resolve any conflicts between this standard and other SAESs, SAMSSs, codes, forms, and SADPs.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1
The major topics discussed in this standard are as follows: Material Requirements kVA Rating of Power and Voltage Regulating Transformers Installation
This standard has six chapters. Figure 1 shows the table of contents.
CHAPTER 1 2 3 4 5 6
SUBJECT SCOPE CONFLICTS AND DEVIATIONS APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS kVA RATINGS OF POWER AND VOLTAGE REGULATING TRANSFORMERS INSTALLATION
PAGE 2 2 2 3 5 7
Figure 1. SAES-P-121 Table of Contents Figure 2 shows a sample of the type of information contained in SAES-P-121. *NOTE: 5.4 - This is intended for the lone transformer carrying both loads not to exceed manufacture temperature limit for transformer insulation damage.
5 5.1
kVA RATING OF POWER AND VOLTAGE REGULATING TRANSFORMERS Transformers shall be supplied with ANSI Standard preferred kVA Ratings at normal service condition, unless otherwise specified on SAMSS Data Schedule-1 The minimum OA self-cooled kVA rating of each OA/FA transformers shall be equal to the maximum operating load, plus projected future load For transformers that are self-cooled only, a 10 percent load growth factor shall be added to the calculated load )maximum operating load plus projected future load). The forced-cooled FA site rating of each transformer serving a doubleended substation shall be capable of feeding the entire load of both buses with the bus-tie breaker closed. Forced-air cooling fans and controls shall be provided on all transformers rated 2500 kVA or larger. On transformers smaller than 2500 kVA, forcedair cooling shall not be provided. Two stages of forced cooling shall be allowed for transformers with OA ratings of 90 MVA or larger. The forced cooling may be forced air (FA) and/or forced-oil-air (FOA). Figure 2. Sample Information from SAES-P-121
5.2 5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
SAES-P-119 - This standard prescribes the minimum mandatory requirements for the design and installation of on-shore power substations. This standard provides the definition for a substation and the type and size of transformer required. It provides the orientation of the transformer within the substation yard. This also states when to use lightning arrester on transformers. Table of Contents 1 2 3 4 5 6 Table of Contents Conflicts and Deviations Applicable Codes and Standards General Substation Buildings Substation Yards
SAES-P-114 - This standard prescribes the minimum mandatory requirements for the design and installation of protective relaying for power systems and equipment. Chapter 7 deals with transformer protective devices and schemes for power and distribution transformers. The major interests are the sections dealing with pad-mounted distribution and pole-mounted distribution transformers, as well as the inherent devices built as part of the transformer such as: Pressure-rise relay (device 63T, 63GT) Overtemperature devices (device 49T) Low oil level indicator Lockout relays (device 86T1, 86T2, 87T3) Chapter 7 Table of Contents 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 General Transformer protection schemes Protection device application requirements Fuse protection of transformers
Saudi Aramco Material System Specifications The 14-SAMSS-Series specifications contain the minimum technical requirements for power transformers used in Saudi Aramco electrical systems. Engineers should use these documents when specifying new power transformers. As with the SAESs, any deviations that reduce the requirements must have written approval from the Saudi Aramco Consulting Services Division (CSD), Dhahran. User/specifier requirements that exceed the minimum requirements need no waiver approval. SAMSSs do not directly state all of the specifications for new power transformers. Saudi Aramcos practice is to adopt the ANSI standard specifications for transformers, and then modify the ANSI specifications to meet the specific requirements of Saudi Aramco installations. The modifications consist of exceptions, deletions, and additions to the ANSI standards. The ANSI standard that is the base document for the transformer specifications is referenced in chapter D of each applicable SAMSS. The modifications to the base document are listed through use of numbers that refer to the sections of the ANSI standard to be changed. The type of modification is listed in parenthesis next to the ANSI standard section number.
14-SAMSS-531 (Power Transformers) - Figure 3 shows the table of contents. Chapter D in the table of contents shows that the base documents for this standard are ANSI C57.12.101977 and ANSI C57.12.30-1977. 14-SAMSS-531 is more difficult to interpret than most Saudi Aramco standards because ANSI C57.12.30-1977 no longer exists in the latest revision of ANSI C57. A previous revision of the ANSI standards combined ANSI C57.12.10 and ANSI C57.12.30 into a single standard. The new standard is ANSI C57.12.10-1988.
CHAPTER
A B C D SCOPE REFERENCES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
3 3 3
FIELD EXPERIENCE MODIFICATIONS TO ANSI C57.12.10-1977 (INDICATED BY (10) & C57.12.30-1977 (INDICATED BY (30) SECTION A C57.12.10-1977 & C57.12.30-1977 PART I. BASIC ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS
4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 9 9 9 9
4 5 6 8 9
Ratings Insulation Level Impedance Voltage Routine Test Construction PART II. OTHER REQUIREMENTS THAT MAY BE SPECIFIED FOR SOME APPLICATIONS
10 11 12
Other Ratings Other Tests Other Construction Figure 3. 14-SAMSS-531 Table of Contents
CHAPTER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION B C57.12.10-1977 & C57.12.30-1977 PART I. BASIC ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS
PAGE
13 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 16
14 15 16 18 19
Ratings Insulation Level Impedance Voltage Routine Tests Construction PART II. OTHER REQUIREMENTS THAT MAY BE SPECIFIED FOR SOME APPLICATIONS
20 21 22 E
Other Ratings Other Tests Other Construction ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS ATTACHMENTS Data Schedule-1 (Data to be supplied by Buyer) Data Schedule-2 (Data to be supplied by each Bidder)
Figure 3. 14-SAMSS-531 Table of Contents (contd)
The section numbers and required modifications contained in 14-SAMSS-531 refer to specific sections of ANSI C57.12.10-1977 and ANSI C57.12.30-1977 that must be changed to meet the needs of Saudi Aramco installations. A direct correlation of the required modifications no longer exists between the section numbers in the revised version of ANSI C57.12.10-1988 and the section numbers in 14-SAMSS-531. However, the engineer must still incorporate the modifications contained in 14-SAMSS-531 when developing specifications for new power transformer installations. The engineer should use the most recent revision of the applicable ANSI standard (ANSI C57.12.10-1988) as the base document for developing new power transformer specifications. The specifications in the base document should then be modified as required by 14-SAMSS531. The engineer will have to carefully read and study ANSI C57.12.10-1988 and 14SAMSS-531 to determine the specific sections of ANSI C57.12.10-1988 to which the modifications in 14-SAMSS-531 apply. Conflicts or questions concerning the requirements contained in ANSI C57.12.10-1988 and 14-SAMSS-531 should be resolved in the same fashion as any other conflict between a Saudi Aramco and an Industry Standard. Deviations that reduce the requirements of 14-SAMSS-531 must have written approval from the Saudi Aramco Consulting Services Division (CSD), Dhahran. ANSI C57.12.10-1988 requirements that exceed the minimum requirements of 14-SAMSS-531 need no waiver approval. Figure 4 shows a sample of the type of information found in 14-SAMSS-531.
9.1
(10) (Addition) The minimum BIL Levels of winding bushings shall be as shown in the following table, unless specified otherwise in Data Schedule-1: Nominal Voltage (kV) 2.4 4.16 13.8 34.5 69 115 Bushing BIL Level (kV) 60 75 110 200 350 650
9.1.2 (10) 9.1.2 (30) 9.1.3 (10) 9.1.3 (30) 9.1.4 (10) 9.1.4 (30) 9.2 (10) 9.2 (30) 9.2.1 (20) 9.2.1 (30) 9.2.2 (10)
(Exception) Outdoor bushing shall have minimum creepage of 40 mm per kV Line-to-Line of nominal system voltage. (Exception) Type and location of bushings shall be as specified on Data Schedule-1 (Exception) Type and location of bushing for wye-connected low voltage windings shall be as specified on the Data Schedule-1 (Exception) All accessories listed in Figure 2 shall be furnished for all transformers (Addition) The type of tap changer for de-energized or for load tap changing operation shall be as specified on Data Schedule-1 (Addition) A magnetic liquid level gauge shall be provided with all transformers. The alarm contacts shall be rated and wired in accordance with Section 12.3.6 of the ANSI Standard. (Addition) A magnetic liquid level gauge shall be provided with all transformers. The two electrically separate sets of contacts shall be rated and wired in accordance with Section 12.3.6 of this ANSI Standard. (Addition) A pressure-vacuum gauge shall be provided on all transformers equipped with a sealed tank oil preservation system. The two electrically separate sets of contacts shall be rated and wired in accordance with Section 12.3.6.1 of this ANSI Standard. (Addition) Valves shall be provided on each transformer equipped with detachable radiators to enable these radiators to be removed without affecting the liquid in the tank. The tank drain valves shall be padlocked. Figure 4. Sample Information from 14-SAMSS-531
9.2.3 (10)
9.2.4 (10)
9.2.5 (10) 9.4.5 (30)
14-SAMSS-534 (Overhead-Type Distribution Transformers) - The base document for 14SAMSS-534 is ANSI C57.12.20-1981. The most recent version of this ANSI standard is ANSI C57.12.20-1988. The engineer should use ANSI C57.12.20-1988 as the base document for developing new overhead-type distribution transformer specifications. The specifications in the base document should then be modified as required by 14-SAMSS-534. 14-SAMSS-534 is also less difficult to interpret than 14-SAMSS-531 because a direct correlation still exists between the section numbers in the revised version of ANSI C57.12.201988 and the section numbers of the modifications required by 14-SAMSS-534. Conflicts or questions concerning the requirements contained in ANSI C57.12.20-1988 and 14-SAMSS534 should be resolved in the same fashion as any other conflict between a Saudi Aramco and an Industry Standard. Deviations that reduce the requirements of 14-SAMSS-534 must have written approval from the Saudi Aramco Consulting Services Division (CSD), Dhahran. ANSI C57.12.20-1988 requirements that exceed the minimum requirements of 14-SAMSS534 need no waiver approval. 14-SAMSS-534 has the same type of information as 14-SAMSS-531. simply applies to a different type of transformer. Saudi Aramco Design Practices SADPs give the background information needed to explain, amplify, and apply the mandatory requirements of the SAESs and SAMSSs. The information in the SADPs is not mandatory and not necessarily up-to-date. Written approval is not needed to deviate from the SADPs. In case of conflict between an SADP and an SAES/SAMSS, the SAES/SAMSS govern. Capital letters are used in some statements of the text in the SADPs. These statements are mandatory because they come from the SAESs, SAMSSs, and SAMDs. Reference the SADPs when tutorial or background information is needed on the selection, specification, or troubleshooting of transformers. These are the SADPS the engineer refers to concerning power transformers SADP-P-121 SADP-P-431 SADP-P-434 The information
SADP-P-121 (Transformers) - This design practice has two parts. Part one has a single page. The statements on the page give the rationale for the technical requirements in SAES-P121 that are not obvious. The basis of the rationale is many years of Aramco's experience.
Part two contains twelve chapters of information. Figure 5 shows the Table of Contents. This part of the SADP has tutorial information. Use this information to clarify the technical requirements given in the SAESs and SAMSSs. The sections that follow give the scope of each chapter.
CHAPTER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
TABLE OF CONTENTS TRANSFORMER -INTRODUCTION POWER AND DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS TRANSFORMER THERMAL RATING TRANSFORMERS IMPEDANCES AND VOLTAGES TRANSFORMER INSULATION TRANSFORMER ENCLOSURE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS AND TERMINATIONS TRANSFORMER AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT TRANSFORMER PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS TRANSFORMER TESTING AND DELIVERY INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS
PAGE 13 31 41 53 71 80 84 95 102 109 115 129
Figure 5. SADP-P-121 Table of Contents
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These are the subjects of the listed chapters: 1. 2. Selection, application, and general specifications of transformers for use in Saudi Aramco installations Requirements and general guidelines for these types of transformers used by Saudi Aramco: 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Power Distribution Auxiliary Power Non-Flammable Insulating Liquid Filled Conventional Dry-Type Cast-Resin Type
Thermal aspects of transformers, including temperature rise, service conditions, and methods of cooling Selection of transformer impedance values and tap ranges Selection of transformer withstand levels, voltage surge suppression, insulating liquids, and oil preservation techniques Selection of enclosures for transformers General requirements and conventions of terminal connections for all types of transformers, except instrument transformers, also covers the operation of transformers in parallel and disconnecting facilities Selection of transformer accessories, including tap changers, and monitoring and protection equipment Requirements for tolerances, losses, and noise levels, and how to capitalize losses General requirements and policies adopted with regard to factory testing and inspections Requirements of current transformers and inductively coupled voltage transformers Reactors and special types of power transformers
8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
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SADP-P-431 - gives the rationale for the technical requirements of 14-SAMSS-531 that are not obvious. SADP-P-434 - gives the rationale for the technical requirements of 14-SAMSS-534 that are not obvious. Industry Standards Saudi Aramco Standards often reference Industry Standards. This practice eliminates the need to rewrite all the applicable Industry Standards into Saudi Aramco Standards. Instead, the Saudi Aramco Standards give exceptions, additions, or deletions to the industry standards. The following Industry Standards contain information that pertains to selection, specification, and troubleshooting of transformers: National Electrical Code (NEC) National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) International Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standards
National Electrical Code - The purpose of the NEC is the practical safeguarding of persons and property from the hazards of using electricity. The NEC only contains provisions needed for safety and does not guarantee an efficient, convenient, expandable installation. The specific section of the NEC that contains information pertinent to the selection and specification of transformers is Article 450. The title of Article 450 is Transformers and Transformer Vaults. This article applies to all transformers except the following: Current transformers Power transformers that constitute a component part of other apparatus and comply with the requirements for such apparatus as motor control centers or potential transformers (PT's) Transformers that are an integral part of an X-ray, high-frequency, or electrostatic-coating apparatus Transformers for use with Class 2 or Class 3 circuits that comply with Article 725-3(b) (such as communications small transformers) Transformers for sign and outline lighting that comply with Article 600 Transformers for electric-discharge lighting that comply with Article 410
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Transformers for use with power-limited fire protective signaling circuits that comply with Part C of Article 760 Liquid-filled or dry-type transformers for use in research, development, or testing, where effective arrangements are provided to safeguard unqualified persons from contacting high-voltage terminals or energized conductors
Article 450 is divided into three major sections: part A, part B, and part C. Part A contains the general provisions for all covered transformers. Part B contains specific provisions applicable to different types of transformers. Part C contains the provisions for transformer vaults. National Electrical Safety Code - The purpose of the rules in the NESC is the practical safeguarding of persons during the installation, operation, or maintenance of electric supply and communication lines, and associated equipment. The rules contain the basic provisions needed for the safety of employees and the public under the specified conditions. Part 1, Section 15 has specific information on transformers. General Safety rules related to troubleshooting and maintaining industrial/utility type electrical equipment are found throughout the text. ANSI/IEEE Standards and Guidelines - The Industry Standards used most often in selection, specification, and troubleshooting of power transformers are ANSI/IEEE Standards. IEEE standards give information on how to produce, test, measure, and buy equipment. This information is the consensus opinion of a group of subject matter experts. The requirements and procedures given in the standards are useful when selecting, specifying, and troubleshooting power transformers. ANSI does not write standards. ANSI adopts standards written by other organizations. ANSI standards give a uniform method of manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, and using a given piece of equipment. This information is useful when selecting, specifying, or troubleshooting transformers. ANSI has adopted most of the IEEE standards that relate to transformers. All the applicable standards are available in a single book titled C57, which is the name of this collective group of standards. C57 contains information on distribution, power, and regulating transformers. These standards should be used when Saudi Aramco Standards reference them. C57.12.00 is General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power and Regulating Transformers. This standard gives the basis for the establishment of performance, limited electrical and mechanical interchangeability, and safety requirements. C57.12.00 also gives assistance in selecting the right equipment.
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C57.12.10 is 230 kV and Below 833/958 through 8333/10,417 kVA, SinglePhase, and 750/862 through 60,000/80,000/100,000 kVA, Three-Phase Without Load Tap Changing; and 3750/4687 through 60,000/80,000/100,000 kVA with Load Tap Changing-Safety Requirements. This standard covers certain electrical, dimensional, and mechanical characteristics. C57.12.10 considers certain safety features of 60-HZ, two-winding, liquid-immersed transformers of the ratings covered. C57.12.90 is Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers and Guide for Short-Circuit Testing of Distribution and Power Transformers. This standard describes the methods for performing tests specified in C57.12.00. C57.12.90 also describes other standards applicable to liquid-immersed distribution, power, and regulating transformers. C57.12.90 is intended for use as a basis for performance, safety, and proper testing of transformers. C57.13 is Standard Requirements for Instrument Transformers. This standard is intended for use as a basis for performance, interchangeability, and safety of the equipment covered. C57.13 also helps in selecting the right instrument transformers. C57.92 is Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil Immersed Power Transformers Up to and Including 100 MVA with 55C or 65C Average Winding Rise. This standard covers the general recommendations for loading mineral-oil immersed power transformers.
The ANSI/IEEE standard the engineer uses to find information on the power transformers is C57.12.10, 230 kV and Below 833/958 through 8333/10,417 kVA, Single-Phase, and 750/862 through 60,000/80,000/100,000 kVA, Three-Phase without Load Tap-Changing; and 3750/4687 through 60,000/80,000/100,000 kVA with Load Tap Changing-Safety Requirements. This standard is intended for use as a basis for determining performance, interchangeability, and safety of the equipment covered. C57.12.10 also helps in selecting the right equipment.
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CONSTRUCTION The construction of a power transformer deals with these components or assemblies of components: Core Coil or Winding Assembly Insulation System Enclosure Types (Tank) Control Cabinet Fill and Drain Valves
Cooling System Accessories Faults Gas Detector Relays Indicators Pressure Relief Devices Bushings No-load Tap Changers Load Tap Changers Bushing Current Transformers
Core The construction of a power transformer starts with the core. In its simplest form, the transformer consists of two coils which are mutually coupled. When the coupling is provided through a ferromagnetic ring (circular or otherwise), the transformer is called an iron-core transformer. When there is no ferromagnetic material but only air, the device is described as an air-core transformer. The air-core type transformers are usually very small type transformers used for small electrical and electronic circuits. This module will only pay attention exclusively to iron-core type transformers.
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Core Material The core is made of steel alloy because its molecular structure allows the material to carry and hold a magnetic flow 10,000 times greater than air. Steel alloy is a much better conductor of magnetic flux than air. The material used for the transformer core is selected to afford its molecules the greatest ease in reversing their position as the AC magnetic field reverses its direction. As they reverse themselves, the friction developed between these magnetic molecular particles creates heat. This action causes a core or iron loss known as hysteresis (Figure 6). This hysteresis loss is minimized by using a special grade of heat-treated and cold-rolled grain-oriented silicon steel alloy sheet. The two important parameters that affect the core are the core design and the core material. Both the design and material are chosen to reduce the reluctance of the flux path. This reduces the amount of excitation current required to induce flux into the core and the amount of power lost due to circulating currents, eddy currents and hysteresis.
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N N N S N S S
A S N N S S
N S N
S N S
N S N N
Random molecular structure of core before energized
+ Polarized molecular structure of core during first positive part of sine wave
C N S S S S S N N S N N N N S
N S N
S N S S
Residual magnetizism of core during zero crossing of sine wave
- Polarized molecular structure of core during first negative part of sine wave
Figure 6. Hysteresis Effects on Magnetic Domains within the Core
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Eddy currents are core or iron losses that are due to a current flow in the core from the primary induced voltage. The current flow results in a power loss because it represents a portion of the primary flux that is not transferred to the secondary windings. This current flow in the core is like small circular paths through the material. These swirling currents get their name from their resemblance to eddies in a pond of water (Figure 7). Eddy currents are minimized in transformer design by constructing the core from a number of insulated, laminated sections. This reduces the magnitude of eddy currents since current cannot flow across the insulation between laminations where the eddy currents are confined to smaller areas. This limits the total eddy current losses of the transformer (Figure 8). The metallic composition of the transformer core is made of special high grade silicon sheet steel. A typical sheet of steel is 0.3 mm (0.014 inch) thick. These sheets of steel are laminated into sections that are several inches wide. The core laminations are provided to help reduce eddy currents or currents induced into the iron parts of the unit. Each of the laminations are coated with an insulating material. This coating helps to prevent magnetic losses and reduces heating losses. The core is the major part of the magnetic circuit along with a clamping structure. It is part of the transformer magnetic field that oscillates.
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Figure 7. Eddy Currents in a Solid Core
Figure 8. Eddy Currents in Insulated Core
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Core Assembly The core assembly is constructed by stacking individual laminations in accordance with the pattern and configuration selected by the designer. Some of the basic types of core construction and lamination configurations are shown in Figure 9. In all types the layers of laminations are placed so that the air gaps between lamination ends of one layer are overlapped by the laminations in the next layer. For any interleaved joint it is important to minimize the gap (and thus reduce possible eddy currents) between abutting plates. Example: If the gap in a joint were only 1/1000 of an inch, the magnetizing current to push the flux across each gap would be equivalent to 10,000 times or 10 inches of steel for each gap. The gap would materially increase the exciting current. This is why the test for the noload excitation current is valuable. Example: If a unit is moved from one location to another, shipped over land by rail or truck, or is rewound, the no-load excitation current will verify a good transformer or damaged in shipment. For small distribution transformers the cores are built from strip wound loops (Figure 10). The wound core is spirally constructed from a continuous strip of cold rolled steel and is cut at every other turn to permit assembly. This type core is primarily used for smaller core construction.
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Figure 9. Typical Core Construction and Lamination Configuration
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Types of Transformer Core Construction That transformer core design has four different classes: Core type Shell type Cruciform type Wound type
Core Type The core type is one of two types of transformer core constructions. This refers to the arrangements of the steel core with reference to the windings. In the core-type transformer, the magnetic circuit takes the form of a single ring encircled by two or more groups of primary and secondary windings distributed around the periphery of the ring (Figure 10). Core type means (in the USA) coils are cylindrical and concentric (the outer winding over the inner). This type of design has an inherently simpler insulation structure and are easier to build. Core form designs are typically used for most medium and small power transformers. Shell Type The shell type is the second major type of transformer core construction. This also refers to the arrangement of the steel core with reference to the windings. The shell-type transformer core has the primary and secondary windings take the form of a common ring which is encircled by two or more rings of magnetic material distributed around its periphery (Figure 11). The shell type denotes large pancake coils which are stacked or interleaved to make primary and secondary groups (Figure 12). Primary-secondary-primary (PSP) grouping is common but primary-secondary-primary-secondary-primary (PSPSP) is also often used. In actual practice the cylindrical-concentric coil structure is sometimes used with an enclosing (shell-form) core in single-phase or with a five-legged core in three-phase to reduce overall height. Figure 12 show the conventional three-phase shell form core with the coils in section. Generally, shell-form provides greater mechanical strength, good voltage impulse distribution and better conductor cooling, but the shell-form construction is more complex and costly. Because of these, shell-form designs are usually used on large power transformers (100 MVA) where high strength for through faults and good voltage distribution of voltage impulses are important. Cruciform Type The cruciform-type of transformer core is made like a larger plus sign (+). This type of core is often used for economy and is common on very small sizes of transformers. This type transformer has coils that are made cylindrical in shape, which enables the insulation to have a higher factor of safety since there are no sharp bends in the insulating material and a better opportunity for the radiation of heat. Both of these factors permit the use of less material for a given output (Figure 13).
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Wound Type The wound-type transformer core construction is used from small distribution transformers. These cores are built from strip wound loops (Figure 14). The wound core is spirally constructed from a continuous strip of cold rolled steel and is cut at every other turn to permit assembly. Nevertheless, its practical use has been generally limited to smaller core construction. For smaller transformers where wound cores are used, the manufacturer does stress annealing after cutting the core. Using stacked cores, the steel laminations are frequently given an additional layer of this organic polymer coating. The two major type of transformer core construction are the core type and the shell type. These two will be the only forms discussed further in this module on power transformers.
Insulating Tube
Laminated Cores
L. V. Winding H. V. Winding
Core Type
Shell Type
L. V. Winding H. V. Winding
Figure 10. Core-Type Construction and Shell-Type Construction
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Insulation Core Primary Coil
Secondary Coil
Spacers
Ventilation Ducts
Figure 11. Shell-Type Unit ("Pancake" Coils)
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Primary Coil Phase 1 Secondary Coil Primary Coil
Phase 2
Core
Insulation
Phase 3
Figure 12. Conventional 3-Phase Core for the Rectangular-PancakeInterleaved-Coil Sructure (Shell Type) (The groups of pancake coils may be round or rectangular.)
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Primary HV Winding
Insulation
Cruciform Core
Secondary LV Winding
Figure 13. Cruciform-Type Core
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Rolling Direction and Flux Path
Core Area
Figure 14. Wound Core
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Grounding of Core The laminated magnetic core of a liquid filled is insulated from ground, and then by design grounded at one point to maintain its potential at ground level. This prevents the flow of circulating currents which causes additional heating. Then, by design, the core is grounded at one point only for the following reasons: Place core at ground potential. Remove static charges. Prevent core voltage from electrically varing. Provide protection during a winding to core contact or short.
When more than one ground on the core occurs circulating currents will flow which adds heat to the transformer and increase the ambient noise level. Lack of a ground will cause the core to float at elevated potential because of induced voltage. Most power transformers have a flexible bolted connection at top near the top cover of the tank. The insulation between the laminations is only a few ohms resistance but is sufficiently high to prevent damaging eddy currents within the core and at the same time is sufficiently low to permit the entire core to be effectively grounded by a connection to only one of the laminations. The core connection is usually located at the top of the transformer on same designs, this connection is not solid but instead is made through a heavy-duty resistor in the 250 to 1000 ohm range. A resistor in this range still accomplishes the effect grounding of the core, and at the same time limits circulating currents. This ground connected is usually conveniently mounted under a manhole at the top of the transformer. Shell-form transformers may have more than one ground because it is not important that the laminations be grounded in only one spot, since the flux distribution in this type of unit differ from core-form transformers. Coil or Winding Assembly Transformer coils are designed to get the required number of turns into a minimum of space. Additionally, the cross-section of the conductor must be large enough to carry the current without overheating and sufficient space must be provided for the insulation and for cooling paths, if any. These coils may be made of copper or aluminum, the choice depends on the cost to achieve the low resistance and small space requirements.
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For small units, the coil size may be round, insulated with cotton, enamel, shellac, varnish, paper, or a combination of these. For larger units, the wire may be square or rectangular ribbon, usually insulated with oil impregnated paper. Where transformer operation at high temperatures is desired, special glass or asbestos insulation may be used. The insulation should be provided not only for normal operating voltages, but also for surges of high voltage resulting from lightning or switching. Core-Type Coils In core-type transformers, the low voltage coils are usually placed next to the core and the high voltage coils external and concentric with them. This reduces the insulation requirements of both coils. If the high voltage winding was placed next to the core, two layers of high voltage insulation would be required, one next to the core and the other between the two windings (Figure 10). Sometimes, where large and heavy connections are involved, this arrangement may be reversed. The high voltage windings may be separated from the low voltage windings by insulating cylinders. The high voltage may be composed of several disc shaped coils, each disc insulated from others by insulating strips. If the windings were placed on separate legs of the core, a relatively large amount of the flux produced by the primary windings would fail to link the secondary winding, resulting in a large loss in effectiveness of the flux. Shell-Type Coils In shell-type transformer, "pancake construction" is often used (Figure 11). Here, the high voltage and low voltage coils are alternately place around the core, with the required insulation between them, each coil having the rough appearance of a pancake. Often, space is left between coils for cooling purposes. Such an arrangement of coils reduces the reactance between the coils and improves the operation of the transformer, particularly the large-size transformers, where heavy currents are experienced. The shell-type transformers also make arrangements for air cooling paths simpler and easier to provide. Coil Stress The coils in transformers that are energized and loaded have mechanical and electrical stresses at all times. All coils which carry currents in the same direction attract one another and coils which carry currents in opposite directions repel one another. Hence, all the coils of the primary attract one another as do all the coils of the secondary. However, primary coils repel the secondary coils and vice-versa. Under normal operating conditions, these forces are relatively small. In case of short circuit or the carrying of very large currents, these forces may become great enough to damage the transformer if the coils are not adequately supported.
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The short circuit stresses that interact between windings result in both horizontal and vertical electromagnetic forces. The vertical or axial forces causes the low voltage and high voltage windings to shift with respect to each other, a condition called telescoping (Figure 15). These forces make the windings take positions that will increase the magnetic flux of the system. If two windings are in series, the electromagnetic varies as the square of current. Example: A short circuit current 20 times normal will produce (20)2, or 400 times, the normal stress. The vertical force between primary and secondary windings results because it is impossible to exactly balance the low- and high-voltage electrical-center lines. This vertical force is the hardest to design for.
Figure 15. Vertical (Axial) Forces (Between High- and Low-Voltage Coils in Core-Form Transformers in Through Short Circuit)
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The horizontal force (radial or hoop) is the major force (Figure 16). The principal component of leakage flux is axial and its interaction with the circumferential winding currents produces radial forces acting in the outward direction on the outer winding and in the inward direction on the inner winding.
Figure 16. Horizontal Repulsion (Axial) Force (Between High- and Low-Voltage Coils in Core-Form Transformers in Through Short Circuit)
Coils and core must be mechanically capable of withstanding these short-circuit stresses. Where the coils are concentrically placed, the forces produced are radial which may tend to distort the shapes of the coils. If interleaved coils are not exactly balanced, axial forces develop, also tending to distort the coils. These are usually so interleaved that forces between coils are balanced, except at the ends. Hence, when assembled, coils must be carefully centered on the cores and rigidly blocked to prevent any movement, bending or distortion from normal positions under the stresses caused by heavy currents. The extra bracing and blocking also tend to reduce the noise emanating from the vibration of several elements, brought about by the effects of the alternating magnetic fields.
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Precaution is always taken so that a failure of the high voltage insulation to the low voltage side will not impose the high voltage on the winding of the low voltage coil. Additional insulation and barriers are often placed between the primary and secondary coils to lessen the chances of such occurrences. Core and Coil Assembly Clamping Construction The final step of core and coil assembly construction is the proper clamping. If laminations are not properly secured, vibration will be the result, contributing to increased hum of the transformer and unit failure may result. The clamping structure is part of the core assembly (and magnetic circuit). Its purpose is to hold the core together and the coils in place with the pressure applied to each coil assembly. As with core construction, clamping of the windings minimizes these forces and in large units provides a means for taking up insulation shrinkage. During manufacture of the transformer (the step just before putting the coil over the core leg) all windings of transformer are progressively tighten during the vapor phase (or other method) of drying, as well as when the completed core and coil assembly is finally mated together and clamping device installed and compressed. A locking device may be fitted into the adjusting screw to prevent any loosening. The transformer insulation (cellulosic material) is heated in an oven at a temperature to dry the insulation and remove water. The heating causes the insulation to loose the water and become drier. The drier the insulation becomes the more the insulation shrinks. The shrinking allows the jack screw to tighten, compressing the coils closer and tighter together, and raising the insulation dielectric level because of the moisture loss. The predetermined design has estimated how much water will be lost and the amount of shrinkage that will occur. The more pressure the coil and core are compressed, the less chance of coil and core stress from abnormal conditions losing the clamping structure (Figure 17). Prior to final assembly (putting core and coil assembly in tank) RTE-ASEA manufacture relies on pre-compressing four times the coils and spaces in a hydraulic press to pressures exceeding maximum forces the unit will experience. The Dyna-Comp adjustable clamping system illustrates one of the most recent types of spring loaded dashpots (Figure 18). This design assures a tight coil throughout the assembly, shipping and service life of the transformer. The coil springs on the dashpots, by providing a constant follow-up pressure, prevent any loosening of the windings. The final step of core and coil assembly construction is the proper clamping. If laminations are not properly secured, vibration will be the result, contributing to increased hum of the transformer and unit failure may result.
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The older transformers had core legs and yokes clamped together by means of insulated steel bolts passing through holes punched in the laminations (Figure 19, shell-type and Figure 20, core-type transformers and Figure 22). This provided good clamping but had disadvantages. Newer transformers have the leg laminations held tightly together by strong tape applied on smaller cores, or by suitably spaced high-strength resin-glass beads applied to the periphery of larger cores. The yoke laminations are secured by fabricated steel clamps (Figure 21). These clamps are lined with resilient packing to obtain uniform pressures and minimize the transmission of sound and vibrations. When the clamping is complete, vertical tie bolts hold together the steel frames clamping the top and bottom yokes. Consequently, electrical and mechanical stresses are minimized and core bolt failure is eliminated.
Figure 17. A Vertical Cross-Section of Major Transformer Components (focusing on jack screw clamping of insulated copper conductors)
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Figure 18. Hydraulic Dashpot, (Part of the new Dyna-Comp adjustable coil clamping system, assures a tight winding structure and prevents winding movement under short circuits)
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Lifting Loop Tie Plate
Insulated Yoke Bolt
Adjustable Pressure Plate with Insulation Cooling Ducts Insulating Tubes Insulated Core Bolt
Insulating Pressure Collar
H.V. Winding L.V. Winding Insulating Barrier Locking Angle
Non-Adjustable Pressure Plate with Insulation End Frame Centering Pin Laminated Core Insulated Yoke Bolt
Figure 19. Typical Old Type Construction of Shell-Type Transformer
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Tie Plate
Insulated Yoke Bolt Laminated Core
Lifting Loop Adjustable Pressure Plate with Insulation Cooling Ducts Insulation Barrier Between Coils Insulating Pressure Collar Static Plate H.V. Winding L.V. Winding Insulating Tubes
Adjustable Pressure Plate with Insulation
Centering Channel Insulated Core Bolt Centering Pin End Frame
Figure 20. Typical Oil Type Construction of Core-Type Transformer
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Figure 21. Typical Bolted Clamping Structure (Used in Older Transformers)
Figure 22. Typical Simplified Boltless Clamping Structure (Used in Large Modern Transformers) *Courtesy of Trafo-Union.
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Coil Material The coil materials mainly used are copper and aluminum, with copper being the more preferred at Saudi Aramco. The design of the coil material must be chosen from the following characteristics of conductor material. Copper coil advantages: Mechanical strength Electrical conductivity (smaller coils)
Aluminum coil advantages: Lower cost Efficient heat dissipation for sheet wound (small capacities) Reduction in weight
Wire is normally found only in the high voltage coils of distribution units where current requirements are fairly low. The wire size increases as the current values of transformer loading go up. Eddy currents can be reduced by the use of rectangular wire as it has less surface area than a wound wire of the same cross-sectional area. The cross-sectional area of the turns is adjusted so as the current is increased, cross-sectional area is increased. This helps to keep resistance loss to a minimum. This also helps to reduce eddy current losses. There has to be uniform current distribution to obtain maximum efficiency. Transposition of the coils help make each wire in the turn enclose the same amount of flux leakage producing the same volts per turn or ampere-turns (Figure 23). Sheets and foils are used mainly on distribution and small transformers where current levels are low. Aluminum sheet windings have more uniform electrical conductance, greater shortcircuit withstand voltage and better heat conduction.
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Figure 23. Continuously Transposed Multi-Strip Conductor (Courtesy of Feinberg, Modern Power Transformer Practice)
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INSULATION SYSTEM An insulation system is an assembly of fabricated, processed and in-place combinations of component insulating materials with related structural parts as used in liquid-filled transformers, in this case power units as referenced in ANSI C57.12.00-1987. Coordination of Insulation Solid insulation is required in a transformer whenever a difference in potential exists between two points. The selection of insulation is generally made in proportion to the anticipated overvoltages and with a safety margin to compensate for decreases due to normal service aging. Various components are designed to work best together and achieve what is called "coordination of insulation" within the insulation system. A conclusion that should have been reached by now is that insulation is one of the most important, if not the most important, component in a transformer. The internal insulation of the transformer are a number of critical areas that must be adequately insulated to assure that the transformer will operate properly and provide a long service life (Figures 24 and 25). These areas are: Turn-to-turn insulation High-voltage to low-voltage insulation Low-voltage to core insulation Phase-to-phase insulation Core-to-ground insulation
These insulation areas must have proper types and combinations of insulation selected and in place to have a transformer that will operate during normal and abnormal conditions and provide a long service life.
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Figure 24. Insulation Structure for a Core-Form Type Transformer
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High Density Organic Winding Sticks (B) High Density Cellulose Spacers (B) High Density Kraft Paper Tube Betwween Primary & Secondary Windings (C) High Density Organic Winding Sticks (C) High Voltage Windig
Laminated Magnetic Steel Core High Density Kraft Paper Tube (B) Low Voltage Winding
Copper Paper Insulation (A)
Paper Insulation (A)
Heavy Cellulose Phase-to-Phase Insulation (D)
Rule of Thumb:
0.3 x KVA Rating = Weight of cellulose paper in pounds Example: 0.3 x 1500 KVA = 450 pounds cellulose insulation
Phase A Phase Insulation
Phase B
Phase C
Figure 25. Oil-Filled Cellulose System [Basic insulation system of a core type power transformer where, (A) is insulation on wire; (B) is insulation to ground; (C) is insulation between windings; and (D) is insulation between phases (phase-to-phase).]
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Types of Insulating Materials Transformers use various types of insulating materials, which together, form an insulation system. Pressboard (1/8"-1/2" thick) Kraft paper (5-20 mils thick) Manila and hemp paper High-density particle-board Pressboard collars and end insulation Laminated (plywood-type particle-board) Enamels Inorganic and organic core Lamination coatings Porcelain Epoxy power coatings Maple wood structural forms Vulcanized fiber Cotton Plastics and cements, adhesive tapes, glass-fiber bands, etc. Liquid dielectric fluid
The transformer insulation system materials isolate the windings from each other and from ground to "insulate" the current-carrying parts of the transformer from the magnetic-iron and structural-steel parts. The insulation is more than just a mechanical means for keeping the wires or turns apart.
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Coil Assembly Insulation Winding Insulation Insulation material provides barriers to voltage to prevent short circuits. It must always be placed between individual turns and layers of the windings. Kraft paper and pressboard paper are the two principal materials employed. Paper or synthetic enamel having sufficient dielectric strength is suitable for strip on wire. For low voltage coils, two insulation enamels on the wires are sufficient, but paper is still needed for larger insulation at higher voltages. In some cases, enamel and paper are both used. Regardless of the type of winding, paper spacers or wood are also provided to form an oil duct to allow circulation for cooling and insulation. The ducts have to be constructed to permit circulation of the liquid or air up through the coils. Insulation Between Windings Insulation between windings is also required or from coils to ground. Selected pressboard or synthetic resin-bonded cylinders and end insulation such as paper washers, collars, or spacing blocks are the major items. Functions of Solid Insulation The solid insulation in a oil-filled transformer "insulates" because it possesses two distinct properties: 1. 2. Ability to withstand both electrical and mechanical stresses due to the voltage used A poor conductor that allows only negligible to small current to flow through it
This means a functional insulation system for an oil-filled transformer must contain material that performs four major functions. 1. 2. 3. 4. Ability to withstand normal service high voltage (impulse and transient surges dielectric strength) Ability to withstand mechanical and thermal stresses (short circuit) Ability to prevent excessive heat accumulations (heat transfer) Ability to maintain desired characteristics for an acceptable service life period given proper maintenance
Any weakness of insulation may result in the failure of a transformer. Insulation is deteriorated when it has lost a significant portion of its original dielectric, mechanical, or impulse strength. The continuation of the deterioration process leads to inevitable mechanical and/or electrical failure.
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Classification of Solid Insulation The effect of temperature upon insulation materials is so significant that the thermal characteristics has become the basis for the classification of electrical solid insulation (Table 1). This temperature should not be confused with the actual temperature at which the insulating materials may be used in particular environments (air, oil or gas) or with temperatures on which specified temperature rise in equipment standards is based. These temperature classifications refer only to the thermal evaluation of insulating materials themselves or simple combinations. An example is that some materials which are suitable for operation at one temperature in air may be suitable for a higher temperature when used in a system operated in an inert gas atmosphere or in oil. Also, some materials when operated in dielectric liquids, may have lower or higher thermal endurance than when operated in air. Even though the thermal characteristics are recognized as the most important, other factors such as mechanical strength and moisture resistance are required in varying degrees for the successful use of insulating materials.
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TABLE 1 THERMAL CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL INSULATION1 (IEC) INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION Class Designation1 Class 90 (Y) or (O) Class 105 (Y) or (O) Class 120 (B) Class 130 Maximum Temperature Permissible 90C Typical Materials
Unimpregnated cellulose, cotton silk
105C
Impregnated cellulose, cotton or silk; phenolic resin Cellulose triacetate
120C
130C
Mica, glass fiber, asbestos with organic binder As in Class 120 with suitable binder
Class 155 (F) Class 185 (H) Class 220 Class over 220 (C)
1The
155C
185C
As in Class C with silicone binder As in Class 185 Mica, porcelain, glass quartz and similar inorganic materials
220C Above 220C
system based upon numerical values of maximum temperature rating is preferred to the letter symbols by IEEE. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is responsible for the preparation of world-wide electrical and electronic standards; yet is little known to the average American Engineer. IEC is composed of 43 National Committees which represent 80% of the world's population producing and consuming 95% of all electrical energy. IEC standardization programs are developed by 190 technical committees and subcommittees that now span virtually every sphere of human endeavor in electrotechnology.
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Solid Insulation and Moisture Paper has excellent dielectric strength when it is dry. Typically the dielectric strength of paper is 1000 volts/mil (1 mil = 0.001 inch). The problem is that dry paper will absorb water very quickly and once the paper has absorbed water, its dielectric strength decreases rapidly. Figures 26 and 27 illustrate the deteriorating effect that water can have on paper type insulation. To prevent the paper from absorbing water, it is impregnated with mineral oil, as it was used in the case of oil-filled transformers, insulating liquid (transformer oil). Small amounts of moisture, even microscopic amounts, accelerate deterioration of cellulose insulation. Studies have shown more rapid degradation in the strength of cellulose with increasing amount of moisture, even in the absence of oxidation. Dehydration of the insulating system can reduce the rate of loss of mechanical strength, but the previous loss is never recovered. Therefore, keeping a transformer dry at all times is of utmost importance to maintaining the insulation. During the manufacturing process a transformer unit may collect up to 10% moisture by dry weight of the insulation. This is why initial drying is required prior to assembly and shipping. The paper insulation of a new transformer leaving the factory may contain between 0.3 to 1.0 percent water by dry weight. Therefore, a certain amount of water is always present and can be readily accommodated by the transformer. This means the purchases of the new equipment should not tolerate an upper limit of 1.5 percent. The transformer will perform to all its design criteria and nameplate rating with a moisture content of 1.5 percent by weight. But this higher water content does affect the longevity of the transformer, which means the transformer life can be reduced by half or more depending on the operating conditions of the transformer.
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Figure 26. Impulse Strength of Paper Insulation
Figure 27. 60 Hz Dielectric Strength of Paper Insulation
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Insulating System and Temperature The temperature limit for an oil-filled transformer is established by the materials which are used in the manufacture of the transformer. Since most of the insulation used in the windings is of organic material and fibrous in nature (such as Kraft paper, manila paper, Kraft board and pressboard) this material will carbonize under excessive heating and continued high temperature will accelerate such carbonizing action until a condition is reached where the insulating strength of the transformer is reduced drastically. Paper insulation is affected by temperature when paper insulation is operated at a temperature higher than its rating. Then it will deteriorate rapidly. This will lead to a premature failure of the insulation which reduces the service life of the transformer. In accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-Para. 4.1.2.1-1987, the standard rated temperatures for a liquid filled transformers are: Ave. Winding Temperature Rise (C) 55 65 Winding Hottest-Spot Temperature Rise (C) 65 80 Hottest-Spot Temperature (C) 95 110
The temperature rise of the insulating liquid shall not exceed 65C when measured near the top of the tank. Transformer design engineers design a minimum service life of 10 years when operated 24 hours a day at their rated temperature. ANSI/IEEE estimates transformer life to be approximately 7.5 years. The actual life of a transformer is impossible to predict accurately because of the multitude of variables that occur during normal operation. Insulating Mineral Oil Oil is an important part of the transformer's insulation system. Although there are synthetic types of oil, the most commonly used is the mineral oil which is a product of nature. The liquid filled transformer uses a mineral oil base as the medium surrounding the coils, core and solid insulation materials of most power transformers. It is the most common insulating liquid. The mineral oil fluid serves three primary purposes: Provides dielectric strength Provides efficient cooling Protects the insulation system
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Specification for Transformer Oil Transformer insulating oil is a refined mineral oil obtained from the fractional distillation of crude petroleum. It is principally a mixture of hydrocarbons, that when new, is free from moisture, inorganic acid, alkali, sulfur, asphalt, tar, vegetable and animal oils. A good grade of transformer oil has high dielectric strength, low viscosity, is free of inorganic acids, has good resistance to emulsification, resists sludging, and has a low pour point with a high flash point. The typical values for a good grade of transformer oil include: Property Color Dielectric Breakdown @ 60 Hz 0.100" gap 0.040" gap 0.080" gap Neutralization Number Free of Corrosive Sulfur Steam Emulsion Flash Point Pour Point Viscosity max cSt @ 100C max cSt @ 40C max cSt @ 0C Moisture Content Specific Gravity @ 60F Inorganic Chlorides or Sulfates Interfacial Tension Power Factor, 60 Hz 25C (77F) 100C (212F) Oxidation Stability Sludge after 72 hours Sludge after 164 hours Total Acid after 72 hrs Total Acid after 164 hrs Aniline Point Dielectric Breakdown, Impulse, Needle-Negative Specification Value 0.5 max. 30 kV min. 28 kV min. 56 kV min. 0.03 mg. max. Non-corrosive 145C (293F) min. -40C (-40F) max. 3 sec. max. 12 sec. max. 76 sec. max. 35 ppm max. .910 max. None 40 dynes min. 0.05% max. 0.30% 0.15% 0.30% 0.5 mg of KOH 0.6 mg of KOH 63-83C 145 kV Typical Value 0.5 35 kV 30 kV 60 kV .01 mg. Non-corrosive 30 sec. 150C -55C 3 sec. 10 sec. 70 sec. 20 ppm. .890 None 45 dynes 0.01% 0.10% 0.1% 0.2% 0.2 mg of KOH 0.3 mg of KOH 75C 150 kV ASTM No. D-1500 D-877 D-1816 D-1816 D-974 D-1275 D-1935 D-92 D-97 D-88 D-88 D-88 D-1533 D-1298 D-878 D-971 D-924 D-924 D-2440 D-2440 D-2440 D-2440 D-611 D-3300
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Importance of Insulating Oil Cellulose (or wood based) insulation, along with mineral oil, forms the strongest known electrical-mechanical insulating system for power and distribution transformers. Cellulose insulation is rarely used without initial drying and impregnation with a second insulation material (with liquid filled transformers, this is mineral oil). Impregnation of cellulosic insulation with mineral oil is basic to the effectiveness of the insulation system. Mineral oils are used to: Wet the fibrous components so as to maintain a higher dielectric and chemical stability (mechanical consolidation). Seal the cellulose material from moisture absorption. Fill any voids in order to eliminate air pockets in high voltage insulation that ultimately leads to dielectric breakdown. Prevent contact with oxygen.
The absorptive or "ink-blotter" effect of cellulose insulation causes the absorption and breakup of air bubbles, whereas plastics and other synthetic materials will not. A large air bubble caused during impregnation between windings could cause a flashover between them, resulting in a turn-to-turn failure. The reasons mineral oil is used in transformers are as follows: Low cost High dielectric Ability to recover after dielectric overstress Heat transfer capability
Insulation Coordination of Transformer Oil The oil is reinforced with solid insulation in various ways. The major insulation usually includes barriers of wood based paperboard, the barriers usually alternating with oil spaces. Because the dielectric constant of the paperboard is about 4.0 compared with 2.0 for oil, the dielectric stress on the oil is about double that on the pressboard, and the permissible stress on the oil usually limits the effective strength of the structure. The relatively porous and hydroscopic paper-based insulation must be carefully dried and vacuum-impregnated with oil to remove moisture and gas to obtain the final required high dielectric strength, and to resist deterioration at operating temperatures.
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Gas pockets or gas bubbles in the insulation are particularly destructive to the insulation strength because gas (usually air) has a low dielectric constant of about 1.0. This means that it will be stressed more highly than other insulation while at the same time it has low dielectric strength. Contamination in small traces, particularly in the presence of moisture, may seriously reduce the dielectric strength of insulation materials or structures. Extreme cleanliness is needed in the transformer insulation system at all times. Extreme dryness in the insulation system is necessary for the development of full dielectric strength. Appreciable quantities of water may decrease the dielectric strength and cause failure at operating voltage. Transformers are carefully vacuum-dried during manufacture before dielectric test. The initial level of dryness should be maintained through the operation of the transformer service. "Synthetic" Insulating Fluids Substitute or "synthetic" insulating fluids are used in some liquid-filled transformers where it is important to reduce the risk of fire. These fluids typically have a higher flash point than askeral fluids and, although they will burn after being ignited, they have a relatively low heat of combustion as compared to mineral oil. They generally have a good thermal and electrical stability, plus reliable arc-quenching capabilities. Many of these fluids have been developed since the mid 1970's as replacements for the now banned PCB askerals. Some common types of "synthetic" fluids used today include: Fluid Type Silicone Polyalpha Olefins (PAO) High Viscosity Hydrocarbon Example Product Name Dow Corning 561 Dielectric Systems Alpha-1 RTE Corp./RTEmp
Synthetic fluids have the advantage of being less flammable, but they have disadvantages as well. All synthetic fluids are more expensive than conventional transformer mineral oil. Silicone-based fluids are not biodegradable and have poor impulse dielectric capabilities. And the less flammable hydrocarbons are highly viscous and have poor low-temperature characteristics.
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Following is a comparison of some of the typical properties for these fluids: Conventional Transformer Oil
3.0 sec. 0.86 kg/dm3 Yellow -40C 56 kV 2.2 0.02 165C Some
Property
Viscosity, D445, cSt. @ 100C Density @ 20C Appearance Pour Point, D97 Dielectric Breakdown, D1816 (.08" gap) Dielectric Constant, D924 @ 20C Neutralization Number, D974, mg. KOH/g Fire Point, ASTM 92 Biodegradability
Silicone Fluid
16 sec. 0.91 kg/dm3 Clear -55C 60 kV 2.7 0.01 320C None
High Viscosity Hydro-carbon

14.5 sec. 0.86 kg/dm3 Yellow -21C 56kV 2.3 0.01 308C Yes
Polyalpha Olefins
8.48 sec. 0.83 kg/dm3 Clear -54C 56 kV 2.1 0.01 308C Yes
PCB (Askarels) Askarel is a generic term used to refer to a group of synthetic, fore resistant, chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons used as electrical insulating liquids. In the past, these liquids were widely used in place of oil because they are relatively nonflammable. Unlike oil, the gases produced by these liquids when exposed to electrical arcing are predominantly noncombustible hydrogen chloride with lesser amounts of combustible gases. However, many askarel liquids contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) which have been identified by the US Environmental Protection Agency as a toxic substance which must be regulated. Beginning in 1979, the EPA issued the "Final Rule" (CFR, Title 40, Part 761). This rule implements the provisions of the Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) ban on polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Electrical equipment manufacturers, owners, operators, and maintenance personnel are now subject to the requirements of this rule for regulation and control of liquids containing PCBs. The rule addresses requirements for identification, labeling, and servicing equipment, and handling and disposal of equipment and materials. To assist maintenance personnel and others who utilize PCBs or conduct maintenance on equipment containing PCBs, the IEEE Transformer Committee has developed and published standard ANSI/IEEE 799-1987, IEEE Guide for Handling and Disposal of Transformer Grade Insulating Liquids Containing PCBs.
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The following trade names are some of the titles which have been used to identify askarels containing PCBs: Aroclor Chlorextol Chlorphen Diaclor Dykanol Elemex Hyvol Inerteen Noflamol Pyranol
(Note: A discussion of testing and analyzing oil for PCB contamination, as well as requirements for labeling of oil filled equipment is given in a later section of this module.)
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POWER TRANSFORMER ENCLOSURES Enclosure Types for Power Transformers Transformers need enclosures for the following three reasons: To protect personnel from live and energized parts To protect the windings and insuslation system from the environment To allow a reasonable degree of mechanical protection against external damage
These enclosures separate the oil from the environment. The primary purpose of the enclosure is to prevent contamination from moisture and oxidation which causes deterioration of the oil and the insulation system. Sealed Tank The sealed tank method seals the inside of the tank from the atmosphere (Figure 28). This method uses a small volume of inert gas (N2) on top of the oil to provide a surge volume. The total volume of the gas plus the oil stays constant. Because of the tank, positive pressure oxygen and moisture are prevented from entering the tank. The tank is designed to withstand internal operating pressures without leaking oil or gas from the gas space. Sufficient gas space is provided above the liquid to allow for its expansion and contraction with temperature. The gas space above the oil is purged and filled with nitrogen to a pressure of 2 psig at 25C oil temperature. The gas pressure is allowed to vary (within limits) as the temperature fluctuates. The transformer tank will remain effectively sealed for a top-oil temperature range of -5C to 105C, continuous and for the operating conditions described in ANSI/IEEE C57.92-1981.
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Figure 28. Sealed Tank Oil Preservation Method
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Conservator or Expansion Tank The conservator or expansion tank method uses a separate tank to seal the main tank (Figure 29). The main tank is completely full of oil and the expansion tank is partially full. The expansion tank needs to have an internal bladder or diaphragm to prevent oil-to-air contact. See Figure 30.
Figure 29. Expansion Tank Oil Preservation Method
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Figure 30. Constant Oil Pressure System
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Inert Gas Preservation System This method uses positive pressure inert gas from a separate source to seal the transformer tank (Figure 31).
Figure 31. Inert-Gas Preservation Method
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Gas Liquid Seal System Using an auxiliary tank, the gas-liquid seal system seals the inside of the tank from the atmosphere. The auxiliary tank forms a gas-oil seal operating on the manometer principle (Figure 32).
Figure 32. Gas-Liquid Seal System
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Control Cabinets The purpose for transformer control cabinets are to house all transformer accessory equipment terminations and remote wiring, also, auxiliary relaying and control schemes. The types of devices terminated in or wired through the control cabinet include: Internal tank bushing current transformers Automatic and manual controls for cooling fans and pumps Wiring to and from indicator microswitches Controls for load tap changing equipment (usually has separate control cabinet) Wiring for pressure relief and fault gas detector relays Main and auxiliary power sources for control operation of various types of equipment Heaters, light fixtures, and 120 VAC outlets
Whether a transformer has a control cabinet is dependent on the design and requirements of the transformer. Saudi Aramco does not require fans or forced air on 2500 kVA and below, so this could be an approximate size where control cabinet is needed. The requirements for the type, construction and location are found in 14-SAMSS-531 page 9 on paragraph 9.4. This Saudi Aramco standard also tells the requirements for wiring, termination, device labelings, etc. The control cabinets on Saudi Aramco transformers are required for the protection of the internal devices and terminations to have: Outdoor rain-tight, dust-tight NEMA ICS 6 type 3 cabinets Space heaters with thermostat 120 VAC outlet Light fixture (optional) Hinged doors with 120 degrees opening radius Hand latch and locking means
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Fill and Drain Valves A liquid filled transformer typically has two valves for handling the fluid. One valve is located at the top of the tank, slightly below the normal oil level, and is referred to as the upper fill (and filler) valve. The other valve is positioned at the bottom of the tank for draining (and filtering operations) the fluid and is typically called the drain valve. In accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.12.10-1988, the lower combination drain and filter valve (Figure 33) must be located on the side of the tank and provide for drainage of the liquid to within one inch of the bottom of the tank. The drain valve must have a built-in 3/8 inch sampling device located in its side between the main valve seat and the pipe plug. The sampling device must be supplied with a 5/16"-32 male thread for the user's connection and have a thread protecting screw-on cap. The size of the drain valve must be 1" for transformers through 2500 kVA and 2" for larger kVA ratings. Transformers rated through 2500 kVA must have a 1" upper fill (filler) plug or cap located above the maximum liquid level. Above 2500 kVA, transformers must have a 1" fill (filter) valve located below the 25C liquid level.
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Figure 33. Typical Combination Drain Filter Sampling Valve
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COOLING SYSTEMS The electrical losses in a transformer appear in the form of heat in the core and coils. This heat must be transferred away from hot areas without allowing the windings to reach a temperature that will cause deterioration of the insulation. Cooling Circuits The cooling of a transformer is required to conserve the life of the insulation. The life of the insulation is a function of temperature and time. The heat generated in the core and coils must be transferred through the insulation to the surrounding air or cooling fluid and then through the enclosure to the outside environment. This path is similar to an electrical circuit with resistance in series; each step impedes the flow of heat. This relationship is shown in Figure 34. The more efficient (lower resistance) each step, the more heat can be transferred from the core and coils. This allows the core and coils to be cooler. When designing a cooling system, the designer must look at a number of parameters that affect this heat transfer. Following are some of the more important ones: The insulation must be able to provide good dielectric and mechanical strength, but be thin enough to allow for the fast transfer of heat. The cooling medium (air or oil) must move past the heat source so that the heat may be removed from the source quickly. The enclosure must be mechanically strong, but thin enough to transfer heat through it rapidly. External devices such as fins and radiators may be added to speed up the transfer of heat to the environment. Fans may be attached to the radiators to cool the fluid. This will increase the flow of fluid through the radiators. Pumps may be added to the external circuit to enhance flow in a liquid-filled transformer. The pumps and fans may be controlled with a feedback circuit consisting of thermal sensitive elements in the oil, air and windings.
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Figure 34. Transformer Cooling Circuit Temperature Gradient In an electric circuit having resistance, a difference of potential causes a current to flow through the circuit. Similarly, a difference of temperature between windings assembly and oil causes the heat to flow from the windings (hotter area) into the oil (cooler area), then again from the oil (hotter area) to the tank wall (cooler area). This temperature difference is known as the temperature gradient. Thick coil insulation will not transfer heat to the oil as well as thin insulation. Therefore, the gradient is dependent on the coil construction for the transfer of heat from the coils. The temperature gradient will vary as the total amount of heat generated in the windings varies, or as the copper loss varies. The temperature gradient may be considered to be composed of two parts: Point of maximum, or "hot spot", temperature to the average temperature of entire winding From average temperature to the hot oil
The hot-spot temperature is seldom known for it can be measured only by means of measuring devices and sensors embedded in the windings. This is generally done by heaters and current transformer sized in proportion to the loading of the transformer.
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Methods Used for Cooling The methods used by manufacturers to cool transformers vary depending on transformer type, size and application. The important principle is that the cooling medium efficiently transfers the heat from the core and coils to the outside air. The cooling medium for power transformers is the insulating dielectric fluid (mineral oil) which is used to transfer the heat. In liquid-filled power transformers, heat from the core and coils is transferred through the fluid, to the tank wall, then conducted through the tank wall, and radiated to the ambient air. For small transformers the tank surface is usually adequate to dissipate the heat, especially when the surface area is increased by making the tank taller than actually needed for enclosure of the transformer. See Figure 35. For medium-sized transformers, the rate of heat dissipation can be improved by adding cooling tubes or fins (radiators) to the tank (Figures 36 and 37). These are typically flattened external vertical tubes welded into horizontal headers, that are in turn welded or bolted into the tank wall. The increased rate of cooling results from the increased surface area and thinner tube material being exposed to the air. The action that occurs inside the cooling tubes is referred to as thermosiphon flow. The oil next to the windings heats, and thus rises to the top of the tank where it moves into the upper cooling header and tubes. In the tubes, the oil cools and sinks to the bottom, where it returns to the tank through the bottom header, ready to begin the cycle again (Figure 36). The temperature of the transformer will continue to rise until the rate at which the cooling system dissipates the heat is equal to the rate at which the heat is generated when this condition is reached for a given steady load. The transformer is said to have reached a stable condition and it will operate continuously and indefinitely at this constant temperature and load. This is provided the maximum temperature reached is not high enough to injure insulation. When additional cooling is needed to allow a transformer to operate at its nameplate rating and temperature rise, fans can be used in conjunction with the radiators to provide forced air cooling. See Figures 38 and 39. For some larger designs, the fans are mounted on the side within the upper half of the radiators so that more fans can be mounted and blow more volume of air across the tube surfaces to obtain maximum air flow over the areas of highest temperature. The typical fan assembly consists of a fractional horsepower motor (either threephase or single-phase) using a non-metallic fan blade (e.g. polyester). The motor is then mounted on a steel wireform bracket, which also serves as a guard for the fan blade.
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Figure 35. Cooling of Core and Coils by Natural Oil Circulation or Thermosiphon Flow
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Pressure Relief Device
Oil Level Gas Space Cut Off Valve Hot Oil
Internal Oil Circulation Radiator Core & Winding Assembly
Tubes or Fins (Partial View of all Fins or Tubes) Oil Circulation inside radiator Tubes or Fins Heat radiated off by convection
Transformer Tank Sides
Cut Off Valve
Cooler Oil
Figure 36. Oil-Immersed, Self-Cooled (Arrows Show Flow of Hot Oil)
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Figure 37. Liquid Filled Transformer with Radiators
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Pressure Relief Device
Oil Level Cut Off Valve Hot Oil
Internal Oil Circulation Radiator Core & Winding Assembly Fans & Motor Transformer Tank Sides Oil Circulation inside radiator Tubes or Fins Heat radiated off by convection fans speed up convection
Cut Off Valve
Cooler Oil
Figure 38. Oil-Immersed, Self-Cooled Forced-Air Cooled
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Figure 39. Liquid Filled Transformer with Radiators and Fans
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Cooling Classes To provide a degree of standardization for transformer cooling systems, the American National Standards Institute has identified and published (ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-1987) cooling classes for liquid immersed transformers. In selecting the type of cooling to be used for a transformer, the designer applies the principle that the minimum amount of cooling required by a transformer is the amount needed to allow its operation at rated conditions and rated temperature rise. In accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-1987, the standard rated temperature rise for liquid filled transformers is 55C and 65C with winding hottest-spot temperature rise of 65C and 80C. The designer first determines if self-cooling will be sufficient to allow the transformer to operate at rating without overheating. When self-cooling is insufficient, additional cooling is added using the available methods of radiators, fans and/or pumps. Ultimately, the use of additional cooling methods provides the transformer with an increased kVA capability. The transformer nameplate gives the kVA rating, rated temperature rise and cooling class. The cooling classes and class codes, as identified by ANSI/IEEE standards are:
Transformer Cooling Class Codes Transformer Type Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Class Code OA OA/FA OA/FA/FA OA/FA/FOA Method of Cooling Liquid-immersed, self-cooled Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air cooled Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air /forced-air cooled (2 banks of fans) cooled
Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced-air cooled /forced-liquid cooled/forced-air-forced-liquid cooled
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Self-Cooled Liquid completely covers the core and coils of a self-cooled, liquid-immersed transformer. The oil inside the transformer has a natural circulation of the oil due to temperature changes in oil at the top and bottom of the tank. Cooling occurs dues to the natural circulation of air over the cooling surface of the tank sides and/or radiators (Figures 36 and 37). Self-cooled (OA is the preferred cooling system for most liquid-immersed transformers installed in Saudi Aramco electrical distribution systems. Unless a particular installation specifically allow the use of other methods, this method is the one that should be specified. By selecting a transformer whose OA/kVA rating is large enough to supply all normal loads and to allow for a 10 % load growth factor, the possibility of transformer failure and the need for transformer maintenance are reduced to normal maintenance activities. Self-Cooled and Forced-Air Cooled (OA/FA) When transformers became large enough and the design will not allow the self-cooling method to dissipate heat fast enough a method of forcing more air across the radiators became necessary. This gives rise to forced-air-cooling. It is always used in conjunction with selfcooled method, therefore OA/FA. (See Figures 38, 39, and 40.) Saudi Aramco requires the use of this type of cooling system for specific types of installations and specific sizes of transformers. The specific type of installation is a transformer that serves a double-ended substation. This type of installation normally operates with the bus-tie breaker open. In this case, each transformer should be able to supply all the load, using its OA, kVA rating. Under certain abnormal conditions, the bus-tie breaker is closed, and one transformer supplies the loads on both buses. Consequently, the transformer must have a forced-air cooling system. The extra cooling allows the transformer to safely carry the increased kVA during the period of time the bus-tie breaker is closed. Saudi Aramco also requires forced-air cooling systems on all transformers rated 2,500 kVA and above. The effectiveness of the cooling system may be increased by forcing a current of air to blow away the heated air adjacent to the heated surfaces and replacing it with cool air in rapid motion. The air blast may be directed against the transformer enclosure and radiating surfaces, or may be forced through air ducts within the transformer.
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Forced-Oil Circulation Cooling (Pumps) When the normal rate of movement of the oil by thermosiphon is insufficient for the cooling required, oil pumps (Figures 41 and 42) can be used in conjunction with the radiators and fans to give a self-cooled/forced-air, forced-oil cooled system. For this design, the oil is collected at the bottom of the radiators and forced by the pumps at an accelerated rate past the core and coils, thereby increasing the thermal capability of the transformer. The pump is typically close-coupled with its motor and enclosed in a single housing that utilizes the transformer oil for its lubrication. An oil-flow indicator is provided to visually confirm that the pump is operating. Operation of the pump is typically controlled by one or more thermal sensors located in the transformer. Forced-Oil-Cooled Process The liquid completely covers the core and coil of these transformers. Cooling occurs in the following stages: Natural internal circulation of oil inside transformer due to changes in temperature of oil at top and bottom of tank Natural circulation of air over the cooling surface increases dissipation of heat in the oil (OA) Forced circulation of air over the cooling surface (FA) Forced circulation of oil through the transformer internal coil assembly and increased oil flow through the radiators. This increases heat dissipation to radiators and cooling with forced air over the cooling surface increases even more the dissipation of heat from the oil (FOA)
Saudi Aramco only permits use of FOA as a second stage of forced cooling on transformers that have OA ratings of 90 MVA and above.
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Upper Filter Press Valve
Top Mounted Cooling Fans Welded on Coolers
Control Cabinet
Drain and Filter Press Valve with Sampling Valve
Figure 40. Liquid Filled Transformer with Top Mounted Cooling Fans
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High Voltage Bushing
Low Voltage Bushing Cut Off Valve Oil Flow Typical inside all Radiator Fins or Tubes
Core & Winding Assembly
Hot Oil
Transformer Tank Oil Circulation Route Piping Manifold to each Pump
Radiator Fins or Tubes
Cooling Fans & Motors Heat radiated off by convection
Cut Off Valve Oil-Pump # 1 (Located on back side) Oil-Pump # 2
Cooler Oil
Manifold Feeding Pumps from Radiator
Figure 41. Oil-immersed, Self-Cooled Forced-Air Cooled and 2-Stage Forced-Oil-Cooled Transformer
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Figure 42. Oil Circulating Pump Example: The nameplate kVA and cooling class for a liquid immersed transformer might be given as: 1500/1725 kVA OA/FA The first number given for the kVA rating (1500) corresponds to the first cooling class given (OA), and likewise, the second kVA rating (1725) corresponds to the second cooling class (FA). This means that the transformer has a rating of 1500 kVA when the fans are turned off and there is no forced cooling. This is known as the self-cooled rating (OA). When the fans, mounted on the cooling radiators, are turned on and operating, the transformer has the higher rating of 1725 kVA. This is called the forced-air cooled rating (FO). For example, when a large power transformer had forced-oil pumps with fans, then the rating would be approximately as follows: OA 12 MVA FA 16 MVA FOA 20 MVA
The percentage increased kVA for force air and for force oil is totally dependent on the manufacturer's cooling system design.
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TRANSFORMER ACCESSORIES Pressure Relief Devices Oil-filled transformers need some type of pressure relief device to prevent transformer tank rupture, if an over pressurization occurs. Saudi Aramco uses two common types of pressure relief devices: Mechanical relief Diaphragm relief
Mechanical Relief Figure 43 shows the two operating positions of a typical mechanical relief device: reset position and venting position. This device is mechanical, self-sealing, and self-resetting and is used to protect the tank against excessive internal pressures, such as the pressures that accompany arcs in the insulating liquid. The device can be mounted directly to the top of the transformer tank or to the top of an adapter which is directly mounted to the top of the transformer tank. It also shows the device mounted through use of an adapter. The device also has a visual-type indicator and an alarm assembly to provide a visual and audible indication that the device has operated. The visual type indicator consists of a plastic flag or semaphore that normally rests on top of the relief cover in a horizontal position. The bottom side of the relief cover is used as the means of sensing transformer tank pressure and tripping this mechanical relief device. The gas pressure inside of the transformer tank is transmitted to the bottom side of the relief cover through the hollow shaft guide assembly. When the tank pressure becomes excessive, the relief cover and the operating shaft move upward which vents the excessive gas pressure. The movement of the relief cover and operating shaft also pushes the indicating flag into a vertical position and actuates the alarm. The indicating flag must be reset to provide visual and audible indications of subsequent relief device operations. The alarm circuits should always be installed so there is a means to remotely trip the transformer primary breaker off-line if the pressure relief device operates. This pressure relief device should be tested during the installation testing phase of commissioning and should also be tested periodically as part of a preventive maintenance program. The pressure-relief and reset-pressure values should be recorded and compared to the new installation values. The alarm for the indicating pressure relief should also be tested at the same time the pressure relief device is tested.
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Figure 43. Mechanical Relief Device
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Diaphragm Relief Figures 44 and 45 show a typical diaphragm relief device that automatically resets. This device is mounted on the transformer tank and operates to vent the tank if over pressurization occurs. The diaphragm relief device is equipped with a lightweight plastic semaphore or plastic rod that rests on the diaphragm before operation. When the diaphragm rises during operation, it lifts the plastic rod into view and shows that the relief device has operated. Alarm contacts can be supplied to show that the unit has operated. This semaphore flag can (if requested in purchase specifications) have a yellow plastic banana shape, spring loaded (to up position) device that sets over the top of this rod. When pressure relief by the diaphragm occurs the rod pushes the banana semaphore into a vertical position where the spring pulls it up where it stays because of spring tension until it is reset. The size and length of the banana semaphore allows it to be seen better from ground level. Some transformer designs make it impossible to see the yellow rod semaphore by itself from ground level.
YELLOW OR PLASTIC ROD
Figure 44. Diaphragm Relief Device (Sealed Position)
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Figure 45. Typical Pressure Relief Device
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Figure 46 shows the same device with an alarm mounted on the side of the cover. The alarm device has a double throw microswitch. The switch actuating lever is extended and rests against the edge of the diaphragm for the untripped position of the relief device. When the switch actuating lever is in this extended position, a set of normally closed contacts inside the alarm device are held open to disable the alarm circuit. When the relief device operates, movement of the diaphragm releases the switch actuating lever which allows the lever to retract inside the switch reset lever. When the switch actuating lever is in this retracted position, the contacts inside the alarm device return to their normally closed condition and actuate the alarm. The alarm must be manually reset by pressing inward on the switch reset lever following a trip of the diaphragm relief device. When the pressure in the tank rises to the tripping pressure, the diaphragm lifts slightly, exhausting gas into the space between the outer ring and the body of the relief device. This exhaust gas allows the tank pressure to spread over the entire diaphragm area, which is twice the area of the center section. This spread of pressure causes the device to open rapidly and to remain open until the pressure in the tank falls well below the tripping pressure. This differential between tripping pressure and closing pressure ensures that positive sealing occurs upon closure. The relief device resets itself and reseals when the pressure in the gas space has fallen to about one-half the tripping pressure. A relief device that reshuts before the pressure being relieved returns to normal (zero for this relief device) is said to have blowdown. Moisture is prevented from entering the transformer tank because the diaphragm relief device is designed with blowdown. Blowdown prevents the entry of moisture by shutting the relief device while the pressure in the transformer tank is still higher than atmospheric pressure. This pressure relief device should be tested during the installation testing phase of commissioning and should also be tested periodically as part of a preventive maintenance program. The pressure relief and reset pressure values should be recorded and compared to the new installation values. The alarms indicating pressure relief should also be tested at the same time the pressure relief device is tested. When a transformer relief device is to be tested the pressure of activation is 7 to 8 psig. The relief device will withstand a full vacuum and need not be removed from transformer tank during vacuum treatments. Should disassembly of relief device be necessary, caution must be taken to guard against injury to personnel. The pressure releasing springs are under tension and if tension is not carefully released injury could occur.
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Figure 46. Diaphragm Relief with Alarm Device (Venting Position)
Fault Gas Detector Relays Saudi Aramco uses the following two different devices to provide internal fault protection by rapid increase of gas pressure: Sudden Pressure Relays Gas in Oil Detector Relays (Buchholz)
The type used depends on the type of transformer enclosure.
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Sudden Pressure Relays Saudi Aramco requires sudden pressure relays (device 63) on all transformers 5000 kVA and above with sealed-tank transformer enclosures. This type of relay is actuated by the gas pressure that develops inside a transformer because of the decomposition of the insulating liquid when an internal fault develops. This type of relay operates on the rate of rise of pressure in the gas space above the transformer oil which, in turn, depends upon the power in the arc caused by the fault. The higher the rate of rise, the faster the relay operates. Sudden pressure relays act very quickly (within a half cycle of the fault) to limit damage resulting from a major fault. These relays are connected to operate dedicated hand-reset lockout auxiliary (device 86P) relays. The lockout relays trip primary- and secondary-transformer feeder breakers. The sudden pressure relay (Figure 47) is a device designed to respond to sudden increase in gas pressure in a power transformer which would be caused by internal arcing. This type of relay normally consists of three main parts: a pressure-sensing bellows, a microswitch, and a pressure-equalizing orifice. The relay is typically enclosed in a sealed case and mounted on top of the transformer with its pressure-sensing element in direct contact with gas cushion of the transformer. When an arcing internal fault in the transformer produces an abnormal rise in gas pressure, the bellows expands, operating the microswitch, which in turn signals a circuit breaker to trip and lockout, which clears the fault. Under fault conditions, the rate of rise of gas pressure in a transformer is proportional to the arc power, and inversely proportional to the volume of the gas space. The sudden pressure relay operates on the difference between the pressure in the gas space of the transformer and the pressure inside the relay. The relay is constructed to be very sensitive to rapid pressure change and will normally operate within three to four cycles (0.049 to 0.066 seconds) in response to a pressure rise of 5.5 psi per second. At high rates of rise, 30 to 40 psi per second, the relay will operate in as little as one-half cycle (0.008 seconds). For normal pressure changes resulting from changing ambient temperatures or load conditions, the equalizing orifice allows the pressure within the relay to equalize with the pressure in the transformer, thus preventing any operation of the relay due to slow pressure changes. These relays and their auxiliary circuits should be checked quarterly and tested annually.
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Figure 47. Typical Sudden Pressure Relay
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Gas in Oil Detector Relay (Buchholz) Saudi Aramco requires rate of gas detector relay (device 63) on all transformers with a conservator type of enclosure. These relays are designed to trap any gas which may rise through the oil. The ability of this relay to measure a small accumulation of gas enables it to detect faults in their incipient stage. These relays warn of a slowly developing fault (incipient) or localized overheating of insulating materials. When combustible gas exceeds a predetermined quantity of gas (usually 200 cc), a fault alarm sounds. Repairs can then be made before a major breakdown occurs. This relay is located in the pipe between the transformer and conservator tank and is designed to trap any evolved gas which may rise through the oil. These relays also are connected to operate dedicated hand-reset lockout auxiliary (device 86P) relays. The lockout relays also trip primary- and secondary-transformer feeder breakers. These relays and their alarms should be checked quarterly and tested annually. Indicators Liquid Temperature (Top-Oil) Gauge The primary purpose of the temperature indicator is to protect the transformer from excessive temperature and also to permit it to be loaded to its maximum safe-operating temperature. The liquid temperature or top-oil gauge is a device that measures the transformer's top-liquid temperature. It is typically constructed using a stem type bi-metallic element housed in a weatherproof casing. The stem fits closely into a thin walled well that screws into the side of the tank. Use of the metal thermometer well allows the thermal unit to be removed for inspection or calibration without loss of liquid and with no need to lower the liquid level. In accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-1987, the thermometer well is required to be placed in the tank at least one inch below the liquid level at minimum operating temperature (-20C). Per ANSI/IEEE standards the indicator is required to have a dark-face dial with light markings, a light colored indicating hand, and an orange-red, resetable maximum indicating hand. (See Figure 48.) The standards additionally require that the dial indicator have a diameter of 4 1/2" 1", be marked with a temperature range of 0C to 120C, and have the words "Liquid Temperature" on the dial face or on an adjacent nameplate.
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Liquid temperature indicators can come with two built-in control microswitches set to operate at different temperature levels. The lower temperature switch is set up to control the fan circuit and turn on the cooling fans when the transformer's temperature comes within range of the switch setting (approximately 60C). The higher temperature switch is designed to operate an alarm and give warning if, for any reason, the fans do not limit the temperature to the proper range. The alarm switch is usually set to close at approximately 90C. The liquid temperature indicator is not connected and used to control the cooling fans on power transformers 2500 kVA and above because there is a winding temperature indicator installed on the transformer which provides a more realistic insulation temperature. To determine the nominal expected temperatures that might be read from the indicator, consider that liquid-filled transformers are rated to have either a 55C or a 65C average winding temperature rise above ambient when measured by resistance. Using a 65C rise with a 30C ambient means that the transformer winding should not exceed 95C when operated at nameplate rated kVA. Since all of the heat generated by the windings is transferred to the liquid, the liquid will gradually approach the temperature of the windings, but with a time lag. As a result, when the transformer is operated within its rating, the liquid temperature should never exceed 95C. In reality, for transformers operated at rating, the liquid-temperature indicator never quite reaches this temperature since it is located at a point below the surface where the liquid is slightly cooler. Saudi Aramco recommends using liquid-temperature (top-oil) monitoring devices on all transformers where there is no method of monitoring load.
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Figure 48. Dial Type Liquid Temperature Indicator
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Hot-Spot Temperature Indicator The purpose of the winding temperature indicator is to monitor the transformer hottest-spot temperature and provide the most accurate temperature reading for proper loading and operation of the transformer. For oil-filled power transformers the rated maximum hottestspot winding temperatures are 95C and 110C without any loss of service life of transformer. Hot-spot temperature indicators give an indication that is equivalent to the transformer winding hot-spot. These indicators also have provisions to automatically control transformer cooling fans and winding high-temperature alarms. Figure 49 shows a sectional view of a transformer with a mounted hot-spot indicator with flexible capillary tube. The internal winding hot-spot temperature of the transformer winding is determined by the load it carries, its thermal characteristics, and the temperature of its cooling liquid and the ambient temperature around the transformer. Through use of the relationship between these factors, a heater is designed to duplicate the winding hot-spot rise over top liquid, when supplied with a current proportional to that in the winding. The heater is placed around a well in the top liquid; the temperature rise from the heater is added to the top oil liquid temperature. An equivalent of the winding hot-spot temperature can be measured through insertion of the temperature sensitive element of an indicator or detector in this well. There are two types of hot spot indicating circuits: Thermometer heat-well type Bridge type
Thermometer Heat-Well Type The thermometer heated-well type hot-spot indicator is applied chiefly to large power transformers where the cost of transformer loss would be relatively large in case of damage due to excessive temperature in the windings. This device gives the operator an indication of the temperature of the winding rather than that of the oil. The method for monitoring this hottest-spot of the transformer winding is accomplished by placing a thermal sensor (thermometer bulb, bi-metallic element) in a metal thermometer well. A heating coil is located in the well with the bulb of the thermometer. A capillary tube is run from thermometer bulb to indicating temperature gauge which is located away from the thermometer well down at eye level so it can be read and reset. See Figures 49 and 50.
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Figure 49. Components for Winding Temperature Indicator
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Figure 50. Typical Mounting Arrangement of Winding Temperature Indicator and Accessories
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The thermometer heat well is located in the hottest oil near the top of the transformer tank oil level. ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00-1987, requires the thermometer well to be located in the tank wall at least one inch below the oil level at minimum operating temperature of 20C. The amount of transformer load is monitored by a current transformer (CT), usually a bushing CT. This current derived from the CT is proportional to the transformer load current and is supplied to the thermometer-well heating coil. The temperature from the heating coil and the temperature sensed by the temperature bulb in the hot oil are added together to give a dial indication on the winding temperature indicator. This reading is equal to the winding hottestspot temperature. This device can provide the winding hottest-spot temperature for any constant load. The manufacturer of the temperature indicator can accurately determine how much additional heat must be added to the indicator sensing element from the CT to allow it to indicate the total hottest-spot temperature. The amount of extra temperature need is derived from the temperature difference between the top oil temperature and the windings hottest-spot temperature. This can be shown by Figure 51 which shows this relationship for two different load levels of a transformer. This set of curves shows the temperature of the winding hot spot, heated sensor device and top oil. These values are monitored each other proportionately over a time period for two separate loading conditions of the transformer: Rate load causing hot-spot = 110C Heavy overload causing hot-spot to exceed rating of transformer
This shows both cases where the temperature bulb and top-oil are proportional over the same time period with relation to the hot-spot temperature. The temperature scale of the indicator provides a margin factor above the transformer hottestspot temperature rating based on transformer application and rating. Typical indicators used on transformers have scales that begin at 0C and go to 120C maximum, some have 160C maximum and the scales can be even higher scales dependent on the type of transformer. Switches are normally provided in this instrument to operate forced cooling (fans and/or pumps) and alarm circuits.
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Figure 51. Temperature Gradient between Top-Oil, Heated-Sensor, and Winding Hottest-Spot for Typical Liquid-Filled Transformer
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Figure 52 shows a basic electrical diagram of a thermometer type "hot-spot" indicating circuit. The diagram shows the connection of a "hot-spot" Current Transformer (CT) to a thermal relay (Device 49-1) and to a Resistance-temperature Detector 9RTD) for remote electrical indications or control. Heating coil #1 (HC1) is used to heat the Bourdon tube with ambient oil temperature. The resulting indication represents the "hot-spot" temperature. The RTD that is heated by heating coil #3 (HC3) is connected to a bridge to give remote temperatures. In this case, the 49-1 device is used to control fans and/or pumps in the cooling circuit.
Figure 52. Hot-Spot Indicating Circuit
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Figures 53 and 54 show other temperature measuring circuit arrangments.
Figure 53. Connection Diagram for Current Transformer and Heating Coil (Used with Winding Temperature Indicator)
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Figure 54. Thermal (or Winding Temperature) Relay (Uses a Heating Element to Duplicate Effects of Current in Transformer)
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Bridge Type This type used only on power transformers. This is the most accurate indication of the winding temperature of a large transformer. A thermometer is not used and the scheme is purely an electrical one. For this reason the indicating dial can be placed on a switchboard at any reasonable distance from the transformer. This device consist of a current transformer (CT) that is energized from the current in the main transformer winding. A heat-insulated coil is included in the secondary circuit of this CT. The amount of heat generated in this coil is proportional to the heat generated in the main transformer winding. A non-conductive resistance embedded in the heating coil forms the fourth leg of a wheatstone bridge circuit, see Figure 55. The bridge, completed by means of resistances outside of the transformer, derives its voltage from a direct-current source. A voltmeter is connected between two points, normally of equal potential. When a current flows in the power transformer windings, a current proportional to the power current flows in the CT. This latter current raises the temperature of the heating coil, which in turn increases the temperature of the non-inductive resistance. The bridge therefore becomes unbalanced and the amount of unbalanced is indicated by the voltmeter. There is a definite relation between this current and the variation of temperature, and the voltmeter scale is calibrated to read the temperature of the heating coil directly in degrees Celsius. The wheatstone bridge circuit is balanced when normal current is flowing in the transformer. Any unbalance of the bridge will be an indication of the temperature of the heating coil, which in turn is proportional to the temperature of the main windings.
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Figure 55. Hot-Spot Temperature Indicator (Utilizes Wheatstone Bridge Method to Determine Transformer Temperature)
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Liquid-Level Indicator (Dial-type) Level protection devices are similar to some temperature protection devices in that they only provide visual indication and/or alarms. They do not automatically interrupt power to transformers. Saudi Aramco prefers to use dial-type level indicators, but sight glasses are acceptable on smaller transformers, if this is the vendors standard arrangement. If liquid-level indicators are not normally provided by the vendor, they can be excluded from transformers rated 2.5 MVA and below. Low oil-level contacts should be included in applications where they can be used for alarm purposes. Figure 56 shows a typical dial-type magnetic liquid-level indicator. This level indicating device operates as follows: The float moves up and down as level varies. The float causes the float arm to rotate. As the float arm rotates, the driving magnet rotates. The driving magnet causes the driven magnet to rotate. The driven magnet is attached to the indicator shaft, which will also rotate. The indicator shaft repositions the indicating pointer.
Most dial-type liquid-level indicators also contain a micro switch that is operated through motion of the indicator shaft. The micro switch can be connected to a remote alarm panel through use of the electrical leads to provide high and/or low liquid-level alarms. ANSI/IEEE C57.12.10-1988 requires the dial markings to show the 25C liquid level, and the minimum and maximum levels. The 25C liquid level is also required to be shown by a permanent marking on the tank or an indication on the nameplate of the distance from the liquid level to the highest point of the handhole or manhole flange surface. A good example of this is the nameplate shown in Figure 57. For this example, the nameplate specifically states that: The 25C liquid level is 10.00 inches below the top of the highest manhole flange. The liquid level changes 0.50 inches for each 10C change in average liquid temperature.
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Figure 56. Dial-Type Magnetic Liquid-Level Indicator
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Figure 57. Typical Transformer Nameplate
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The 25C mark indicates the normal level for the liquid when it is at a temperature of 25C. As the liquid warms (during transformer operation), its volume will expand. (As mentioned earlier, the volume of oil expands approximately 5% when heated from 20C to 85C.) Since the surface area for the liquid remains the same, the change will take place in the height or level of the liquid. In a similar manner, as the liquid cools, its volume decreases, thus its level goes down. The maximum or "Hi" level mark indicates the correct level for the liquid when it is operating at its maximum rated temperature (85C). The minimum or "Lo" level mark indicates the correct level for the liquid at its minimum rated operating temperature (-20C). There are times when the liquid level in a transformer may become abnormally low, for example, when a leak occurs in the tank. And there are other times when the level may become excessively high, as in the case of a water cooled transformer developing a water leak in the cooling tubes. To guard against these types of abnormalities, some liquid level indicators are provided with control switches to trigger remote alarms and warn maintenance personnel. For these cases, the switches are typically enclosed in the bezel or outer assembly and terminated in a threaded receptacle from which they can then be connected to the remote equipment. Pressure/Vacuum Indicator All sealed tank type power transformers used at Saudi Aramco have pressure/vacuum gauges. The sealed tank type means the transformer maintains a positive gas pressure above the transformer . The gas space is used as a cushion for the expanding and contracting pressure of the transformer oil during heating conditions. The positive pressure is developed by the addition of nitrogen to the gas space. This pressure is maintained to ensure that no ambient air can enter the closed environment of the transformer internal tank and contaminate the oil and internal mechanism. Any moisture and/or oxygen will cause chemical reactions to occur when temperature are elevated. There is also a major concern when the pressure-vacuum gauge indicates a negative pressure (vacuum) because the vacuum is seeking a means of pulling ambient air into the tank. Saudi Aramco requires pressure-vacuum indicators and bleeders on sealed-gas, cushion-type, power transformers supplied by the manufacturer. Pressure-vacuum indicators show leaks in transformer tank seals. Figure 58 shows an internal and an external view of a pressurevacuum gauge that is calibrated from 10 to +10 psig. See Figure 58A. The pressure vacuum gauge is a Bourdon-tube type gauge. The gauge operates as follows: Transformer tank pressure enters the Bourdon-tube through the socket.
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The end of the Bourdon-tube connected to the adjustable linkage moves up on a pressure increase or down on a pressure decrease. The adjustable linkage moves in the same direction as the Bourdon-tube, which causes the lever to rotate around the pivot point. The segment gear rotates in the same direction as the lever, which causes the pinion gear to rotate. The pinion gear repositions the pointer.
Gauge readings vary with transformer temperature change. The normally shown on the gauge is of 3 psig, a positive pressure. In a low ambient temperature, the gauge may show a vacuum in the tank because of the contracting of the oil level creating a vacuum. This can occur when the transformer is deenergized or is operating under light or no-load conditions. Any change in temperature, without a subsequent change in the pressure-vacuum reading, indicates a leak in the transformer seal and the transformer should be checked. For proper pressure/vacuum system, reference Figure 58B.
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Figure 58. Pressure-Vacuum Gauge
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Figure 58A. Typical Pressure/Vacuum Indicator
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Figure 58B. Pressure/Vacuum Gauge and Bleeder Valve Installation
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Pressure-Vacuum Bleeder and Regulator Pressure-vacuum bleeders are used to release excessive pressure and vacuum from a transformer. Figure 59 shows a typical pressure-vacuum bleeder. The bleeder is connected to the gas expansion space of sealed tank transformers. The settings for a particular gas or oil relief application are unique and are stamped on the device. The bleeder has diaphragm-operated pressure and vacuum bleeder valves that exhaust gas or that draw in outside air through the vent. Since the vacuum bleeder valve only functions during extremely low temperature and loading conditions, the moisture and oxygen content of the small amount of air drawn into the transformer may be considered negligible.
Figure 59. Pressure-Vacuum Bleeder
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Bushings The purpose of a bushing is to provide a means of connecting the primary or secondary windings of the transformer to the input and output conductors while passing through a grounded tank surface and still maintaining isolation from ground and phase to phase conditions. The electrical power circuits must be insulated where they enter the tank. In addition, this entrance must be oil-tight and weatherproof. Ratings for Bushings A designation of performance characteristics is based on the following ratings: Maximum line-to-ground voltage Operating frequency Dielectric strength or voltage-withstand capability Maximum RMS continuous current at rated frequency
Types of Bushings A bushing is usually composed of an outer porcelain body for rigid insulation required. At higher voltages, additional insulation in the form of oil and molded paper is used within this porcelain. The following three types of bushings are discussed in this section: Draw-through lead type Solid-conductor type (LV) Oil-filled condenser type
Bushings with Draw-Through Cable Leads - This type of transformer bushings usually consist of high grade porcelain cylinders through which the windings leads pass and terminate to the top metallic terminal cap of the bushings. The outer surface may be plain or have a series of corrugations or skirts to increase the surface leakage path (creepage distance) to the metal case. Figure 60 shows an assembled view and a cross-sectional view of a bushing with drawthrough cable leads. These bushings are considered low-current bushings because bushings with draw-through cable leads are generally rated for a maximum current of 600 amperes and used for medium and high voltage.
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Figure 60. Bushing with Draw-Through Cable Leads
Bushings with draw-through cable leads are supplied with a detachable-terminal stud to permit the use of the transformer winding lead as the bushing conductor. The transformer winding lead is brazed to the detachable terminal stud, drawn up through the core of bushing porcelain, and then attached with a terminal cap to the top of the bushing. The terminal cap provides the connection point for the incoming high-voltage power. The completed bushing assembly fits into a hole in the top or side of the transformer enclosure and is held in place with a mounting flange and bolts.
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Bushings with Solid Conductors - This type of bushing is usually constructed very similar to the draw-through type bushing but has a solid conductor in the center of the bushing. Figure 61 shows an assembled view and a cross-sectional view of a bushing with a solid conductor. These bushings are considered high-current bushings because bushings with solid conductors are generally rated for a maximum current of 5,000 amperes and used for medium voltage. Bushings with solid conductors normally contain a solid rod as the conductor for current ratings up to 2,000 amperes. Hollow-core conductors are normally used in bushings with current ratings above 2,000 amperes. Having a larger surface area than the solid-rod conductor, the hollow-core conductor is able to carry more current. Bushings with solid conductors have a threaded-terminal stud attached to the top and the bottom of the solid conductor. The threaded terminal at the top of the bushing provides the connection point for the incoming high-voltage power. A threaded blade is screwed on to the bottom threaded terminal to provide a connection point for the transformer winding lead. The completed bushing assembly fits into a hole in the top of the transformer enclosure and is held in place with a mounting flange and bolts.
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Figure 61. Bushing with Hollow-Core Conductor
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Condenser/Oil-filled Bushings - The oil-filled type bushing has a central conducting rod or tube which serves to strengthen the construction of the bushing. Through this tube the winding conductor passes. Around this is a series of insulating barriers held apart by spacers. The barriers and spacers are enclosed in a skirted porcelain shell which is filled with oil. See Figure 62. This type of bushing is for transformers operating at voltage up to 161,000 volts. There are oil level indicators or gauges at the top of the bushing. The condenser type is similar to the oil-filled bushing except that the central rod is wound with alternating layers of insulation and tin foil. This creates the effect of a string of capacitors connected in series across which voltage divides evenly. The layers are so designed as to provide an approximately equal voltage drop between each two condensers. In some types the entire bushing is enclosed in a skirted porcelain shell. Other types have only the exposed part of the bushing so enclosed. See Figure 63 for condenser bushing without porcelain shell. Manufacturers may use combination bushings of these four types of bushings. The oil-filled and condenser bushings are used in combination a great deal (Figure 64). The extra high voltage bushings are good example of this type device. Figure 64 illustrates the various parts of construction typical for a high voltage bushing. Bushing Features Bushing Test Tap - is a connection to one of the conducting layers of a capacitance graded bushings for measurement of partial discharge, power factor and capacitance valves. See Figure 65. This tap is used to field power factor test the bushing. The power factor of the bushing insulation is the ratio of the power dissipated in the insulation, in watts, to the product of the effective voltage and current in VA, when tested under a sinusoidal voltage. Oil-Level Indicator - is located at the top of the bushing top oil chamber expansion bowl. This can be any of several type of indicators, from a sight glass, a glass bowl, or a level gauge indicator.
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Figure 62. Oil-Filled Bushing
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Figure 63. Core of Condenser Type Bushing without Porcelain Cover and Skirts
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Figure 64. Typical Oil-Filled and Condenser Type Bushing for 66 kV Transformer
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Figure 65. Condenser Bushing - Oil Impregnated
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Bushing Skirts - or fluted grooves or protrusions are designed into the outside of the porcelain casing. The addition of skirts on the outside surface of the bushing increases the surface "creepage distance" between the high-voltage terminal and ground. This reduces the possibility of flashover due to rain, snow, dirt, ice, or any contaminants. Nameplate Markings - Bushing nameplates have the following information: Manufacturer's name Identification number Type of bushing Year of manufacture Serial number Rated maximum line-to-ground voltage Rated continuous current Rated lightning impulse level (BIL) Capacitance, C1 and C2 (if voltage taps) and only C1 if test taps Power factor from conductor to tap at 10kV and 20C (by UST test) Length of bushing below mounting surface
The capacitance C1 is between the bushing high voltage conductor and voltage test tap. Capacitance C2 is between the voltage tap and the ground flange. Both C1 and C2 should be measured (or tested) at 10 kV. Solid type bushings not equipped with test taps should be tested by the power factor test called the grounded specimen test (EST). Bushing Current Transformers (BCT) Power transformers can have instrument current transformers (CTs) supplied if requested from the manufacturer. This type CT functions the same as any other CT except they are much larger in size. These CTs can be mounted on either the primary or secondary bushings. The CT can be single- or multi-ratio (more common) and are used as a current source for relays and indicating meters.
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Bushing CTs are usually supported by brackets connected to the underside of the transformer tank cover (Figure 66). They are made like a donut with a hole in the center. (See Figure 67.) The bottom half of the bushing inside the tank slipped through the hole in the CT. The bushing lead becomes the single turn primary for the BCT. The bushing CT is almost invariably used for transformers and circuit breakers. This type CT is chosen for relaying in higher-voltage circuits because it is less expensive than any other types. See Figure 67. They are not used in circuits below about 5 kV. The bushing type consists only of an annular-shaped core with a secondary winding. This CT is built into the equipment such as circuit breakers, power transformers, generators, or switchgear, the core being arranged to encircle an insulating bushing through which a power conductor passes. Most of the bushing type CTs have a well or area that is constructed for the CT to set in. The well area is below the area of the transformer liquid. Therefore, the liquid acts as an insulation factor for the CT. Because the internal diameter of the bushing CT core has to be large to accommodate the main device bushing, the mean length of the magnetic path is greater than in other CTs. To compensate for this, and also from the fact that there is only one primary turn, the cross section of the core is made larger. Because there is less saturation in a core of greater cross section, a bushing CT tends to be more accurate than other CTs at high multiples of the primary current rating. At low currents, a bushing CT is generally less accurate because of its larger exciting current. Most of the bushing CTs have several taps that allow the ratios of the secondary to change. These are called multiratio bushing CTs (MRBCT). All these wiring taps are brought out of the unit into a control cabinet and landed on a terminal strip. This allows the CT's various taps to be changed at ease when necessary. These leads are identified and permanently marked on both ends of the wires. They are connected to a special terminal block where the secondary side can be shorted out when not in use. The secondary is never open circuited when primary is energized to prevent dangerously high voltages that can develop. The BCT (and other CTs) are designed to perform the function of current level reduction from its secondary windings. This current is meant to be as accurate as possible as integral fraction of the primary current for relay activation or meter indication. The CT is also designed so that the phase angles are as small as possible. The topic has only been covered in general terms and is not meant to be covered in depth in this course.
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Figure 66. Bushing Current Transformer Mounting
Figure 67. Bushing-Type Current Transformer
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No-load Tap Changers (NLTC) Operation Often it is desirable to change, by a relatively small amount, the ratio of the transformer. This may be done to compensate for the voltage drop in the supply source or to supply a particular voltage for the connected load. Most transformers have a device or method to change the voltage rating of one or both of the transformer windings. To change the relationship, all we need to do is to change the ratio of turns between the winding. This is exactly what a no-load tap changer does. It adds or subtracts turns in a winding. These taps do not improve voltage regulation but are only for changing primary-voltage level feeding the transformer which affects the secondary-output voltage. On liquid-filled power transformers this is typically done by turning a hand crank mounted on the transformer sidewall. This hand crank operates an internal mechanism to increase or decrease the turns ratio. On power transformers you move wire or metal jumpers between terminals to select a different tap. We call this type a no-load tap changer, but another name could be de-energized tap changer. It is abbreviated as NLTC. This type of tap changer must be operated only when the transformer is completely de-energized. CAUTION: Do not operate a no-load tap changer when the transformer is energized. The transformer must be completely isolated from all voltage sources. By operating a no-load tap changer when the transformer is energized, you can cause possible serious injury or death to yourself.
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Major Components No-load tap changers normally have two major assemblies: the tap changing mechanism and the operating mechanism. A common wedge-type tap changing mechanism is shown in Figure 68.
12 Figure 68. Wedge-Type Tap Changing Mechanism The tap leads from the transformer are connected to the circular group of nickel-plated copper rods. The rods are held together between two insulating heads. A wedge is found in the center of the assembly, and connected to a crankshaft. The wedge completes the winding circuit by connecting two adjacent rods. A spring between the wedge and crankshaft gives high-pressure line contact between current-carrying components. There are various types of operating mechanisms that are available. Some applications use a hex-head drive mechanism. Some use folding handle drive mechanisms when high driving torque is needed. Both types are shown in Figure 69. Some have the type of handle shown in Figure 70. This is totally dependent on what type the transformer manufacturer is using for his transformers.
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Figure 69. Operating Mechanisms
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Figure 70. Operating Handle for No-Load Tap Changer Set to Position #5
Whatever type of NLTC is used, the drive mechanism is normally found on the sidewall of the transformer. This mechanism is connected to the insulated crankshaft of the tap changer through an insulator. The mechanism is sometimes covered with a cap. The cap gives a seal between the atmosphere and the operating mechanism. The cap is held on by 2 screws. One screw has an oversize head with a hole in it. The hole can be fitted with a padlock to prevent access. These types of no-load tap changers will increase or decrease the number of turns in the primary winding of the transformer. There are a total of 5 taps. The middle tap labeled, Tap 3, will be the nominal voltage rating of the primary winding. There are 2 taps above and 2 taps below the nominal voltage rating. When the no-load tap changer is at the nominal voltage tap, we call this the neutral tap or center tap. Each tap will change the voltage by 2.5% of the rated nominal voltage. This means there is a voltage range of + 5% and - 5% from the nominal-voltage position.
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The type of NLTC shown in Figure 70 has a locking pin that has to be pulled out before the handle crank can be rotated. There is a position indicator that indicates when the proper tap position is reached. Sometimes this type will have a cover that locks but some will not have the cover or the means to lock the handle other than the locking pin. This is again dependent on the manufacture and what is requested during the transformer manufacture. Figure 71 shows part of a transformer nameplate with the connections made by the NLTC. The nameplate shows the NLTC position and the primary voltage and amperes. It also shows the winding connection points or how much of the primary winding is being used with relation to the tap position selected. This chart also shows the secondary operating voltage (480 V) and the amperes (3,612.7 A) supplied at that voltage. All taps for this transformer are full rated kVA taps (in accordance with ANSI standards) since the nameplate is not otherwise marked. This can be verified by multiplying the following: Tap Rated Voltage X Tap Rated Amps = kVA Example: kVA = (kV) (I) (1.73) Tap Position 1 kVA = (14.490)(119.67)(1.73) = 2,999.85 Tap Position 2 kVA = (14.145)(122.57)(1.73) = 2,997.88 Tap Position 3 kVA = (13.800)(125.65)(1.73) = 2,999.76 Tap Position 4 kVA = (13.455)(128.87)(1.73) = 2,999.72 Tap Position 5 kVA = (13.110)(132.26)(1.73) = 2,999.69 Notice the kVA of each tap is approximately 3000 kVA rated as per ANSI requirement.
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Figure 71 shows part of a transformer nameplate listing the no-load tap changer voltage ratings. This nameplate tells us the nominal voltage rating on Tap 3 of the primary winding is 13,800 volts. Taps 1 and 2 are each 2.5% higher than tap 3 (13,800 x 0.025 = 345 volts). Taps 4 and 5 are each 2.5% lower than Tap 3.
Figure 71. Transformer Nameplate with No-load Tap Changer Voltages
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The last column tells us what part of the winding is in or out of the circuit. These numbers are shown on the winding drawing. For example, if the no-load tap changer is in position 3, the chart tells us that the no-load tap changer connects numbers 3 to 6. This is done on all three primary windings. By placing a jumper between points 3 and 6, all turns between those points are parts of the winding that are not used. Therefore, these turns are effectively removed from the winding circuit and the turns ratio is changed. Now lets look at what happens when the no-load tap changer is in position 1. The table tells us points 4 and 5 are connected. The winding diagram shows us that all turns are in the winding circuit. Remember the winding turns ratio and voltage ratio are the same. The turns ratio is equal to: Number of Primary Turns (Np)/Number of Secondary Turns (Ns) If the number of primary turns increase, then the turns ratio increases. This also changes the voltage ratio. The opposite happens when you move to tap position 5. Points 2 and 7 are connected. This means that all winding turns between 2 and 7 are not used because of the jumper. Using the above formula, this lowers the turns ratio and voltage ratio. The winding is always tapped in the center. This prevents the no-load tap changer leads and mechanism from being exposed to voltage surges and high terminal voltages. All power and distribution transformers should have a no-load tap changer. This will allow you to adjust or match the primary winding to the actual primary voltage. All transformers should be specified with a no-load tap changer with the standard + 2.5% taps 2 up and 2 down. Tap #3 is the standard system operating voltage. See Figure 71 for Example #1 below. Example 1: You have selected a 3000 kVA transformer with a primary voltage of 13,800 volts. Calculate the tap values for the standard five taps.
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Answer: Nominal voltage is 13,800 volts. This is Tap 3. 2.5% of 13,800 = 0.025 x 4160 = 345 volts. Tap 1 = 14,145 + 345 = 14,490 volts Tap 2 = 13,800 + 345 = 14,145 volts Tap 4 = 13,800 345 = 13,455 volts Tap 5 = 13,455 345 = 13,110 volts Example 2: A 3,000 kVA, 13.8 kV/480V delta-wye transformer in operation has a primary voltage reading of 13,100 volts and a secondary voltage reading line-to-line voltage of 455 V. The no-load tap changer is on position 3. What no-load tap position should be changed to bring the secondary voltage back to 480 V? Use Figure 71, nameplate tap changer connection chart. Answer: Tap Position 3 = 13,800V/277V = Vp/Vs = 49.8119 Turns ratio Tap Position 2 = 14,145V/277V = 51.065 Tap Position 4 = 13,455V/277V = 48.574 Tap Position 5 13,110V/277V = 47.328 Because the primary voltage is 13,100 V, tap position 5 would increase the secondary voltage by reducing the turns ratio. Ratio = Vp/Vs Vs = Vp/Ratio = 13,100V/ 47.328 Vs = 276.791 (1.73) volts Vs = 478.85 volts
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Example 3: Having the same transformer as in Example 2, but the primary voltage is 14,500 V and the secondary voltage is 506 V, the no-load tap changer is on position 3. What no-load tap position should be changed to bring the secondary voltage back to 480V? Answer: From Example 2 we know that: Tap Position 2 turns ratio = 51.065 Tap position 4 turns ratio = 48.574 Tap position 5 turns ratio = 47.328 Tap position 1 turns ratio = 52.310 Because primary voltage is 14,600 volts, tap position 1 would decrease the secondary voltage by increasing the turns ratio. Ratio = Vp/Vs Vs = Vp/Ratio = 14,600V/ 52.310 Vs = 279.10 (1.73) volts Vs = 482 volts
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POWER TRANSFORMER LOAD TAP CHANGER (LTC) The LTC type of transformer voltage regulating device is used more for a system approach than for effects at just equipment loading. LTC transformers are most often found in electrical substations. These substations are usually at least primary distribution system or larger subtransmission or transmission systems. This type of equipment is associated with the supply of large amounts of power. The changes in voltage are accomplished by varying the ratio of transformation by changing the number of turns in the primary or secondary (dependent on type of design) by means of various taps. Such LTC transformers may be used to regulate voltage over a plus 10 percent to minus 10 percent range, and may have thirty-six steps incorporated in the tap changing mechanism. LTC transformers are available for most medium voltage and power ratings. They are normally only used on the following Saudi Aramco transformers: Power transformers stepping down primary from 69 kV or above Power transformers interconnecting two systems, where power flow can be in either direction
These are the normal applications because the added cost, complexity, and maintenance of load tap changers is not justifiable for the other smaller type of transformers. Purpose of LTC Voltage Regulating Voltage regulating equipment is installed to carry out one or more of the following functions: Maintain a constant secondary voltage with a variable primary tap changer voltage. Maintain a constant secondary voltage with a variable secondary tap changer voltage. Control secondary voltage with a fixed primary voltage. Control the flow of reactive power between two generating systems or branches of loop circuits.
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Figure 72 is a typical example of an automatic load tap changers installation. Figure 72 shows that the primary windings of the transformers in bank number one and in bank number two are each supplied with a source of incoming line power. The transformers supply power through two output breakers to various load circuits. The primary side of each bank is also equipped with an automatic load tap changer (ALTC). The automatic load tap changer functions to maintain 13.8 kV to the downstream load circuits when the incoming line power varies. The automatic load tap changers will also function to control the flow of reactive power between bank 1 and bank 2 (shown on Figure 72) when the two banks are operated in parallel. Some other examples of this are large transformers that feed industrial plants, or large distribution systems that provide power to critical services (i.e. hospitals, schools). For cases where power must be maintained while adjustments are made to the voltage level, a load tap changer (LTC) is used. The most important advantage of a load tap changer (LTC) is that it allows changing of a transformer's turns ratio (adjusting voltage level) without shutting off the power. Another difference of the LTC when compared to the no-load tap changer is that it is usually located on the low-voltage winding of the transformer (if made by ANSI standard and high-voltage winding if made by IEC standard). Either of these LTC's accomplish voltage adjustments by changing the number of turns in the windings, where the LTC is located, whether primary or secondary windings. Saudi Aramco prefers the resistor-transition type tap changer to the reactor-transition types because they are normally less expensive and more widely available. Saudi Aramco prefers the LTC be located on the primary side of the transformer which the resistor-transition type LTC will allow. Reactor-transition type are usually located on the low-voltage winding side because of voltage limitations and not located on the primary windings (per SADP-P-121, Chapter 8, para. 3.73, page 100).
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Figure 72. Typical Automatic Load Tap Changer Installation
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Tap Changer Compartment Construction The tap-changing device or mechanism, because of its arcing during operation, is located in a separate compartment from the main tank. This compartment is filled with oil (the same type of oil as in the main tank). The separate compartment of oil for the LTC prevents contamination of the main tank oil. Because of the tap changer arcing in the oil when it changes taps, a large amount of carbon is mixed into the oil reducing its dielectric level the longer and the more the LTC operates. The tap changer compartment should have removable bolted covers for access to the tap switches without opening the main tank or having to lower the main tank oil level. In accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.12.10-1988, liquid filled transformers supplied with a load tap changer are required to have a tap position indicator similar to the design shown in Figure 73. The indicator must be fitted with dials to indicate the maximum and minimum positions used, and must be located so that it can be read while operating the tap changer by hand. The face of the indicator must be marked to show the normal rated voltage (neutral) position, the 16 steps of the raise range marked with an "R" and the 16 steps of the lower range marked with an "L". The LTC compartment must have a 1" drain valve in the bottom and fitted with a small sampling valve. There is a 1" fill plug located in the top of the compartment. A pressure relief device provides a means for the escape of gas produced by arcing. A magnetic liquid level gauge is located on the LTC compartment also. These devices are the same type used on the main transformer tank and are used for the same reasons (Figure 74).
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Figure 73. Position Indicator for Load Tap Changer
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Load Tap Changer Mechanism Usually load tap changers have 16 steps or taps above and 16 steps below the normal rated voltage level and are neutral tap. This results in a total of 33 tap positions. The preferred step change for each tap is 0.625% of normal rated voltage. This provides an adjustable voltage range of 10% above and 10% below the normal rated voltage (16 x 0.625% = 10%). To perform its function of controlling voltage magnitude, the LTC uses the following mechanisms: (1) reversing switches, which select the raise or lower connection of the tapped winding section, (2) selector switches, which connect to the proper tap from the winding, and (3) transfer switches, which perform the arcing duty of switching operations (Figure 75). There are various types of load tap changers available from different transformer manufacturers. The United States, as governed by ANSI, prefers the preventive autotransformer method. The IEC method preferred is the resistance method. The type of mechanism covered in this text will be a Westinghouse UTT-B automatic load tap changer.
134
Figure 74. Load Tap Changer Mounted on a Transformer
135
The UTT-B Load Tap Changer (Figure 75) is a three phase and contains a motor, suitable operated transfer switches, selector, and reversing switches, position indicator, and other accessories as required by the specific customer requirements. The tap changer consists of three switch phases, each positioned on a separate vertical Micarta panel. Each phase assembly contains a selector switch, reversing switch, and two transfer switches. The selector switches of all phases are driven by one insulating shaft from the operating mechanism.
Figure 75. UTT-B Load Tap Changer (Internal View)
136
A second shaft, timed to operate the transfer switches in the proper sequence, is located below the selector switch shaft. A third shaft operated the reversing switches which are mounted above the selector switches. The phase assemblies (Figures 75 and 76) are mounted on insulating tie rods extending from the mechanism compartment plate. Electrical connections to the transformer are made from each of the three phase assemblies, by insulated copper cable to an epoxy resin terminal board, which contains copper terminals molded into the epoxy board.
Figure 76. Phase Assembly
137
The entire mechanism, with the exception of the cam switch control is immersed in transformer oil. Gasketed inspection doors provide access to the tap changer and motor mechanism compartments, after the oil has been drained from the tap changer compartment. The cam switch compartment may be inspected without draining any oil, by opening the front weatherproof hinged cover (Figure 77). Transfer Switches Transfer switches are mechanically timed to open before and close after the selector switch. The stationary and moving arc contacts are attached such that replacement can be made with minimum difficulty. On units rated 500 amperes and above, each transfer switch is covered with an are chute to accommodate switching overloads (Figure 76). Selector Switches Selector switches are mounted above the transfer switches and are equally spaced on a prescribed circle. The two moving selector fingers are each connected to a separate transfer switch that opens the circuit before the selector contact moves. This prevents arcing of the selector contacts. The selector moving fingers are copper bars with coined silver tips. The selector stationary contacts are made from copper alloy.
Figure 77. UTT-B Load Tap Changer (External View)
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Reversing Switch The reversing switch operates when the selector moves between neutral and position 1R. The reversing switch is located above the selector and its function is to reverse the polarity of the tap winding to provide either additive or subtractive voltage to the main winding.
Figure 78. Typical UTT-B Load Tap Changer Schematic Connection Diagram with Sequence Chart
139
The reversing switch moving contacts are copper bars with coined silver tips (since they do not interrupt arcs). There are three stationary contacts, A, B, and R, all made of hard alloy copper. The circuit is made from R to A, on tap changer positions 16L through N and R to B, on positions 1R through 16R. See Figure 78 for a schematic explanation of these positions. Motor Mechanism The motor mechanism provides the timing, gear reduction, and mechanical drive sequence of the three switches and control cams. A single-phase 208-240 volt, 60-Hertz motor drives the switches through a 150:1 ratio gear reduction. The selector shaft is indexed by a Geneva Gear while the transfer switch shaft rotates (to open and close the switches) by means of an eccentric drive and gear rack. The reversing switch motion is accomplished by a cam operated arm connected to the back side of the Geneva Gear. A secondary gear train, drives the cam switch (and electrical limit switch) controls and also activates the mechanical stop when the end position is reached. The mechanical stop engages the hand crank shaft, and thus is not subject to high mechanical stress. LTC Operation The operation of the load tap change is divided into three functions: 1. 2. 3. Selection of "raise" or "lower" winding taps by the reversing switchers Selection of voltage magnitude by use of the selector switches The arc interruption by the transfer switches
The UTT-B Load Tap Changer is operated by a motor which drives through reduction gearing to open and close the transfer and selector switches in proper sequence. When moving from one position to the next, the transfer switch opens first, by a spring accelerated mechanism. This operation is followed by the movement of the proper selector switch moving finger contact from one stationary contact to the next. The transfer switch is then reclosed and locked by a positive drive mechanism. Necessary cams on the control-switch assembly seal in the motor contactors to carry the operation through to completion.
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The tapped section of the transformer winding is shown between 3 and 12, with taps 4 to 11, inclusive, connected to the stationary contacts of the selector switches of corresponding number (Figure 78). Taps 3 and 12 are connected to the reversing switch stationary contacts, and tap 14 to the mid-tap of the preventive auto transformer (P2). Winding lead #2 is shown connected to R of this reversing switch and stationary contact M of the selector switch. Leads P1 and P3 of the preventive auto are shown connected through the transfer switch "E" and "F" to the collector ring "G" and "H." Figure 78 shows the tap changer on position 16L, that is, with both moving selector contacts on stationary contact #4, and the reversing switch connected R to A. In changing from position 16L to 15L (in the raise direction) the "E" switch opens the circuit through P1 permitting the selector contact "G" to move to tap #5 without arcing, while the moving contact "H" connected to P3, slides to the far edge of stationary contact #4. The transfer switch "E" then recloses. The preventive auto is connected across winding taps 4 and 5, causing the number of effective turns in the tapped winding (4 to 12) to be decreased by half the turns in the tapped section 4 to 5 (this is position 15L). Continuing the operation from position 15L to 14L, transfer switch "F" opens the circuit through P3, the moving selector contact "H" leaves stationary contact 4 and moves to 5, while the selector contact "G" on 5 slides to the far edge of contact 5. Transfer switch "F" recloses. This movement (in going from 15L to 14L) short-circuits the preventive auto, and the number of effective turns in the winding is again decreased by half the number of turns in the tapped section 4-5. By continuing the same sequence of operation of the selector switches, the connections are moved successively from tap 5 to 6 to 7, to tap M, which represents the neutral position of the tap changer; the position in which the tapped section of the winding is neither "raising" or "lowering" the output voltage. With both moving contacts on M, and both transfer switches closed, the circuit is from 14 to P2, through P1 and P3 to M, to R, and to 2, thus the tapped winding (3-12) is completely out of the circuit. By continuing from Position N to 1R, transfer switch "E" opens. The moving selector switch contact "G" connected to P1 moves from stationary contact M to 4, while the moving selector switch contact connect to P3 moves to the far edge of contact M. The reversing switch opens the circuit from R to A and makes the circuit from R to B. Transfer switch "E" recloses. The P12-P3 winding is bridged across winding taps 3 and 4, causing the number of effective turns in the tapped winding to be increased by half the turns in the tapped section 3 to 4. This is position 1 R. (There is no racing on the reversing switchesas they carry no current at the times the switches are in operation).
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By continuing to operate in the raise direction from position 1R toward 16R, voltage of the tap winding is added to the main winding. A sequence chart, Figure 78, shows all positions of the tap changer. Electronic Control System A LTC voltage-regulating control circuit has four major components: Sensing circuit Reference circuit Comparison circuit Control drive
These four components are shown in Figure 79. Figure 79 is a basic block diagram of a voltage regulating control circuit.
Figure 79. Control System Block Diagram
142
This circuit has three functions: Monitor the output voltage and/or current of the transformer. Find out if they are in the allowable range. Adjust the output of the transformer if needed.
These functions are carried out by the four major components. The sensing circuit monitors the transformers output. This output is reduced to an equivalent value that is sent to the comparison circuit. The reference circuit produces an adjustable signal that is also sent to the comparison circuit. Once the reference signal is set to the needed value, it gives a stable signal to compare with the actual value. The comparison circuit compares the actual value to the reference value. This produces an error signal. The error signal is sent to the control device. The control device gives the interface between the control circuit and the voltage regulating unit. The control device output causes the voltage regulating unit to adjust the transformers output. It will adjust the output up or down, based on the error signal produced (Reference Flow Chart Figure 80).
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Figure 80. Regulator Control Functions
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Load Tap Changer (LTC) Operating Methods The different methods of operating LTCs are best described through use of diagrams of the control circuits. A typical transformer tap changer control circuit is shown in Figures 81A and 81B. Figure 81A shows the automatic voltage regulation scheme and Figure 81B shows the drive motor control circuit. Automatic Operation Refer to Figure 81A and Figure 81B, which show a typical transformer tap changer control circuit schematic. The components shown in Figures 81A and 81B are identified through use of standard device function numbers and standard schematic symbology. This discussion of automatic operation only covers the essential components. Automatic operation is the normal operating mode. Automatic operation is started by placing the switches in Figure 81B in the following positions; Auto-Manual switch in Auto, and the Local-Remote switch in Local. These positions allow for automatic drive motor control circuit response to changes in line voltage. As shown in Figure 81A, line voltage changes are felt by the static voltage sensor (device 90) through the auxiliary power transformer and the VRR supply potential transformer. When the difference between line voltage and desired voltage reaches a preset limit, the static voltage sensor automatically actuates the time delay raise (TR) or time delay lower (TL) relay as applicable. If the TR relay actuates, it closes the
K TR
contacts in the drive motor control circuit if the TL relay actuates, it closes the
K K
K TL
contacts in the drive motor control circuit. When TR or TL closes, the respective motor contactor (84R or 84L) actuates. If the 84R contactor actuates, it closes contacts
84 R 84R 84R 84 R 84 R 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 ,
and
84 R 7 ,
and opens contact

84 L 7 ,
84 R 5
. If the 84L contactor actuates, it

84 L
closes contacts and and opens contact 5 . These series of contacts energize the proper motor (84) coil for moving the tap changer up or down to the next position and align the braking circuit for operation.
84 L 84L 84L 84 L 84L 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 ,
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(A) Automatic Voltage Regulation Scheme
Figure 81A. Typical Transformer Tap Changer Control Circuit
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(B) Drive Motor Control Circuit
Figure 81B. Typical Transformer Tap Changer Control Circuit
147

33 1
When the tap changer starts to move, cam operated switch closes to seal-in the motor contactor (84R or 84L). When the tap changer reaches the next position, cam operated switch
33 1 ,
opens, deenergizing the associated motor contactor (84R or 84L). When the motor
84 R 5
contactor deenergizes, all of the seven associated contacts are repositioned. When
84 L 5
or and
returns to their normally closed position, braking contactor 84D actuates and closes
84 D 84 D 84 D 84 D 84 D 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 ,
contacts
84 D 7
and
62A
84 D 7
. When contacts
84 D 84 D 84 D 84 D 84 D 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 ,
close, the drive motor is stopped through use of dynamic braking. This prevents further
motion of the tap changer. Contact TDO will open after a short time delay (several seconds) and deenergize the braking contactor. When the braking contactor deenergizes, the six 84D contacts return to their normally open position. The circuit is now back to its original condition, and ready for the next sequence of automatic operation. Remote Operation Remote operation allows control of the LTC through use of a remote momentary raise-lower switch. Remote operation is started by placing the Local-Remote switch in the Remote position, and the Auto-Manual switch in the Manual position. The LTC can now be operated electrically by placing the remote momentary Raise-Lower switch in either the raise or lower position. When the remote momentary Raise-Lower switch is in the raise or lower position, the associated motor contactor (84R or 84L) will actuate. The resultant circuit operation is the same as that discussed previously under automatic operation, with one exception. If the operator does not release the remote momentary Raise-Lower switch, the tap changer will continue stepping the voltage up or down until one of the cam operated limit switches or
84 LS L 84 LS R
open.
Manual Operation Manual operation of the LTC can mean two different things: Manual operation of the LTC with the electrical control circuit while in the manual mode Manual operation of the LTC with the handcrank
Manual operation of the LTC with the electrical control circuit is started by placing the LocalRemote switch in the Local position and the Auto-Manual switch in the Manual position. The LTC can now be operated in manual, through use of the electrical control circuit, by placing the Local Momentary Raise-Lower switch in either the raise or lower position. When the Local Momentary Raise-Lower switch is in the raise or lower position, the associated motor contactor (84R or 84L) will actuate. The resultant circuit operation is the same as that discussed previously under remote operation.
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Manual operation of the LTC with the handcrank does not require the use of any of the electrical control circuit components and, therefore, the handcrank is not shown in Figures 81A and 81B. Operating the LTC with the manual handcrank instead of the drive motor (84) is normally done only during maintenance. Manual handcrank operation with the transformer energized is not recommended. Such operations should be done only in an extreme emergency. Manual handcrank operation is done by deenergizing the electrical control circuit. The handcrank is then removed from its holder and placed on the handcrank shaft in the drive box. Turning the handcrank after it is placed on the handcrank shaft will manually reposition the tap changer. Parallel Operation of Two ALTC's Operation of two voltage regulators or LTC's, in parallel, can result in unsatisfactory load distribution and high circulating currents. These operational problems are explained below in reference to Figure 82.
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Figure 82. Installation Using Parallel Transformers
150
For purposes of explanation, assume that the HV tie switch is open, main breakers #1 and #2 are closed. The regulator for Transformer No. 1 is maintaining 12,688 volts, and that the regulator for Transformer No. 2 is maintaining 13,000 volts. If the tie breaker is closed to place both transformers #1 and #2 in parallel, the following sequence of events would occur: Transformer No. 2 picks up load from Transformer No. 1 plus its normal load. The line drop compensator for Transformer No. 2 sees a larger voltage drop. The regulator for Transformer No. 2 operates to raise transformer output. At the same time, the load on Transformer No. 1 is lowering. The line drop compensator for Transformer No. 1 sees a smaller voltage drop. The regulator for Transformer No. 1 operates to lower transformer output. This process continues until Transformer No. 2 is in full boost and Transformer No. 1 is in full buck. Transformer No. 2 will be in an extreme overload condition. High circulating currents will be flowing. Transformer No. 2 would be overheating.
If transformers are to be operated in parallel, the control system must prevent overloading and high circulating currents. The preferred control scheme is the current balance type. This scheme uses current transformers. The other acceptable control schemes are the master/follower, odd/even, and reverse/ reactance types. Parallel Operation of Electrical Control Scheme Previous discussions pointed out more problems with operating transformers in parallel. They also pointed out the control schemes that can be used to compensate for these problems. The preferred scheme for Saudi Aramco installations is the current balance. An example of this paralleling control scheme is shown in Figure 83, with all of the components identified. Only those components that are vital to the following explanation will be discussed.
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Figure 83. Typical Paralleling Control Scheme
In this scheme, load current flows through the line-drop compensator CT (LDC CTs) of Banks 1 and 2. The secondary current of the LDC splits into two components: The load component that flows through the load-auxiliary current transformer (LCT) and the compensator-auxiliary current transformer (CCT) The circulating-current component
152
When the tap changers are on the same step, circulating current will be minimal. When the tap changers are on different steps, circulating current will flow from the bank on a higher step to the bank on a lower step. In the high bank, the circulating current through the LDC flows in the opposite direction to the load component of current through the LDC. The resultant current to the voltage regulating relay (90) will be less, and the tap changer will lower. In the low bank, the circulating current through the LDC flows in the same direction as the load component of current through the LDC. Thus, the resultant current to the voltage regulating relay (90) will be more, and the tap changer will rise. With one incoming breaker open, the in-service bank will carry the total bus load. The 152a contact will be open, breaking the circulating current path. The 152b contact will be closed, shorting out the secondaries of LCT1 and LCT2. The current will split through the balance leg, so each line-drop compensator sees half of the load, preventing both regulators from moving. With both banks in service, and the bus tie breaker (24) open, the 24a contacts will be open, interrupting the circulating current path and the balance leg. The 24b contacts will be closed, shorting out the secondaries of LCT1, LCT2, CCT1, and CCT2. Each bank is now set up to operate independently, with correct load tap changer control.
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POWER TRANSFORMER NAMEPLATE DATA Transformer Nameplate with NLTC A nameplate is supplied on each transformer. The nameplate provides basic information for use of the transformer. The following list is a brief description of the information supplied on a typical nameplate. Figure 84 shows a typical nameplate, and the numbers correspond to the list below. 1. 2. 3. 4. SERIAL NUMBER VOLTAGE FREQUENCY COOLING CLASS Identifies the particular transformer. The voltage shown is the rated terminal-to-terminal voltage for the primary and secondary windings. This is the frequency at which the transformer is designed to operate. This is the method used to dissipate the heat generated during operation. (Refer to following paragraph on normal service conditions.) The kilovolt ampere capacity the transformer can transmit without exceeding the stated temperature rise. This is the average winding rise above ambient temperature at rated kVA. The instruction book that applies to the specific transformer. Liquid volume of oil in the transformer. This is the full wave BIL (basic insulation level) in kilovolts of the line and neutral terminals. This is the percent impedance measured by test. A winding connection diagram is provided to show the relative location of bushings and internal terminals.
5.
kVA
6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
TEMPERATURE RISE INSTRUCTION BOOK GALLONS OF FLUID IMPULSE LEVELS IMPEDANCE WINDING CONNECTION DIAGRAM
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12. 13.
CONNECTION CHART NOTES
This chart gives the voltage, current and connection of each tap changer position. The notes below the connection diagram contain valuable information about the operation and maintenance of the transformer. The phase rotation and phase angle shift between the high-voltage and low-voltage windings are represented by a phasor diagram. This provides the weights of core and coil assembly, case, and volume by weight of oil. When added together they should provide the total weight of the transformer. This doesn't include the weight of large bushings on larger power transformers. This information is itemized to facilitate untanking and shipping. This is a designation for manufacturer to tell the difference between different types of transformer construction.
14.
PHASE RELATION
15.
APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS
16.
TYPE SL TRANSFORMER
Transformers for use in commercial and industrial applications have a wide range of identifying characteristics. The most important characteristics are on the transformers nameplate. Figure 85 shows a simple distribution transformer no-load tap changer nameplate with a listing of all areas of information. Figure 85A and Figure 85B show a typical, large power transformer with load tap changer nameplate. Figure 85A shows the upper half of the transformer nameplate and Figure 85B shows the lower half of the transformer nameplate. The nameplate ratings of transformers provide the normal values at which a particular transformer can operate without damage. The basis for part of the ratings is transformer temperature rise. The actual output at which a given transformer can deliver, without undue deterioration of the insulation, may be more or less than rated output, depending on the ambient and other operating conditions. Therefore, regardless of the nameplate rating, the maximum loading of a transformer is dependent on the temperature rise of the machine.
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Transformer Nameplate with LTC The previous NLTC nameplate amount of information was standardized by ANSI Standards. Therefore, the nameplate for a transformer with a LTC will provide the same information. The major difference is the information required relating to tap position of the LTC. Notice in Figure 85A, the chart showing each tap position is related to the winding tap number. The dual tap kVA rating is also shown. The dual tap rating is due to the OA/FA rating this transformer has. This LTC chart shows what tap positions are located on which position of the reversing switch. Tap position #9 is the reversing position for the tap changer mechanism. Each tap position shows the voltage applied to the primary at that position. Figure 85B shows the chart with terminations for all the multi-ratio current transformers (MRBCT) located on the high-voltage bushings. Each termination shows connections related to phase, ratio provided, and the MRBCT accuracy. This chart also shows the secondary bushing current transformers (BCT). This same chart provides phase, BCT termination, ratio and CT accuracy. This nameplate also shows the location of hot-spot temperature sensors. Some manufacturers will provide more information than required by ANSI.
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Figure 85A. Typical Transformer Nameplate (Upper Half of Nameplate)
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Figure 85B. Typical Transformer Nameplate (Lower Half of Nameplate)
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RECEIPT OR ACCEPTANCE INSPECTION Transformer Acceptance from Manufacturer/Vendor Manufacture Test Results The test reports provided by the manufacture to the design engineer are the final data requiring approval before shipment of the transformer. The design engineer should review these test report results, evaluating if the tests were acceptable, and if all the special tests requested were performed and acceptable according to standards. These various tests are not performed in the field and are important indicators of the transformer design and electrical condition. These tests are usually performed at a manufacturing facility for new transformers or a repair shop for reworked transformers. The data from these tests are important to the field testing personnel as a baseline while performing field installation testing and later for maintenance testing. These tests also reveal the condition of the transformer internal electrical condition. Transformer Specifications and Nameplate Data Verification The responsible engineer should verify that this is the transformer purchased for this job and the one the manufacturer shipped. Usually this can be accomplished by verifying the nameplate on the transformer to the drawing nameplate sent by the manufacturer. If there is no drawing nameplate available, then use the specification and check that the electrical parameters agree with what the design engineer ordered. Ensure that the transformer installation manuals, drawings, also operation and maintenance manuals are provided. These items, which are often shipped in separate containers, must be inspected for possible shipping damage. Verify that all equipment completely meets the mechanical specifications and project drawing requirements. A major example of this is that the transformer meets all the physical dimensions specified on project layout drawings. The engineer should check the bill of materials and verify that all accessory parts are included within this shipment. For power transformers, this can include fans, mounting hardware, high- and low-voltage bushings and terminating hardware, pressure devices, and gauges. The types of equipment usually is determined by the size and type of power transformer.
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Transformer Receipt Inspection Transformer acceptance inspection is a visual inspection. When this type of inspection is performed on a new transformer, the following areas are considered: General precautions Tank inspection (oil-filled) Accessories inspection
General Precautions While physical inspections are performed on transformers, some general precautions should be followed. The first precaution is to use common sense. This precaution applies to any task. The second is to be familiar with the equipment that is being inspected. If the person performing an inspection is not familiar with the equipment, many inherent dangers may go unnoticed. The final general precaution is to refer to the manufacturers technical manual before the inspections are performed. This document will contain any specific precautions to be followed for a particular piece of equipment. Follow some type of inspection plan such as a check list. A checklist is contained in Work Aid 1 for general observation items. Note: Remember that a checklist is only an aid. For valid specifications and procedures, always refer to the applicable standards. Exterior Tank Inspection (Oil-Filled) The purpose of the tank inspection is to make sure that the transformer being installed meets the criteria of Saudi Aramco Material System Specifications. The tank inspection consists primarily of a visual inspection to detect flaws in workmanship and materials. Surface defects, leaks, cracks, and corrosion will also be detected during the tank inspection. This inspection will also provide a general indication of how the transformer was handled during shipping. All transformers up to 30 MVA will be shipped with oil in tank (per SAMSS-531 para. 5.8). Consult the appropriate field inspection report for the necessary tests. As a minimum, the external tank inspection should consist of the following items for oil-immersed transformers: Check the impact recorder for abnormal shock (not available on smaller transformers). Check guy rod tension and tie rods.
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Check the complete transformer assembly for damaged and missing parts. Visually inspect the control cabinets for cleanliness and excessive moisture. Check the lubrication and freedom of movement of the cooling fans (if attached). Check the oil-level gauge and inspect for oil leakage. Check all conduit connections for tightness. Check the gas pressure of the transformer enclosure. Check the oxygen content and dew point of the transformer enclosure.
Refer also to Work Aid 1 for some other specific items to check during the external tank inspection. An internal tank inspection should also be performed upon initial receipt of the transformer. This inspection is a visual inspection to check for any abnormal conditions, such as the shifting of the transformer core. Additional items that should be checked are listed in Work Aid 1. NOTE: Transformers normally are shipped with a positive nitrogen pressure on the tank. If the transformer is shipped with oil, provisions must be made to purge the tank with nitrogen and leave the tank with a positive nitrogen pressure after inspection. If the transformer is shipped without oil, no inspection should be done until the core and coils are covered with acceptable insulating oil in accord with the manufacturer's instructions. After the core and coils are covered with insulating oil, the inspection can be done. Then the transformer tank can be purged and left with positive nitrogen pressure. Accessories Inspection The purpose of the accessories inspection is to ensure that all the accessories that have been ordered have been delivered and are not physically damaged. This inspection should be performed as part of the initial visual tank inspection. The accessories to be inspected include, but are not limited to, the following:
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Temperature indicators Level indicators Valves Pressure-relief device and relief button Sudden pressure devices (not required on smaller units) Pressure vacuum regulator and/or gauges Fittings for oil-handling equipment Fuses and loop-feed switches on HV side. 14-SAMSS-536 requires that the terminal arrangement shall be for a loop-feed system.
According to ANSI C57.12.10 and 14-SAMSS-536, all the accessories listed in Table 2 in the 750 to 2500 kVA column, will be provided for all transformers.
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TABLE 2 FIELD EXTERIOR OUT-SERVICE INSPECTION

PURCHASE NEW TRANS.
Oil Filled Dry Type
INSPECTIONS
REWORK TRANS.
Oil Filled Dry Type
MAINT. EXISTING TRANS.

Oil Filled Dry Type
TROUBLESHOOTING TRANS.
Oil Filled Dry Type
BUSHING Stress Surface Cracks Chips Oil Level Connections Creepage Distance RADIATORS Impact Damage Oil Leaks Paint Condition Cut-Off Valves Corrosion Workmanship Excessive Dust & Dirt Shipping Hardware TANK Oil Level Paint Condition Workmanship Corrosion Impact Damage Excessive Dirt & Dust Electrical Ground Press Relief Device N = Normally No; Y = Normally Yes; Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y N Y Y Y Y N N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A dop/n N N dop/n N N dop/n N N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y N Y Y N Y N N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N N N N N N N N N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y N/A Y N N Y Y N Y N N Y Y N/A Y N
N/A = Not Applicable;
dop = Depends on Problem
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TABLE 2 (Cont'd) FIELD EXTERIOR OUT-SERVICE INSPECTION

PURCHASE NEW TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A REWORK TRANS. N Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y N Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A MAINT. EXISTING TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A TROUBLESHOOTING TRANS. N N N N N Y N N N dop/y dop/y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
TANKS (cont'd.) Press Relief Semaphore Manhole Covers Drain Valve Fill Valve Vent Plug Gas Press + Shipping Hardware Removed Load TC Compartment Press-Vac Regulator Sudden Press Device No-Load TC Selector INDICATING DEVICES Oil Leaks Glass Face Operable Drag Hand Reset Paint Condition Gauge Scales FOUNDATION PAD Cracks Uneveness Oil Leaks LOAD TC Crank Operation (Manual and Motor) Tap Position Indicator Oil Level Indicator
Y Y Y Y Y Y
N/A Y Y Y Y Y
N Y Y Y Y Y
N/A Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y
N/A Y Y Y Y Y
Y N Y Y N N
N/A N Y Y N N
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
N N N
N N N
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
N N N
N N N
Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A
dop/n dop/n dop/n
N/A N/A N/A
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PURCHASE NEW TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y REWORK TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y MAINT. EXISTING TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y TROUBLESHOOTING TRANS. N N N N N N N N
COOLING FANS Proper Installation Rotate Properly Motors Shock Mount Paint Condition COOLING PUMPS Oil Leaks Indicating Devices Isolation Valves Paint Condition CONTROL CABINET Wire Connections (Tight, Corrosion) Wiring Accuracy (Per Wiring Diag.) Cleanliness Corrosion Excessive Dust & Dirt Water Damage Elect Devices Op Manually Wiring Vs Diagram Heaters Lamp and Fixture Door Hinge Door Latches
Y Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A N/A
N N N N
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A Y Y Y
N N Y Y Y Y N N N Y N N
N N Y Y Y Y N N N/A Y N N
Y N Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Y N Y Y Y Y N N N/A Y Y Y
dop/n N N dop/n N N N N N Y N N
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TRANSFORMER RECEIPT TESTING The receipt testing is performed to determine any major electrical problems that could exist from shipping and handling of the transformer. These tests should be performed while the transformer is still loaded on the shipping vehicle. The following tests are to determine the integrity of the winding insulation system. Winding ratio - Turns ratio test (on center tap) Winding resistance test Insulation resistance - Megger test Core ground test
These are the minimum tests to perform for the receipt testing and can determine any major transformer problems. These test values should be recorded and used later as a comparison during the installation testing phase. When the transformer receipt inspection and testing is completed and results are acceptable, the transformer can be unloaded. At this point several things could happen to the transformer, such as: Unloaded to long-term storage Unloaded to short-term storage Unloaded to permanent location Unloaded to temporary installation
These are but a few of the possible situations that could occur when the transformer arrives on site and is unloaded from the initial shipping mechanism. When a transformer is set into long- or short-term storage, special conditions should be attended to, to protect and maintain good exterior and interior of the transformer. All of these storage situations require the same level of testing when the transformer is finally set into a permanent location after being stored for a long or short period of time. The transformer has to have a complete installation inspection and testing performed before it is energized. Remember that receipt inspection and testing was only preliminary and very general in scope to determine any major problems that may result in the transformer not being accepted from the shipper.
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TRANSFORMER INSTALLATION INSPECTION This section deals with the types of inspection and testing after the transformer has been installed at its permanent location from which it will be energized as part of the power system. The transformer should be completely inspected and tested at this point in time with more detail and accuracy, because this inspection and testing is being done just prior to energizing the transformer with electrical power. Everything should be complete and acceptable before this energization step is taken. This is to prevent damage to the transformer or accessory equipment, and ensure personal safety. Transformer Location Verification The following is a list of inspection items that should be completed prior to installing the transformer in place: Verify that nameplate ratings are per Saudi Aramco transformer specifications, and that it is the proper transformer. Verify that the transformer is located in the proper location per project drawings. Verify that any possible system electrical revisions are compatible and functional with both system and transformer per project drawings. Verify that the transformer will physically fit into its planned location per project drawings. Verify all construction around transformer location is completed before installing to prevent possible damage after reinstallation. Coordinate the time to set transformer with the project schedule so as not to interfere with any other construction or installation. Verify that all power cable or conduit runs and terminations to equipment are according to project drawings. Ensure that unattached accessory equipment to be installed after installation is available with all mounting hardware necessary to install per manufacturer's drawings. Verify that all accessory attached equipment necessary for installation on the transformer is aligned and installed properly per manufacturer's drawings. Verify that the complete installation has complied with all Saudi Aramco, industry, and safety standards.
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When all the above location verification items have been completed and the transformer has been installed in its permanent place, the installation inspection should begin. All the construction should be complete before the transformer installation inspection is performed, otherwise the inspection should be delayed. This ensures that construction damage cannot occur after the inspection, in which case, no one would know until it was too late. Transformer Installation Inspection and Testing (Form P-025) During your inspection and testing you must complete Form P-025, Saudi Aramco Pre-commissioning form for inspection of oil-filled transformers. The form consists of eight pages of documentation and testing. A copy of this form is contained in Addendum A. Ensure that you complete the information on page one, checking to ensure that the transformer is installed in the proper location according to the drawings. Be sure to compare the nameplate information with the latest single-line diagram and project specification. Complete other items listed on page 1 at this time down to Mechanical Inspection. Complete the Nameplate Data on Page 4. Ensure at this time that the exterior, cable compartments and control cabinet are clean and ready for the remainder of the testing and inspection. Complete all other inspection items. Be sure that the no-load tap changer setting or the load tap changer setting is correct by verifying that the transformer is on the correct tap position setting according to the nameplate rating, or requirement for testing and system voltage requirements. This inspection should be performed before the transformer is operated for the first time. According to Form P-025, the engineer should check these items upon installation and before testing the unit. Inspect complete exterior of transformer to ensure that no damage occurred while moving the transformer from truck or storage area and setting it in place. Also check general workmanship of enclosure construction, finish, and the painting. Ensure that there are no damaged or missing parts. Ensure that the nameplate data matches the information illustrated in the Single-line Diagram or project drawings.
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Be sure that the transformer has the right type of enclosure for Area Classification where it is installed. Check that the raceway fittings are installed correctly and meet the specifications on the drawings. Ensure that the primary and secondary leads are prepared properly and connected for the correct voltage. Check against the drawings. Ensure that the unit is properly grounded per project drawings and that the neutral conductor is correctly installed. Verify that all the required accessories are available and correctly installed per manufacturer's data. Inspect transformer to ensure all packing, shipping braces, blocking, shipping tags, or any equipment impeding proper mechanical or electrical operation is removed. Ensure that any spare conductors (pigtails) not used are properly insulated and stored away. Verify mechanical operation of all auxiliary devices (fans and no-load taps). Use torque wrench to check tightness of accessible bolted connections in accordance with manufacturer specifications or Form P-000 guidelines (see page 3 of Form P-000). Ensure that the transformer tap changer is set for correct voltage and record setting after testing is completed. Inspect transformer for water damage or corrosion that could have occurred during possible storage. Inspect equipment for dust and dirt that could have occurred during possible storage. Inspect all gauges and indicators for any damage. Be sure the unit is clean and ready for testing.
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When all accessory equipment is installed on the transformer, ensure that all mechanical moving parts are operable and installed properly per manufacturer's requirements. Inspect all wired connections for accuracy, tightness and electrical clearances necessary per Saudi Aramco and industry standards. Verify that all electrical equipment will manually operate per manufacturer's requirements. Determine if the primary bushing and secondary bushing have the proper length for creepage distance as required by Saudi Aramco standards.
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TRANSFORMER INSTALLATION TESTING When the installation of the transformer and its accessory equipment has been completed, the installation inspection has been performed, all major mechanical and electrical problems have been found and repaired, and all construction around transformer is completed, then installation testing can begin. All the mechanical or electrical work on a transformer should be completed to prevent a change in the transformer that could affect test results. It is essential that all the testing be done at this point. The only time the base guideline test data can be obtained is while it is new and has no operating hours. All tests should be performed (without any being omitted) because some of the tests overlap each other, providing backup results of the same test, which can confirm, deny, or raise a question as to test results accuracy. Prior to the acceptance of the installation, you will be required to perform various tests and document the test data and results on the Form P-025. Each test may determine more than one thing or detect more than one problem. All test are necessary for that reason. Normally a problem should be verified or the results verified by more than one test. Refer to ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.125, 1990 for additional information on documentation and analysis of transformers. Also refer to C57 Appendix A for further information on the tests discussed in this section. A copy of this Appendix is contained later in this module. The installation testing should be performed just prior to energizing the transformer. There should never be a delay of more than one month between testing and energizing the transformer (less if possible). This prevents possible damage or change in the condition of the transformer. Table 3 indicates which field test are appropriate for the following conditions: New Transformer Installation Shop Rework of Transformer Periodic Maintenance of Transformer Field Rework at Plant Side Troubleshooting Transformer Problem Factory Testing of New Transformer
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Table 3
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Notice the notes section which provides codes for varying conditions that may exist. This table is not all inclusive but provides a general guideline for field testing. The installation electrical tests are necessary to determine that the operation of the transformer is correct, and to ensure the proper setup of the auxiliary and protective equipment and controls prior to energizing the unit. These tests also provide a benchmark for subsequent operational tests that may be performed in the future. There are eleven installation tests that should be performed on power transformers (see Form P-000 and Form P-025): Turns -Ratio Tests Polarity Test Winding Resistance Winding-Insulation Resistance Polarization-Index Test Core-Ground Inspection and Test Tank-Ground Inspection and Test Tap-Setting Inspection Power Factor Applied Voltage Test (Hi-Pot) Oil Test Field Test Eight Lab Test
Gas Analysis
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Turns-Ratio Tests The purpose of this test is to test each phase winding turn-to-turn insulation system in a transformer. A transformer turns ratio (TTR) test primarily detects inner winding short circuits or tap changer alignment problems. The test performs polarity checks, and verifies the no-load voltage ratio of all transformer tap positions. If exciting current is also measured, the test may possibly detect high resistance due to loose connections or grounded conductors. This test is also used to investigate the possibility of problems following a transformer exposure to severe duty faults. Before starting the test ensure that the TTR tester is calibrated or has been calibrated within the past 6 months. If it has not, perform a quick calibration test according to TTR manufacturer's requirements. A TTR test should be performed on all new transformers after installation. This test is an easy way to verify that the internal connections are correct and that there are no winding to winding shorts. This test also verifies that a transformer meets its nameplate ratings. A TTR test should be made at the following two points: At all connection positions of the no-tap changer for deenergized operation with the no-load tap changer on the rated voltage position (or center tap) At all load tap changer positions with the tap changer for the deenergized operation on the rated voltage position (or neutral)
The TTR test is performed using instruments designed for this purpose. The most widely used instrument for this test is convenient for field use because it requires no outside power. It has a hand-crank power supply providing a very low-voltage power source, such as 8-10 volts and 50 to 60 Hz. There are also motor-driven sets. Using this type of equipment, the test may be performed even if the oil is removed from the transformer. Two windings, primary and secondary, on one phase are connected to the instrument and the internal bridge elements are varied to produce a null indication on the detector (no reading.) Usually, the exciting current is also being measured. Compare the measured ratios with the ratios on the nameplate. They must compare to within 0.5% , but should be even closer to actual values. It is imperative that ratio measurements be made on all taps to confirm the proper alignment and operation. Before the results are analyzed, there should be a great amount of data available that was accomplished with the instrument being used.
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When performing this test due to a maintenance function (transformer has been energized), be sure to follow proper safety guidelines prior to making the turn ratio measurement. A check is made to verify that the transformer is de-energized, that power supply devices are properly "locked-out." Safety-ground connections are removed from the winding circuits only as needed to perform the test and then replaced when finished. The basic method of performing this test is accomplished by using a TTR test set. A typical test set is one manufactured by the James G. Biddle Company (catalog No. 55003, Figure 86). The TTR test set contains a small AC power source of about 8 volts which is applied to the low voltage winding of the transformer to be tested and also to the low voltage winding of the parallel reference transformer, located in the TTR set (Figure 87). The ratio of the reference transformer is adjusted until a detector comparing the high voltage winding of each transformer (the transformer under test and the reference transformer) is nulled. The turns ratio of the transformer under test can then be read directly from the dials on the TTR test set.
Figure 86. Transformer Turn-Ratio (TTR) Test Set
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Figure 87. Schematic Diagram for Transformer Turns-Ratio (TTR) Test Set
When testing a transformer, the turns ratio is measured for all combinations of winding pairs. For a two winding transformer there is only one combination LV to HV but for a three winding transformer there are three combinations (LV to HV, HV to TV and LV to TV; LV = low-voltage winding, HV = high-voltage winding, TV = tertiary-voltage winding). See Figure 88 for polyphase transformer connections. For transformers with a no-load tap changer, the turn ratio is measured between the highvoltage winding on each tap position and the rated low-voltage winding. In accordance with ANSI standards, the measured turn ratios must be within 0.5% of nameplate values. Ratios exceeding this acceptance value should be investigated to identify potential problems.
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Figure 88. TTR Polyphase Transformer Connections
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TTR Testing Indications The indicator windows, above the four decade switches, give the actual turns ratio of the transformer. This is only true when the TTR test set is in a balanced condition. Because of this, you must first balance the TTR test set before reading the dials. The test set is balanced when the following conditions occur: The test set crank is being turned. The voltmeter reads 8 volts. Ammeter (excitation current meter) reading decreases toward zero. Null detector has no deflection.
Figure 89 shows the TTR test set indications that are present when the test set is balanced. These readings show a turns ratio of 115.415:1. Note that for the accuracy of this instrument, the instrument manufacturer suggests that the instrument should be read to the nearest tenth, resulting in a reading of 115.42:1.
Figure 89. TTR Set Indications when Balanced
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Expected Test Results The voltage ratings, or ratios, which are indicated on transformer nameplates are based on the number of turns of wire on the primary and secondary. So, the turns ratio between the primary and secondary is equal to the voltage ratio between the primary and secondary. This ratio is only true for phase voltages. The following equation shows this relationship. This equation should be compared to each position of the transformer NLTC position: Vp Ps = Calculated Turns Ratio where: Vp is Primary Phase Voltage Vs is Secondary Phase Voltage The expected turns ratio value is equal to the calculated value + 0.5%. If the value that is measured is not in this range, there is a problem with the transformer or the test set. Interpretation of Data There are two different starting points to consider in interpretation of TTR test data. These are balanced and unbalanced readings. Balanced Readings - A balanced reading that is + 0.5% of the calculated turns ratio is the normal indication. In this case, the transformer is fine. A balanced reading that is more than + 0.5% of the calculated turns ratio shows a problem. The problem is either a wrong connection or a short circuit. If the reading is out of specification, check to make sure the TTR tester has the right connections. If the connections are right, the problem may be shorted turns, which will require an internal inspection or a detanking of the transformer to find the problem. Unbalanced Readings - If a balanced reading cannot be obtained, several problems are possible. These are: Wrong connection or test method Open circuit in windings Short circuit in windings
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First verify that the proper test method is being used for the transformer under test (turns ratio or inverse turns ratio). Next, make sure the connections are right. If these are all right, a short- or open-circuit exists in the windings. The type of problem can be determined by the other indications on the TTR test set. Open-circuit indications are as follows: Normal exciting current Normal generator voltage No deflections of the null detector
Short-circuit indications are as follows: High exciting current Low generator voltage
Again, an internal inspection or a detanking of the transformer might be required to find the problem. Review of Sample Data Figure 90 shows the TTR test set readings from a transformer with the following nameplate voltage ratings. Winding Configuration : Delta-Wye Primary Voltage : 13,800 Volts Secondary Voltage : 480y/277 Volts
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Figure 90. Sample TTR Readings (Set One)
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To find out if these readings are good or bad, you must first calculate the turns ratio, using nameplate data as follows: Turns Ratio = V P 13 ,800 Volts = = 49.819:1 VS 277 Volts
Next, find out what the allowable range of measured readings is as follows: (49.819) (0.5%) = 0.2491 Allowable Range = 49.819 + 0.2491 = 50.0681 = 49.819 0.2491 = 49.5699 Now, compare the measured value to the calculated value. The measured value is 49.705. These readings do not show a problem. Figure 91 shows the TTR readings from the same transformer taken one year later. Look closely at the indications given in the figure. Notice that there is normal excitation current, normal generator voltage, and the null detector is in the center position. At a first glance, these readings may appear normal, until the values in the windows are read closely. Since these are all at zero, there should be some deflection of the null detector. And when there is no deflection, this transformer, most likely, has an open winding circuit.
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Figure 91. Sample TTR Readings (Set Two)
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Winding-to-Winding Polarity Test Polarity Standard American practice is to mark winding terminals as X1, X2, etc., in the low voltage winding; H1, H2, etc., in the high-voltage winding starting from the ends of the winding which go around the core in the same direction, as shown in Figures 92 and 93. By definition terminals H1 and X1 have the same polarity. Polarity is of no importance in a singly connected distribution transformer, but it is of importance if transformers are to be paralleled or banked. Polarity can be determined by the connection of Figure 92 or Figure 93, but it can be most conveniently checked at the same time as the TTR ratio by the connection where wrong polarity is immediately apparent. Three-Phase Polarity and Phase Sequence Polarity, taken phase by phase, is no different in a three-phase transformer from what it is in a single-phase transformer. However, because of the various ways in which the windings can be connected, polarity alone does not describe the relation between the primary and secondary systems of a three-phase voltage. Figure 94 shows a number of the possible connections of three-phase windings, together with rules for determining phase sequence. The markings of leads H1, H2, and H3, shown in Figure 94, indicate that the induced voltages of these leads to neutral pass through their positive peak values in this order in time. An angular displacement of 30 electrical degrees exists in Group 2 of Figure 94. If the terminals of all phase windings are available, checking polarity phase by phase is simple and straightforward. If one winding is connected in Y with the neutral not available, three-phase voltage must be applied and measurements of voltage made according to Figure 94. Voltmeter Flicks-Method Polarity Test Test Method - The polarity of a transformer is a designation of the relative instantaneous directions of currents in its leads. Primary and secondary leads are said to have the same polarity when at a given instant the current enters the primary lead in question and leaves the secondary lead in question in the same direction as though the two leads formed a continuous circuit.
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Terminals which lead out from the transformer in the same direction around the core, H1 and X1, have the same polarity, and the instantaneous induced voltage at these terminals has the same sign. If a voltage is applied to H1 - H2, and connections made as shown by the dotted lines, the polarity is correct if V < H1H2.
Figure 92. LV/HV Winding Markings/ Polarity Voltage Reading Method Polarity Test
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The H1 lead usually is brought out of the right-hand side of the case, viewed from the high voltage side. A single phase transformer is subtractive polarity if the H1 and X1 leads are directly across from each other and additive polarity if the X1 lead is located diagonally across from the H1 lead. The complete polarity designation of a three-phase transformer requires a vector diagram showing the angular displacement of the windings and a sketch showing the location and marking of the leads. Polarity can be determined by using a dc voltmeter and a battery. Connect the battery and voltmeter to the high-voltage terminals using a voltmeter range to give a small positive (upscale) deflection of the pointer on the scale. Then transfer the voltmeter leads directly across the transformer; that is, the voltmeter lead on the right-hand high-voltage terminal is transferred to the right-hand low-voltage terminal, and the lead on the left-hand high-voltage terminal is transferred to the left-hand low-voltage terminal. The battery circuit is then broken, inducing a voltage in the low-voltage winding and causing a deflection of the voltmeter pointer. If the pointer swings in a positive (up-scale) direction, the polarity is additive. If the pointer swings in a negative (down off-scale) direction, the polarity is subtractive. See Figure 93.
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Figure 93. Voltmeter Flick-Method Polarity Test
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Angular displacement diagrams for three-phase transformers and check measurements for determining the polarity of three-phase transformers.
Figure 94. Angular Displacements
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Winding Resistance Test Winding resistance measurements are made to determine if any changes have occurred in the current carrying path of the transformer. In particular, the terminal-to-terminal resistance measurement helps to identify the presence of high-resistance joints and poor connections. When performing this test due to a maintenance function (transformer has been energized), be sure to follow proper safety guidelines before making the measurement. Verify that the transformer is deenergized, that power supply devices are properly "locked-out." Remove winding circuit grounds only as needed to make the measurements and replace when finished. The Wheatone bridge or the DLRO should have a calibration test performed as per device manufacturer's recommendation prior to performing the test. The terminal-to-terminal resistance measurement can be made with a Kelvin bridge, Wheatstone bridge (see Figures 95 and 96) or similar low resistance reading instrument (Figure 97). Because resistance varies as a function of temperature, the resistance readings are corrected or normalized to one reference temperature. The normalized reference temperature used for transformers is equal to the rated average windings temperature rise (55C or 65C) plus 20C. For transformers with a rated 55C rise, the normalized reference temperature is 75C. In a like manner, transformers with a rated 65C rise use 85C as the reference temperature. Table 4 shows the formulas used to convert winding resistance readings to their normalized reference.
Table 4 Formulas to Convert Winding Resistance to Reference Temperature Copper Winding 75C R 75 = R 85 = R a (234.5 + 75 ) (234.5 + T a ) R a (234.5 + 85 ) (234.5 + T a ) Aluminum Winding R 75 = R 85 = R a (225 + 75 ) (225 + T a ) R a (225 + 85 ) (225 + T a )
85C
R75 or R85 = Corrected resistance Ra = Measured resistance at ambient temperature Ta = Ambient temperature in C
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If the windings are made of aluminum use the value of 225 to replace the value of 234.5. Expect a deviation of 5.0 % in the field testing. The test results are compared to the factory results to determine whether there has been any change. When transformer abnormality exists, this test should be performed to determine if damage to the windings and/or their connections exist.
Figure 95. Bridge Network Connections
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Note: The connections to bridge network to the component being tested. The test leads to the component should be as short as possible and as close to the same length as possible to minimize errors.
Figure 96. Wheatstone Bridge
Figure 96 shows the connections to the bridge network to the component being tested. The test leads to the component should be as short as possible and as close to the same length as possible to minimize errors.
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Figure 97. Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter
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The winding resistance measurements for three-phase transformers are very often reported by manufacturers as a single value. For this case, the resistance for individual windings are first measured and grouped together as a single value in accordance with the following formulas. Three Phase Transformer (Wye With a Neutral Bushing) For transformers with wye-connected windings and a neutral bushing, the resistance is measured between each line bushing and the neutral bushing. The three readings are then added together to give one total resistance value. Three Phase Transformer (Wye Without a Neutral Bushing) For wye-connected transformers without a neutral bushing, the resistance is measured between each pair of line bushings. The three readings are added together and then multiplied by 1/2 to give a one total resistance value. Three Phase Transformer (Delta Connected) For delta-connected transformers, the resistance is measured between each pair of line bushings. The three readings are added together and then multiplied by 3/2 to give one total resistance value. The most effective way to use terminal-to-terminal resistance measurements are to compare them to their factory and previous inspection values. If all connections in the current carrying path remain so lid, there should be no change to corrected resistance readings. Variations of more than one percent from previous readings should be investigated for the possibility of developing problems. Winding Resistance (Second Method) This is a second method that can be used to determine the winding resistance. The DC battery can be a 6V or 12V car battery to supply power to the windings. The ammeter and voltmeter should have field calibration tests performed prior to testing. These tests are made to measure the resistance of each winding to calculate power (I2R) loss, the resistance component of the voltage drop under load, to determine the temperature rise under load, and to ascertain that the internal connections are correct. A DC source should be used, together with ammeters and voltmeters of proper ranges. Temperature measurements of the windings should be taken while the resistance measurements are made. these may be thermometers or thermocouples. As a precaution, to avoid possible damage from voltages induced by the DC current causing the magnetic field to build up and collapse on being switched on and off, the winding whose resistance is not being measured should be temporarily short-circuited (see Figure 98). The resistance of each winding is obtained from
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the Ohm's Law equation: R= E/I or voltage value (volts) divided by the current flowing (amperes).
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Figure 98. Connections for Measuring Transformer Winding Resistance Winding Insulation Testing (Megger Test) The purpose of this test is to measure the condition of a major insulation system (the insulating system between a winding and the ground (core) or between two windings.) A megohmmeter insulation-resistance test is made in the field and compared with measurements made at the factory to determine if the transformer is sufficiently dry to energize. The megger test is used extensively on all transformers. This test gives an overall indication of the condition of the insulating system. The test should also be performed when possible damage to the insulation system is suspected.
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The most common method of performing this measurement is to measure the resistance of the insulation using a megohmmeter which applies a DC voltage and indicates the resistance in megohms. The result is a function of the leakage current which passes through either the insulation or over external leakage surfaces. The measurement may be affected by these three things: Temperature Humidity External leakage paths, such as dirty insulators or bushings
Winding Insulation-Resistance Test Measuring the insulation resistance of a transformer is an easy test to perform in the field and one that serves two important uses. One is the detection of ground failures within the transformer. And the other is a check on the relative condition of the insulation. Maintaining a history of the insulation resistance readings and plotting them against time provides for the detection of relative deterioration to the insulation. Insulation resistance measurements should be compared to their factory and historical baseline values for acceptable level. More important than the absolute value of resistance is whether the most recently measured value shows a major change from the baseline. As a guide, Table 6 provides a Rule of Thumb for test values of insulation resistance. The most effective way to use and interpret insulation resistance readings are to trend and compare them to their factory and previous inspection values. Significant changes should be investigated for possible problem sources. For power transformers, low insulation resistance readings are usually an indication of accumulated dirt or the presence of moisture. Dirt and other foreign materials should be cleaned from the bushing connections. Typically, a power transformer that is continuously energized will develop enough heat as a result of its losses to keep a positive pressure on the tank to keep the oil and winding insulation free of moisture. Moisture usually becomes a problem only when a transformer has been de-energized for a long period of time without the benefit of space heating devices or monitoring sufficient gas space pressure. For these cases, the moisture can effectively be removed using various drying methods such as: Vacuum and cold traps Filters Centrifuge Dehydration
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The insulation resistance of a transformer can vary due to the moisture content, cleanliness, and the temperature of the insulation parts. Since the value of the resistance varies with temperature, all measurements are corrected to 20C for comparison purposes. Table 5 provides a list of temperature correction factors used for liquid-filled transformers. To correct measurements to their 20C reference, multiply the measured value by the corresponding correction factor shown in the table. Table 5 Liquid-Filled Transformer Temperature Correction Factors for Winding Insulation Resistance (C) Temp. 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 Example: The megohmmeter reading for a winding insulation resistance test is found to be 256 megohms with the winding temperature at 45C. To correct the resistance measurement to the 20C reference, determine the correction factor for the measurement temperature and use it to multiply resistance reading. Correction Factor (45C) = 4.5 R20C = (R45C)(Correction Factor (45C)) R20C = (256 megohms)(4.5) = 1152 megohms (F) Temp. 203 144 185 176 167 158 149 140 131 122 113 104 Correction 89.0 66.0 49.0 36.2 26.8 20.0 14.8 11.0 8.1 6.0 4.5 3.3 (C) Temp. 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 (F) Temp. 95 86 77 68 59 50 41 32 23 14 5 Correction 2.5 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.73 0.54 0.40 0.30 0.22 0.16 0.12
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60-Second Test Method - Before making insulation resistance tests on a particular transformer, the level of voltage to be used is determined. The choice is subjective and incorporates a tradeoff. The benefit of using a voltage as high as possible is to enhance the sensitivity of the test, meaning a larger megohm value can be measured. The risk of high test voltage is that the insulation might actually begin to "break down" which would yield a meaningless resistance reading and possibly cause damage. But in actual practice voltage selections of 500 VDC, 1,000 VDC, 2,500 VDC, or 5,000 VDC will yield measurements of acceptable sensitivity for all but the largest transformers. Liquid-filled transformers have no exact values of insulation resistance that can be specified for power transformers. But Table 6 can be used as a guide for minimum acceptable insulation resistance values for power transformers as per coil ratings and minimum DC test voltage used. The Megger tester should have a field calibration test performed as per manufacturer's recommendation prior to performing the test. Insulation resistance measurements are made by applying megohmmeter voltage to transformer windings individually and in combination (see Table 7). All windings not under test are connected to ground. Connections are made so that no winding "floats" at an unknown electric potential with respect to ground potential. To measure insulation resistance, first verify that the transformer is de-energized and that all devices disconnecting sources of power are "locked-out." Verify that the transformer is properly grounded. Connect together all of the bushing terminals of each winding circuit. Make connections to the megohmmeter terminals (Figures 99 and 100). Read the scale (or numerical display) of the megohmmeter after voltage has been applied for one minute and record the reading. Read and record the temperature of the winding temperature. Record the voltage level used. Warning: Take care to discharge the capacitance of each winding before and after each test. Warning: Never perform an insulation resistance test on a transformer that is under vacuum. Typical schematic connection diagrams for measuring the insulation resistance of singlephase and three-phase transformers are shown in Figures 99 and 100.
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Rule of Thumb Test Values - These test values are an extreme minimum values. All values should be much greater number. Table 6 System Voltage 0 to 1,000 V 1,000 V to 34.5 kV 69 kV and up Test Values (1 megohm/every 1 kV system voltage) + 1kV (1 megohm/every 1 kV system voltage) + 1kV (3 megohms/every 1 kV system voltage) + 1kV
These are only field values and should not take the place of transformer factory test values. Every attempt should be made to obtain factory test values as the main test values to use for comparison. Connections for Winding Insulation Resistance Test - Given in Table 7 and Figures 99 and 100 are the recommended connections to be used to measure the insulation resistance of single, two- and three-winding transformers. Table 7 Megohmmeter Connections for Testing Two Winding and Three Winding Transformers Two Winding Transformer HV winding to LV and ground LV winding to HV and ground HV and LV windings to ground Three Winding Transformer HV winding to LV, TV and ground LV winding to HV, TV and ground TV winding to HV, LV and ground HV and LV windings to TV and ground HV and TV windings to LV and ground LV and TV windings to HV and ground HV, LV and TV windings to ground
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Figure 99. Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Insulation-Resistance of a Typical Single-Phase (Two-Winding) Transformer
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Figure 100. Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Insulation-Resistance of a Typical Three-Phase Delta-Wye Transformer
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A major indication when a winding insulation test is being performed is when the insulation is stressed to near its maximum rated voltage and the value indicated tends to steadily go down; this indicates the insulation is failing and requires some action. Step Voltage Test - When two different voltage level tests are taken at widely varying ranges (500 volts and 2500 volts for instance) and the difference between the two readings is more than 25%, this indicates the possibility of moisture in the insulation system. This possibility should be confirmed by additional tests, such as polarization index test, insulation power factor test, and/or an oil dielectric test for moisture. The difference between the two voltage levels used for the test must be equal to or greater than 5 times. Any smaller differences may not detect a problem. Polarization-Index Test - The purpose of the Polarization Index test is to determine if the equipment is suitable to be operated. It can also determine overvoltage. This index is a ratio of the Megohm resistance at the end of ten minutes compared to the results at the end of a one-minute test. These results must be taken at a constant voltage. The best voltage is one that is near the specified line voltage. The total current that develops when applying a steadystate DC voltage is composed of these three things: 1. 2. 3. Charging current due to the capacitance of the insulation being measured. This value drops from maximum to zero very quickly. Absorption current due to molecular charge shifting in the insulation. This transient current drops to zero more slowly. Leakage current which is the true conduction current of the insulation. The leakage current varies with the test voltage. It may also have a component due to the surface leakage, particularly due to surface contamination. That is why all surfaces must be clean.
If moisture is present, the leakage current increases at a faster rate than the absorption current. Under these conditions, the Megohm readings will not increase as fast as insulation in good condition. This results in a lower Polarization Index (value).
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The advantage of this index ratio is that all conditions, such as humidity and temperature, are the same for both parts of the test. Perform the test in this manner using a constant DC voltage: 1. 2. Take a Megohm reading at the end of one minute of operation and record the results. Take the second set of readings at the end of each minute of operation (one minute intervals) for ten minutes. Record and carefully evaluate the readings at each one minute interval in case there is breakdown. Calculate the ratio of the 1 minute reading to the reading at the end of the ten minutes. Do this by dividing the one minute reading by the ten minute reading. The result is the ratio (index). Ensure that the DC voltage used is absolutely constant. There can be no variation. Any variation at the source will give different readings and thus give false results.
Caution:
The tabulations below allows you to evaluate the condition of the insulation according to the value of the index. Polarization Index Less than 1 1.0 to 1.1 1.1 to 1.25 1.25 to 2.0 Above 2.0 Core-Ground Inspection and Test Measuring the resistance of a core form transformer's core insulation is normally done at the same time as internal visual inspections. It is also done when the existence of core and tankloop currents are suspected. The laminated magnetic core of a transformer is insulated from ground, and then by design grounded at one point to maintain its potential at ground level. However, should a second point of the core become grounded, an unwanted circulating current will flow in the core causing additional heating. The purpose of measuring the core-to-ground insulation is to verify that the condition of the insulation is satisfactory and that no other core grounds exist. Insulation Condition Dangerous Poor Questionable Fair Good
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The test is made by first disconnecting the core ground strap, which is normally connected to a pad on the underside of the cover near the manhole. The megohmmeter is then connected between the core ground strap and the tank ground. Core-to-ground measurements should be corrected to 20C and compared to their previous measurements for acceptable level. A typical value for core-to-ground resistance when corrected to 20C is 200 megohms. Values less than this should be reviewed for acceptance. A reading of only several ohms suggests a dead ground that may require repair. A reading of 300 to 400 ohms usually indicates foreign material between the core and tank. Clearing core grounds caused by foreign matter can sometimes be accomplished by applying a fused, low AC voltage (e.g. 5 kVA and 120 VAC) between the core strap and the tank. The low voltage will cause an arcing that can be heard inside tank. If several applications of the low AC voltage show an improvement to the resistance reading, then the process can be repeated until the ground is cleared and core-to-ground resistance is acceptable. Never attempt to clear a core ground unless the transformer is completely immersed in insulating fluid. This could prevent possible tank internal explosion. Transformer Tank Ground Test Electrical ground connections for transformer tanks are very important. Under fault or lightning conditions, they are essential for draining off surge voltages, so that voltages within the transformer can be held to safe values. They also provide an equal potential for step and touch condition during winding to tank fault. This is especially true for substation installations, where grounds not only protect the transformers, but also help insure the positive operation of relays, which in turn further assures the correct operation and safety of the electrical system. The both tank ground connections for padmount transformers should be visually inspected for signs of corrosion, oxidation, discoloration, loose, or broken connections. Connecting hardware should be checked for satisfactory tightness. When corrosion or oxidation is present, the connection can either be separated and cleaned, or its contact resistance can be measured using a low-resistance meter to determine is cleaning is required. See Figure 101.
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Figure 101. Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter
However, before separating the connection, use a clamp-on ammeter to verify there is no ground current flowing in the ground cable or strap. Corrosion and/or discoloration of the ground are sometimes an indication of circulating ground currents and overheating. Separating a ground connection while current is flowing in it can result in an arc and/or potential difference to develop across the open contact endangering both personnel and equipment. For cases where ground current is detected, do not separate the ground connection for cleaning, but instead have the condition investigated to identify the source of the problem.
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When the check for ground current indicates that no current is flowing, corroded or oxidized connections can be safely separated for cleaning. The cleaning may be accomplished using a wire brush or other suitable method. A recommended step to include in the cleaning process, is to measure the contact resistance before separating the connection, and then again when the cleaning is finished and the contacts are reconnected. This can be easily accomplished using a portable low-resistance meter similar to the one shown in Figure 101. The measurement provides an indication of the effectiveness of the cleaning and verifies that the finished connection is acceptable. In addition to corroded ground connectors, high resistance in the ground circuit can result from variations in the soil resistivity. These variations can be caused by changes in the soil temperature, soil moisture and soil conductive salts. For this reason, it is good practice to periodically measure, record, and trend the actual resistance to earth ground. The measurement is typically made using a ground resistance test set with a calibrated scale that reads directly in low-ohm values of ground resistance. Tap Setting Verification The purpose of the tap setting verification is to ensure that the transformer no-load tap changer is in the proper position to provide system load voltage as per power system requirements. This is usually the center-tap position but should be verified by the power system operating personnel. The reason this should be the last check before energizing the transformer is due to the number of tests being performed. All the testing should be completed, results acceptable, and the transformer is ready to be energized. This ensures that the tap position is not likely to be changed for other reasons. Applied Voltage (Hi-Pot) Test Applied voltage (hi-pot) testing of power transformers is performed on new transformer before they are shipped from the factory. Beyond this, it is recognized that hi-pot testing places a severe stress on the insulation and, if applied frequently, will hasten breakdown or may cause breakdown. For this reason, applied voltage testing performed in the field, is an optional test that is performed only when warranted by special circumstances. Periodic testing is not recommended because of the stress imposed on the insulation. Saudi Aramco policy is for applied voltage test not be performed in the field. The exception is, if perform by qualified Power Distribution Department (PDD) personnel with approval from PDD management or CSD approval. Power transformers are too expensive to be damaged during performance of applied voltage test. Therefore, this is not an approved test.
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Insulation Power-Factor Test The term "Power-Factor Insulation Test" is used to refer to the complete AC dielectric-loss test. Power factor is but one of several measurable characteristics which can be obtained from the complete AC dielectric-loss test used for evaluating the serviceability of transformer insulation. Insulation power factor should not be confused with system power factor in an AC network. Insulation power factor provides an indication of the quality of the insulation. Any winding in a transformer is separated from all other windings and ground potential by solid insulation. Cellulosic insulation forms an effective capacitance network as indicated in Figure 118. The elementary principles of an electrical condenser or capacitor are generally known. The behavior of an insulation in service can be more easily understood when the transformer insulation (paper and oil) is considered as the dielectric of the capacitor. The energized conductors (test set output voltage and the windings) may be considered to form one plate and the grounded apparatus frame (tank and core) the other plate of the hypothetical capacitor. Therefore, in order to maintain an alternating voltage and a dielectric field through an insulation or between the plates of a capacitor, it is necessary for a charging current to flow. The charging current of an insulation is somewhat analogous to the magnetic excitation current of a transformer. The amount of charging current taken by a given capacitor or insulation is a function of the impressed voltage and frequency, and the capacitance of the capacitor or the assembled insulation. The capacitance of a capacitor depends upon the area of its plates, the spacing between the plates, and the dielectric constant of the dielectric medium (insulation) between the plates. In each capacitance are dielectric losses which can be conveniently represented by a resistor in series with a capacitor. This measurable dielectric loss will develop heat in the insulation during transformer operation (in the equivalent resistor) and this heat, along with moisture and other factors, can cause deterioration of the insulation. The interpretation of insulation condition depends primarily on comparison with previous test results from the same unit or from similar units that are considered in good condition.
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Figure 102. Dielectric Loss of Each Capacitor Divided by Capacitive VoltAmperes is Equal to Power Factor
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The deenergized series of power-factor tests, often referred to as "Doble Tests," use one of many types of bridges available or can be calculated from readings taken with instruments that measure voltage, current, and wattage losses. This equipment then measures the power loss through the insulating system to ground caused by dielectric loss or leakage current. All insulating systems will have minor leakage paths through the system that will permit a small current to flow. If the insulating system is perfect (a theoretical condition) there would be zero current leakage. Then we could calculate a power factor reading of zero percent. The greater the leakage path, the greater the power loss through the insulating system caused by the I2R wattage loss as determined by Ohm's law. If all of the input power were lost in heat in the insulating system then the power factor would be 100 percent. Definition of Power Factor of Insulation per ANSI C57 The power factor of an insulation is the cosine of the anle between the charging current vector and the impressed voltage vector. In other words, it is a measure of the energy component of the charging current. The amount of charging volt-amperes and the dielectric loss in watts, at a given voltage, increases with the amount of insulation being tested. However, the ratio (power factor) between the charging volt-amperes and watts-loss remains the same regardless of the amount of insulation tested, assuming that the insulation is of a uniform quality. This basic relation eliminates the effect of the size of electrical apparatus in establishing "normal" insulation values and thus simplifies the problem for the test engineer. The Doble powerfactor insulation test equipment measures the charging current and watts-loss from which the power factor, capacitance, and AC resistance can be easily computed at a given test voltage.
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Figure 103. Typical Insulation Power Factor Test Data
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A.
Standard series of power factor tests applied to windings in-service. CH refers to all insulation between the high voltage winding and grounded parts, including bushings, winding insulation, structural insulating members, and oil.
Test 1 2 3 4 5 6 B.
Energized H H L L Test 1 minus test 2 Test 3 minus test 4
Ground L H
Guard L H
Measure CH + CHL CH CL + CHL CL CHL CLH
CL refers to the same parts and materials between the low voltage windings and grounded parts. CHL refers to all winding insulation, barriers, and oil between high- and low-voltage windings.
Figure 104. Typical Two-Winding Transformer Simplified Diagram (Courtesy of Doble Engineering Co.)
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Then by definition, power factor is a measure of the power loss through the insulation system to ground caused by leakage current. It is equal to the circuit resistance (R) divided by the circuit impedance (Z). It may also be expressed as the cosine of the phase angle () between the current and the voltage. Measurement of power factor has advantages over measurement of DC resistance (megohms) of the insulation system. In the DC test, good insulation in series with bad insulation will cover up detection of the bad insulation. Also, the power-factor measurement does not vary due to the volume of the insulation system being tested. A negative power factor is an indication of cracking across the insulation system. The power factor of an insulation system should not increase with an increase in applied AC voltage. If it does increase as the AC voltage is increased, there is a problem in the insulation system. Another value of the power-factor measurement is that it will detect voids in the insulation system which may be causing high partial discharges. It is very important that power factor measurement instrumentation be well shielded if it is used in a substation area where there may be a significant level of electrostatic interference. Using a higher frequency power supply may help solve the interference problem. Values obtained at the time of the original tests are used as benchmarks to determine the amount of insulation deterioration on subsequent tests. Insulation power factor is best compared to these benchmark values when performing field tests. However, it is also possible to determine a degree of winding insulation condition by comparing test results to other similar units. A power factor reading of 0.03% is not unusual under ideal conditions. Data shown in Figure 103 gives a typical reading of 37.3%. The insulation is becoming an excellent conductor. Tabulated in Figure 104B are the standard series of tests (1 through 4), two calculated values, and two supplementary tests, illustrating how data pertaining directly to CH, CL, and CHL are obtained without need for physical isolation of transformer parts or sections. From the data in Figure 105, it can be seen that the measured value of CHL by the UST method closely agrees with the calculated value in Line 5 of Figure 105.
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Figure 105. Typical Power Factor Test Data and Calculated Test Results
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Oil-filled transformers that have been in-service can have power factors as high as two percent and still be deemed worthy of continued operation. Insulation power factors above two percent should be suspected and additional tests should be conducted at this point to further investigate the probable causes. The bushings and liquid insulation should be tested to see if they contribute to the overall high power factor. The effects of temperature on power factor is a most important consideration, since the magnitude of the power factor recorded on a given specimen varies directly with temperature. This must be taken into account when comparing data recorded for the same unit in the field with the factory, for the same unit on different occasions in the field, and in comparing similar units. There are temperature correction charts published for the various types of transformers and insulating fluids. While the problem of temperature correction does exist, it is not complicated. A survey of a great number of tests indicates that a large majority of transformers tested in the field are found to be within 10 degrees of the 20C base, thereby requiring little correction with minor error from available average curves. When transformers must be tested at near freezing temperatures, or in excess of 20C, or where some question exists as to the results recorded or to the accuracy of the temperature correction factor, the transformer should be retested if possible near 20C. The power factors recorded for routine overall tests provide interesting and valuable information regarding the general condition of ground and interwinding insulation of transformers. These values also provide a valuable index of dryness for a transformer. They are helpful in detecting undesirable operating conditions and failure hazards resulting from moisture, carbonization of insulation, defective bushings, contamination of oil by dissolved materials or conducting particles, improperly grounded or ungrounded cores, etc. In an effort to improve the sensitivity of the overall tests by minimizing the amount of insulation included in the measurement, particularly in larger transformers, it is essential that separate tests also be performed on the bushings and liquid insulation of a transformer. The power-factor measurement of transformer insulation is a test to determine the relative dryness and material quality of the insulation. It is typically used in conjunction with other dryness indicators, such as insulation resistance and oil dielectric breakdown values, to determine insulation dryness.
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This test can also be applied to the condenser portion of transformer bushings, and the power factor of the bushings insulation system can be measured without disconnecting the bushings from the circuit. Winding Insulation Test To measure the winding insulation power factor, first verify that the transformer is deenergized and "locked-out." Then check to see that the tank is properly grounded. Shortcircuit each winding of the transformer at its bushing terminals. Connect all windings to ground except the winding to be measured. Connect the tester between the winding(s) to be measured and ground, and measure the capacitance and power factor. Typical schematic connection diagrams for measuring the insulation power factor of single phase and three phase transformers are shown in Figures 106 and 107. When measuring the power factor of transformer windings, the number of measurements and their connections should be in accordance with Table 25. When making power factor measurements, consideration must be given to whether the measurements will be made using method 1 (without guard) or Method 2 (with guard). Figures 106 and 107 show connections without a guard circuit. When a guard circuit is used, refer to the tester manufacturer's instructions for making the connection. Temperature Correction Power factor readings vary with temperature, therefore, it is necessary to correct all readings to 20C to allow comparison with previous and factory readings. Table 26 provides a list of temperature correction factors to be used for liquid filled transformers. To correct measurements to their 20C reference, divide the measured value by the corresponding correction factor shown in the table.
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Figure 106. Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Capacitance and Insulation Power Factor from the High-Voltage Winding to the Low-Voltage Winding and Ground for a Two-Winding, Single-Phase Transformer (Method 1, Table 25)
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Figure 107. Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Capacitance and Insulation Power Factor from the High-Voltage Winding to the Low-Voltage Winding and Ground for a Three-Phase Delta-Wye Transformer (Method 1, Table 25)
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Table 25 Measurements for Insulation Power-Factor Tests

(Reference: ANSI/IEEE C57.12.90-1987)
Method 1 Test Without Guard Circuit Two-winding transformers (1 or 3) High to low and ground Low to high and ground High and low to ground Three-winding transformers (1 or 3) High to low, tertiary, and ground Low to high, tertiary, and ground Tertiary to high, low, and ground High and low to tertiary and ground High and tertiary to low and ground Low and tertiary to high and ground High, low, and tertiary to ground Two-winding autotransformers (1 or 3; without Tertiary): High and low to ground Three-winding autotransformers (1 or 3; with Tertiary): High and low to tertiary and ground Tertiary to high, low, and ground High, low and tertiary to ground
Method 2 Test With Guard Circuit Two-winding transformers (1 or 3) High to low and ground High to ground, guard on low Low to high and ground Low to ground, guard on high Three-winding transformers (1 or 3) High to low and ground, guard on tertiary High to ground, guard on low and tertiary Low to tertiary and ground, guard on high Low to ground, guard on high and tertiary Tertiary to high and ground, guard on low Tertiary to ground, guard on high and low High and low to tertiary and ground High and tertiary to low and ground Two-winding autotransformers (1 or 3; without Tertiary): High and low to ground (without guard) same as per Method 1 Three-winding autotransformers (1 or 3; with Tertiary): High and low to tertiary and ground (no guard) Energize high and low (with guard on tertiary) Tertiary to high, low, and ground (no guard) Energize tertiary (with guard on high and low)
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Table 26 Temperature Correction Factors for Insulation Power Factor

(Reference: ANSI/IEEE C57.12.90-1987
Test Temperature T(C) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Correction Factor K 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.12 1.25 1.40 1.55 1.75 1.95 2.18 2.42 2.70 3.00
Example:
A bridge reading of 1.23% is obtained for a transformer insulation power factor test. The oil temperature at the time of the reading is recorded as 40C. A previous reading taken during the last maintenance inspection for the same transformer was 0.78% corrected to 20C. Compare the recent power factor measurement with the test results of the earlier inspection.
Solution:
Correction Factor for 40C = 1.55 PF20C = (PF40C)/(Correction Factor) PF20C = (1.23%)/(1.55) = 0.79%
Analysis:
The power factor for the recent test (0.79%) shows only a slight increase over the earlier test result (0.78%). For all practical purposes, the condition of the transformer remains unchanged.
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Instruments and Testing Procedure The accuracy of measurement specified is plus or minus 0.25% power factor or 10% of the power factor measured, whichever is greater. Doble field power-factor test equipment is designed for an accuracy of plus or minus 0.2% power factor or 5% of the power factor measured, whichever is greater, and therefore, more than meets this provision. Both the Type I and M test sets have suitable voltage range and controls to meet the specification that the test potential applied to a transformer should not exceed one fourth of the factory test voltage for any aprt of the winding or 10kV, whichever is lower. Standard factory test voltages for transformer-insulation classes up to 25 kV are listed in Table 27 for reference purposes. Note that the proposed maximum voltages for power-factor tests are consideably lower than those recommended for periodic 60-cycle dielectric tests in the field. Power Factor Values As a guide only power and distribution transformers with mineral oil can have power factors in the order of 2% or less at 20C. The cumulative data of numerous transformers have indicated that 2% is reasonable for distribution transformers, but probably high for power transformers. Approximately 87% of the power units had power factors of 1.5% or below, 76% had power factors of 1.0% or below, and 52% had power factors of 0.5% or below. Most new power transformers leaving the factory today have power factors around 0.5% at 20C. Some smaller distribution units may have an acceptable power factor of 2% and a 1% (at lower voltage levels) and could be acceptable, but not acceptable for extremely large power transformers (500 MVA). There should be reasonable assurance that values in excess of these are not due to moisture. Table 27 Test Voltages for Power and Distribution Transformers Transformer Dielectric Tests, 60 Cycles Insulation Factory Periodic Power Factor Class, kV Test, kV Tests, kV Tests, kV 1.2 10 6.5 2.5 15 10.0 4.0 2.5 19 12.5 5.0 5 8.66 26 17.0 6.5 15 34 22.0 8.5 25 50 33.0 10.0
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Insulating Oil Testing Insulating fluid serves two very important functions in the operation of a transformer: (1) insulation of the electrical components, and (2) transfer of heat from the windings to the outside environment. To accomplish these functions, the fluid must be maintained to required ASTM standards. This is achieved with the help of a program to sample and test the fluid on a periodic basis. Sampling and testing the insulating fluid can reveal a significant amount of information regarding the processes taking place inside the transformer. For example, changes in acidity may indicate improper gasketing, low dielectric breakdown strength could suggest the presence of moisture, and a high-power factor could mean that solid contaminates are present. In a like manner, the analysis of gases either dissolved in the fluid or sampled from the gas space above the fluid can provide warning of abnormal conditions in the transformer. The warning signs could include indications or arcing in the fluid, overheating conditions, or leaking gas seals. Testing Categories Two categories of tests are used to analyze fluid and gas samples. One is to test the samples on location in the field (field testing) using portable equipment. The other is to send samples to a formal testing lab (lab testing) for more comprehensive and extended testing. Performing field tests on oil typically includes testing for: Dielectric breakdown Neutralization number ASTM color
Performing lab tests on oil typically includes testing for: Dielectric breakdown Neutralization number ASTM color Interfacial tension Power factor Moisture content
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Combustible gas in fluid Combustible gas in expansion space PCB analysis (as required)
Laboratory testing of the transformer's gas sample for presence of combustible gases typically includes testing for hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), ethylene (C2H4) and acetylene (C2H2). Testing of fluid and gas samples performed by formal laboratories are documented in written reports. The reports identify the transformer from which the sample was taken, the tests performed and the test results. The reports typically include recommendations for action based on the results of the tests. See Addendum B for an example of several typical laboratory reports of gas and oil testing for transformers. Oil Specifications 14-SAMSS-536 requires that all oil-filled power transformer 30 MVA be shipped filled with insulating oil of the type and quality specified in 26- SAMSS-059. This oil shall be a virgin hydrocarbon mineral oil containing no polychlorinated biphenyls and meeting the following two specifications: Westinghouse Specification for WEMCO C oil; or, General Electric Specification for GE 10 C oil
Any insulating oil that contains Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) contamination that exceeds current U. S. Federal Regulations will be unacceptable. The purpose of the insulating oil tests is to verify the integrity of the liquid insulating system. The reliable operation of the equipment in service depends on maintaining certain oil characteristics. Adherence to the recommended oil characteristics will help in obtaining the desired transformer internal dielectric levels. These are the insulating oil tests that must be performed on all transformers, and in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.106: Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D-877) Neutralization number (acidity)(.4 mg KOH/g max) Interfacial tension (IFT) (35 dynes/cm min, ASTM-D-971) Color (1.0 max, ASTM-D-1500)
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Moisture content (35 ppm, ASTM-D-1533) Specific gravity Visual examination (clean, bright, ASTM-D-1524, color and D-1698, sediment) Sediment Viscosity Power factor (.1% max, ASTM-D-924) Fluid sampling method Analysis of combustible gas in blanket and gas in oil
Most of these items will be in the Form P-025. Those listed should be documented Types of Transformer Oil Test Dielectric Breakdown Voltage Test - The dielectric breakdown voltage of an insulating liquid is important as a measure of its ability to withstand electric stress without failure. The dielectric breakdown voltage is the voltage at which breakdown occurs between two electrodes under prescribed test conditions. The voltage level where the electrodes spark over is recorded as breakdown voltage of the oil being tested. The dielectric breakdown voltage test serves primarily to indicate the presence of contaminating agents in the oil, such as water, dirt, carbon, or any other conducting particles. One or more contaminating agents may be present when low dielectric breakdown values are found by test. However, a high dielectric breakdown voltage does not suggest the absence of all contaminants. Other oil tests must be performed in the series of eight tests covered in this section. These two ATM test methods are used in the dielectric breakdown voltage test: 1. 2. ATM-D877 which uses 1 flat-disc electrodes separated by 0.10, using a specified rate of rise (refer to Work Aid 1B1). ATM-D1816 which uses spherical electrodes, a specified rate of rise, and incorporates stirring the liquid (refer to Work Aid 1B2). This test is more sensitive to moisture than the ATM-D877 test method.
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In the field, the test is normally accomplished using a portable oil dielectric tester and a liquid cup (Figure 108) constructed in accordance with either ASTM-D877 (one-inch diameter vertical disc electrodes spaced 0.100" apart) or the other method, ASTM D-1816 (spherical electrodes spaced 0.080" apart). The test cup is first cleaned, using a dry hydrocarbon solvent, then dried and filled with the sample fluid to a prescribed level. The liquid is gently agitated to remove air bubbles, and then allowed to stand for 3 to 5 minutes. An oil dielectric tester set is connected to the test cup and voltage is applied at either 3 kV/second for ASTMD-877 test cups, or 500 volts/second for ASTM-D1816 test cups until the sample breaks down. (Note: The ASTM-D1816 test is more sensitive to small amounts of contamination and is therefore primarily used to test new fluid.) The test is repeated a total of five times, with one filling of the test cup. The final value is the average of the five readings and must not vary by more than 3 kV from any one reading top be considered valid. When results are determined not to be valid, five additional breakdown tests are made with a new filling of the cup. Figure 109 shows the dielectric strength of oil versus water content. Three tests should be performed and a mathematical average calculated. This is the final kV value. These are kV values for the various conditions of oil: New oil 35kV Old oil 25 kV Old oil with 24 kV is bad oil Old oil with > 24 kV is acceptable oil
The maximum values for continued use of transformer oil is listed in IEEE C57.106. Method D877 of IEEE C57.106 is recommended for the routine acceptance of new unprocessed oil from a vendor.
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Figure 108. Insulating Fluid Dielectric Test Set
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Water Content, Parts per million Figure 109. Effects of Water in Insulating Oil
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Neutralization Number Test or Acidity Test - This test is used to determine acidity of the oil as specified in ASTM-D-974. Work Aid 4 clarifies the test performance. The acidity in oil is due to oxidization. The neutralization number for service-aged oils is a measure of acids in the oil causing sludge. This value is important compared to the value for the new oil. The neutralization number helps to indicate the condition of the oil and determine when it should be reconditioned or reclaimed. This test is the second most common field test used in oil analysis. The acidity tests are not intended to replace standard laboratory tests. Field tests are intended as screening tests to minimize the number of samples submitted to the laboratory. The field tests allow approximate evaluations of the amount of acid and polar constituents, and the degree of deterioration and/or contamination of the oil. The test is performed using an acidity buffer, filter paper, transformer oil and an indicating solution. The combination of these products causes a specific color. The color indicates the condition of the oil. The standard contains information of what the colors indicate. Be aware however that orange or brown always means high acidity. This does not mean that the oil is good or bad, but it is a good candidate for further laboratory tests. The test is typically accomplished using a neutralization number field test kit. A commonly used type is the ampoule method kit supplied by the Gerrin Company (Figure 110). The test specifically determines the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize the acid in one gram of the liquid sample. Typical neutralization numbers for insulating liquid when new are 0.01 to 0.03 mg KOH/gm. Reconditioning of the insulating liquid is recommended when the neutralization number increases to a level of 0.25-0.35 mg KOH/gm, and reclaiming of the liquid is recommended for levels of 0.35-0.5 mg KOH/gm.
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Figure 110. Field Test Kit for Insulating Fluid Acidity
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Interfacial Tension Test (IFT) - The interfacial tension between an electrical insulating oil and water is the measure of the molecular attractive force between the unlike molecules at the interface. This test provides a means of detecting soluble polar contaminants and the products of deterioration. The interfacial tension value will decrease as the soluble-contamination or oil-deterioration products increase. The interfacial tension (IFT) test generally measures the soluble contaminants or deterioration products in the insulting fluid. The test is a measure of the interfacial tension between the insulating fluid and water and is expressed in units of dynes per centimeter. The test provides a reliable means of detecting deterioration of the insulating fluid. As soluble contaminates or fluid deteriorating products (hydrophillic compounds) increase in concentration, the interfacial tension of the fluid decreases. Interfacial tension for new insulating fluid is typically 40 to 45 dynes/cm. In accordance with industry recommendations and depending on other fluid parameters, insulating fluids with IFT measurements of 24 dynes/cm. or greater are judged suitable for continued service. Fluids with IFT measurements below 24 dynes/cm. should be reconditioned or reclaimed. Color Test (ASTM D-1500) - Insulating fluid, when new, has a very light, almost clear color. As the fluid ages in service, its color will darken in proportion to the amount of contamination or foreign material that accumulates. The purpose of the color test is to establish a baseline measure of the insulating fluid color for a specific transformer, and then observe the rate of change in color between inspections. The degree and rate of change of color for a given transformer can then be used to help determine when the fluid must be reconditioned or reclaimed. The color test is performed by placing a sample of the fluid in a hand-held device referred to as a color wheel. Light is transmitted through the sample and its color is compared with a set of standard colors mounted on a wheel. Each color is expressed as a number and the color that most closely matches the fluid sample is recorded as the measure of the sample. New insulating fluid has a very light color identified by a low number (typically 0.5). As insulating fluid ages, its color changes and can extend through a range from "water clear" (0.0) to opaque (8.0) in 0.5 increments. ASTM D-1524 is the standard field test for color of oil. ASTM D-1500 is the lab test for color of oil. The color of an insulating oil provides an indication of oil deterioration or contamination.
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This test is not useful by itself, but it is significant with other tests, particularly there is a marked change from one test to another. The color test should be compared with the Interfacial Tension test and the acidity test results. The three test together can indicate polar compounds (sludge) and fatty acids. Moisture Content - ASTM D-1533 contains the specifications for testing for moisture content. The test is called the Karl Fischer Method. It detects moisture in the oil in parts per million (ppm). The reason it is important to detect moisture is that it is absorbed by the cellulose winding insulation limiting its insulating ability. The moisture content test is performed to determine the total water, as well as soluble water content of the oil. It is difficult to find moisture in oil. That is why this test is used. The test will indicate small amounts of water in the oil. If the oil contains more than 50 ppm, it indicates that the transformer insulation is most probably wet and has lost it ability to properly insulate the windings especially for units more than five years old. The presence of free water in an insulating oil may be observed by visual examination in the form of separated droplets or as a cloud dispersed throughout the fluid. Water in solution is normally determined by physical or chemical means. The laboratory test for determining moisture content in insulating fluids is typically used to measure concentrations below 200 ppm. Water is the primary cause of decreased dielectric breakdown strength in insulating oil. Comparing the results of the moisture content test with the results of the dielectric breakdown test will show this inverse correlation (refer to Figure 111). As moisture content increases, breakdown voltage decreases. The moisture content for new insulating fluids is typically 20 to 35 ppm. With consideration of other fluid parameters, it is recommended that insulating fluids with moisture contents of 40 ppm or greater be reconditioned or reclaimed.
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Figure 111. Electric Strength of Transformer Oil vs. Water Content
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Specific Gravity (Relative Density) - ASTM D-1298 contains specifications for testing oil for specific gravity. Specific gravity (also called relative density) is a simple ratio of the mass of a specific volume of the oil to the mass of an equal amount of water (water is the baseline liquid with a specific gravity of 1.0.) One purpose of this test is to determine the type of oil in the transformer, if this information is not known. This is what the specific gravity can indicate: If the specific gravity is over 1.0, the oil is possibly askarel (PCB) or silicone. If PCB, it must be disposed of in a specified manner. Oil containing large amounts of PCB will not be used in Saudi Aramco. If the specific gravity is less than 0.84, it is probably paraffinic oil.
New oil has a specific gravity of 0.91 according to ANSI/ASTM specifications. Knowing this fact allows the laboratory to analyze a sample of oil and determine if other materials have entered the oil. Visual Examination The visual examination is specified in ASTM-D1524 for color, and for cloudiness and turbidity. This standard gives information on how to evaluate the visual findings. The color test is accomplished by placing a sample of oil into an instrument called a comparator. The comparator has a series of colored disc filters. The sample is compared to the filter colors. There is no precision listed for the field test. There is also a laboratory test for color that can be performed, when the lab is supplied with a clean sample of oil. It is probably more accurate. This standard also has a visual test for cloudiness and turbidity. Good oil is a sparkling color, clear and bright. Cloudiness indicates some type of contamination, such as moisture, carbon, or sludge. The visual-condition test indicates that if turbidity and cloudiness exist, it may indicate the presence of free water, or of sediment, such as metal particles, insoluble sludge, carbon, fiber, and dirt. If insoluble contaminants are present, valuable information may be obtained by filtering the oil and identifying the residue, such as a sediment test.
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Sediment - ASTM D-1698 contains a method of testing the sediment in insulating oil to determine any organic material in the oil. Using this method, the oil is drained, filtered and centrifuged to separating sediment. The sediment samples are dried and weighed. Then, the sample is ignited and any organic material is burned. The sample is weighed again. The difference in the weight (weight loss) determines the amount of organic material in the insulating oil. The presence of organic matter indicates deterioration such as sludge or contamination. The remainder of the sample is inorganic matter which indicted contamination such as rust. The portion of the liquid that remains after the solubles are filtered is also tested to determine soluble sludge and organic sludge. There are two other tests steps in this series: 1. Soluble sludge is determined by diluting it with N-pentane, which is a hydrocarbon. This will precipitate the sludge because it is not soluble in this solution. Identify organic sludge by determining if a sample will dissolve in acetone. If it dissolves, it is organic, not inorganic.
2.
There are no good or bad values in the results of the test. There are three categories of degree of organic matter in the oil; slight, moderate, and heavy. "Moderate" indicates other tests should be performed or the condition should be investigated. "Heavy" indicates the oil should be reconditioned by filtering but other types of test should confirm this decision. Viscosity - The viscosity of an oil is its resistance to uniform continuous flow without turbulence, inertia, or other forces. The viscosity has an important influence on heat transfer. A high viscosity will decrease the efficiency of the cooling system and increase the temperature of the insulating oil. Power-Factor Test - The oil power-factor test is specified in ASTM D-924. It measures the leakage current through an oil. A high power factor is a measure of contamination or deterioration, such as oxidation products, metal soaps, charged colloids, etc. The power-factor test is a measure of the ratio of the power dissipated in the insulating fluid to the product of the effective voltage and current in volt-amperes when tested with a sinusoidal field under prescribed conditions. A high power factor is an indication of the presence of contaminants or deterioration products. New insulating oil will typically have a power factor of 0.01% to 0.05% at 25C. With consideration of other fluid parameter measurements, insulating fluids with power factors of 1.0% at 25C are judged satisfactory for continuous service. Insulating fluids with power factors of 1.2% and above should be reconditioned or reclaimed.
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Fluid Sampling Method Fluid samples are generally taken while the transformer is energized. Fluid samples should be taken from the sampling valve at the bottom of the transformer tank. However, before drawing the sample, verify that the pressure in the gas space is positive. Should the sample valve be opened while the pressure is negative, a bubble of air may be pulled into the valve and travel into the windings. This in turn could result in a winding failure. Another concern when drawing the fluid sample is that any water or dirt present in the transformer will collect at the bottom of the tank (or sumparea). Therefore, it is important that care be taken to prevent these from entering the sample that is being collected for test. In some cases, it may be necessary to draw and discard (in accordance with applicable regulations) the first two or three quarts of fluid to obtain an accurate sample. In addition, to ensure impurities are kept out of the sample, only clean, dry containers should be used. Prior to drawing the sample, the container should be rinsed with a suitable solvent and thoroughly dried. Rubber stoppers or rubber gaskets should never be used to cap the container. When samples are to be sent to a laboratory for testing, the lab will very often provide a "sample bottle" kit (Figure 112) containing clean, new 16-oz. amber glass bottles and all required packaging materials. WARNING: Fluid samples may only be taken from energized transformers when the transformer has an external sampling valve. When the transformer does not have an external sampling valve, then it must be de-energized and a sample taken internally, usually from the top manhole. (Refer ASTM D-923).
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Figure 112. Insulating Fluid Sample Kit
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Comparing Oil-Test Data It is important to be able to see the results of test data and compare the different oil test and what each test is indicating. Figure 113 identifies the types of tests conducted and gives comparisons of the results. The engineer should use this type of comparison chart to determine which test will give what results. OIL TEST RESULTS COMPARISON
Acidity Askarel Dirt R ust or Silicon Paraffinic Sludge or Polar Contaminants Carbon or Conductive Particles TYPES OIL TEST Water or Moisture TEST LIMITS
**Dielectric Acidity = Neutralization Interfacial Tension *Color Moisture Content Specific Gravity Visual Examination Sediment Power Factor Gas-in-Oil Analysis
Y Y Y Y
Y * *
30 kV min.
Good Green & Yellow max . 0. 03 mg KOH / gm Bad Orange , brown , highacidity
IFT IFT Acidity Acidity
)
Y Y Y
Good 40 dynes / cm min. Bad 18dynes / cm
0.5 max.
Y Y Y
Oil 0.275 Askarel 1.552
Max - 35 ppm
Bad Cloudiness Bright & Clear Good
Determined by what's found New Oil 0.05% >0.5% determines problem
Not analyzed in same manner *Acidity Test = Neutralization Number Test *Color had to be compared with IFT and acidity **Dielectric indicates rust if conductive
Figure 113. Comparing Oil-Test Results
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Gas Analysis of Operating Transformers Major Causes of Gases in Oil-Filled Transformers All oil-filled transformers generate gases during operation. The generated gases are found mixed with the blanket gas in the gas space and also dissolved in the insulating liquid. Sampling, testing and analyzing these gases help reveal if a transformer is operating normally or if problems are developing. The early detection of developing problems with performance of required maintenance can prevent a failure and keep the transformer in service. It is well recognized that the generated gases are related to the transformer's insulating fluid and solid insulation (cellulose material). These materials undergo gradual or abrupt degradation depending on whether the electrical and thermal stresses are mild or severe. The key gases that are generated as a result of the electrical and thermal stresses include hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), ethylene (C2H4), and acetylene (C2H2). The main sources that cause the key gases to be generated are overheating of conductors, overheating of insulating fluid, partial discharges, and arcing. Conductor Overheating - Hot spots in coil windings cause cellulose to degenerate into a variety of products including CO, CO2, and H2O. At 120C the decomposition is insignificant producing only about 1.5 x 10-4 ml of (CO + CO2) per hour per gram of cellulose. But as temperature increases the rate of generation increases. At 180C the rate of generated (CO + CO2) is 220 times that at 120C. At temperatures above 250C, the generated rate of CO is approximately four times that of CO2 with the solubility of CO2 in insulating fluid being ten times that of CO. Thus, the measured ratio of these gases in the samples taken, depends significantly on whether the transformer has a gas space or not. As a result of these known relationships, the volume and ratio of CO and CO2 can be used as an indicator to determine the presence of hot spots in a transformer. Overheating of Insulating Fluid - Decomposition of the insulating fluid and generation of hydrocarbons becomes apparent above 150C, though trace amounts of methane and ethane can be detected even at 120C. Significant decomposition of the insulating fluid by thermal cracking takes place above the boiling range, near 300C. Overheating of the insulating fluid may be caused by an overheated steel core, by circulating currents, by conductor overheating, and by losses in structural members. The key gas associated with insulating fluid decomposition is ethylene (C2H4). Partial Discharge - The key gas generated when partial discharge occurs in a transformer is hydrogen. Regardless of whether the partial discharges take place in voids in the cellulose insulation or in the insulating fluid, large quantities of hydrogen are generated. The hydrogen produced by discharges in insulating fluids can be as much as 75% of the total gases, with the remaining part being composed of small percentages of hydrocarbons, in the decreasing order C2H2>CH4>C2H4>C2H6. When discharges occur in cellulose alone, approximately equal quantities of CO and H2 are produced.
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Arcing - Arcing involves high currents and temperatures that typically occur prior to shortcircuit failures. Both cellulose and insulating fluid decompose to gaseous products when these conditions are present. Complete breakdown of insulating fluid at arcing temperature (1,500-3,000C) produces large quantities of acetylene (the key gas) and hydrogen, and smaller quantities of other hydrocarbons. A gas analysis of the insulating fluid would also show significant quantities of methane and ethylene because of the lower temperatures in the region surrounding the arc. Analysis of Transformer Combustible Gases Over a period of time, testing laboratories and transformer users have developed a generally accepted list of the gases generated in a transformer and the condition or type of fault usually associated with them. Table 8 shows this list. Table 8 Common Analysis of Transformer Combustible Gas Detected Gas 1. Nitrogen with 5% or less oxygen. 2. Nitrogen with more than 5% oxygen. 3. Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and/or carbon monoxide. 4. Nitrogen and hydrogen. 5. Nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon. 6. Nitrogen, hydrogen, methane with small amounts of ethane and 7. Nitrogen, hydrogen, methane with carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and small amounts of other hydrocarbons. No acetylene. 8. Nitrogen with high hydrogen, methane, ethylene, and acetylene. 9. Same as 8, except carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are present. Interpretations Normal operation of transformer. Check for tightness of transformer ports that can be opened to air. Transformer overloaded or operating hot, causing some cellulose breakdown. Check operation conditions. Corona discharge, electrolysis of water or rusting. Corona discharge involving cellulose or sever overloading of transformer. Sparking or low-level corona discharge in the presence of cellulose. Sparking or low-level corona discharge in the presence of cellulose.
High energy arc causing rapid deterioration of insulating fluid. Brazed connections or turn-to-turn shorts are examples. Same as 8, except arcing in combination with cellulose.
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Methods for Analyzing Combustible Gas Two methods are used for detecting and analyzing the combustible gas content in blanket gas samples and insulating fluid samples. The two methods are the Gas Analyzer and the Gas Chromatography. Gas Analyzer -The Gas Analyzer is a practical method for giving periodic and on the spot checks of the percentage of combustible gases present in blanket gas samples. It is a portable device more often used for field testing, but is also used by laboratories. However, it has several shortcomings that limit its effectiveness. One of these is that it is applicable only to those transformers with a gas space. It also has the disadvantage of only indicating the percent of combustible gas and does not identify the individual gases. Since a transformer with a gas space is allowed to intake and expel gas as the transformer cycles thermally, the percentage of combustible gases may not be an accurate indication. In addition, those gases dissolved in the insulating fluid are given up to the gas space in relation to their solubility in fluid. As a result, some of the combustible gases with high solubility may be locked in the insulating fluid and may not appear in the gas space. Gas Chromatography - Gas Chromatography provides more accurate and informative data by laboratory analysis of the transformer insulating liquid. The gases dissolved in the insulating liquid are extracted from a sample and analyzed by a Gas Chromatograph. The analysis identifies the individual gases present and indicates the relative amounts. These amounts are reported as a percentage of total gases present or as parts per million parts of the insulating fluid. Typically, unusual conditions indicated in the field with a Gas Analyzer are followed up and investigated with Gas Chromatography at the laboratory.
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Mineral oil consists of 287 liquid hydrocarbon compounds. When some of these hydrocarbons are heated they also free some combustible gases (CGs). These CG's dissolve in the oil. Increases in temperature cause disintegration of the oil molecules. This is a list of the types and amounts of gases in oil at normal temperature. TYPES AND AMOUNTS OF GASES AT NORMAL TEMPERATURE Type Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Methane Carbon Monoxide Ethane Acetylene Heavy Hydrocarbons Total Symbol H2 O2 N2 CH4 CO C2H6 C2H2 N/A Amount (Percent) 59.10 1.36 10.1 4.2 19.21 0.0 0.0 1.17 100%
Some of these gases can be very dangerous. There is a danger when the amount of nitrogen and oxygen in oil constitutes about 13 % of the contained gas. The reunion of hydrogen and oxygen can cause a violent reaction. Hydrogen levels of 10 to 66% in the air is explosive. This type of explosion will produce a very destructive force. In transformers with gas-blanket cushions, there is a large amount of nitrogen available. Types of faults in a transformer can be determined by determining the conditions that existed at the occurrence of the fault. There are some ways to examine faults: Relationships during the fault condition such as, the decomposition temperature versus the type of gas generated The combined solubility of gas in the oil and the temperature that generated these gasses Investigate temperature levels because different temperatures cause different faults Different gasses are given off at different temperature levels
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Solubility of Gases in Transformer Oil In order to know if there is excessive CG's in the oil, you must first have a base line for the normal solubility of gases in transformer oil. Table 9 shows how much the gases will dissolve into the oil. Table 9 Solubility of Gases in Transformer Oil Type of Gas Symbol Percent by Volume 1 H2 7.0 Hydrogen Nitrogen N2 8.6 1 CO 9.0 Carbon Monoxide Oxygen O2 16.0 1 CH4 30.0 Methane Carbon Dioxide CO2 120.0 1 C2H6 280.0 Ethane 1 C2H4 280.0 Ethylene C2H2 400.0 Acetylene1 Static equilibrium at 760 Hg and 25C 1Denotes combustible gas Table 9 indicates that normal total combustible gas detection could not detect combustible gases in these types of transformer: Free breathers Conservator type transformers Transformers without air space
What does this mean in terms of total combustible gas testing versus Gas Chromatography? These items would not be found by the total combustible gas testing method. The first 7% of the hydrogen would remain in the oil and not show up above the air space in the oil 30% of the methane generated by a fault would now show up in the airspace Those gases, some of which are key gasses that exceed 100% are locked in the oil and undetectable by the gas method
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By knowing the types of fault gases and the relationship of the conditions that generated the fault, the type of electrical fault can be determined. Figure 114 shows some comparative rates of the evolution of gases from oil as a function of decomposition energy. This illustration shows the evolution during normal operation, when hot spots occur and when arcing occurs.
Figure 114. Comparative Rates of Evolution of Gases from Oil as a Function of Decomposition Energy
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For the gas-in-oil test comparisons, the component to look for is the key gas. In all cases of incipient or internal transformer problems, there will be a specific gas generated called a key gas. It is important simply because it is present, not because it is prominent or predominant. It is this key gas that identifies the type of fault. To illustrate this, the following example is given for arcing in the transformer oil: Example: Type Gas Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Methane Carbon Monoxide Ethane Carbon Dioxide Ethylene Acetylene Total Gas Content Combustible Gas Content Symbol H2 O2 N2 CH4 CO C2H6 CO2 C2H4 C2H2 ppm 7,200 8,600 64,000 600 12 192 1,700 396 3,600 86,300 12,000 8.63 % by Volume 13.9% Combustible Gas Combustible (Percent)
Analysis - The presence of acetylene as the key gas almost always indicates arcing of the transformer oil. Conclusions - Arcing between the tank and leads, or a major fault involving arc to ground. Possibilities also include: High-voltage lead failure Rapidly developing faults in the tap changer Or, loose connections forming a splitting (arcing) junction
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The following tabulations shows the types of results for various faults. Arcing in Transformer Oil Hydrogen ACETYLENE (KEY GAS) Methane Ethane Ethylene 60.0% of Combustibles 30.0% of Combustibles 5.0% of Combustibles 1.6% of Combustibles 3.3% of Combustibles
Corona in Transformer Oil HYDROGEN (KEY GAS) Acetylene Methane Ethane Carbon Monoxide Ethylene 86.0% of Combustibles 0.1% of Combustibles 13.0% of Combustibles 0.5% of Combustibles 0.2% of Combustibles 0.2% of Combustibles
Overheating in Transformer Oil ETHYLENE (KEY GAS) Acetylene Methane Ethane Misc. gases 63.0% of Combustibles Traces 16.0% of Combustibles 17% of Combustibles Traces
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Overheated Cellulose CARBON MONOXIDE (KEY GAS) Hydrogen Acetylene Methane Ethane Acetylene Ethylene 92.0% of Combustibles 6.7% of Combustibles 0.1% of Combustibles 1.2% of Combustibles 0.01% of Combustibles 0.01% of Combustibles 0.01% of Combustibles
If the engineer looks at the results of the oil-in-gas analysis in terms of key gases, faults will be quickly identified and probably in time to prevent major breakdown or shutdown. The experience and information gained by manufacturers and users with regard to analysis of gases is documented in an IEEE standard (IEEE C57.104-1991, "IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-Immersed Transformer"). This standard is intended only as an advisory document. It provides guidance on specific methods and procedures to assist the transformer which exhibits combustible gas formation. The guide acknowledges that although the physical reasons for gas formation have a firm technical basis, the interpretation of the data in terms of the specific cause or causes is not an exact science, but is the result of empirical evidence, from which rules for interpretation have been derived. The guide presents a four condition criterion to classify risks to transformers for continued operation at various combustible gas levels. Recommended actions are described for each of the conditions are presented in Tables 10 and 11.
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Table 10 Actions Based on Total Combustible Gas

Total Combustible Gas Levels (%) Condition 1
TCG below this level indicates the transformer is operating satisfactorily. Any individual combustible gas exceeding specified levels should prompt additional investigation. > 0.03 Monthly
Total Combustible Gas Rate (%/Day)
Sampling Intervals and Operating Procedures for Gas Generation Rates Sampling Intervals Operating Procedures
Exercise caution. Analyze for individual gases. Determine load dependence. Continue normal operation.
< 0.5%
0.03 to 0.01
Quarterly
< 0.01 > 0.03
Annual Monthly
Condition 2
TCG within this range indicates greater than normal combustible gas levels. Any individual combustible gas exceeding specified levels should prompt additional investigation. Action should be taken to establish a trend. Fault(s) may be present.
Continue normal operation. Exercise caution. Analyze for individual gases. Determine load dependence. Exercise caution. Analyze for individual gases. Determine load dependence. Exercise caution. Analyze for individual gases. Determine load dependence. Exercise extreme caution. Analyze for individual gases. Consider planned outage. Advise manufacturer. Exercise extreme caution. Analyze for individual gases. Consider planned outage. Advise manufacturer. Exercise extreme caution. Analyze for individual gases. Consider planned outage. Advise manufacturer. Consider removal from service. Advise manufacturer. Consider removal from service. Advise manufacturer. Exercise extreme caution. Analyze for individual gases. Consider planned outage. Advise manufacturer.
< 2.0% to 0.5%
0.03 to 0.01
Monthly
< 0.01
Quarterly
Condition 3
TCG within this range indicates a high level of decomposition. Any individual combustible gas exceeding specified levels should prompt additional investigation. Immediate action should be taken to establish a trend. Fault(s) are probably present. > 0.03 Weekly
< 5.0% to 2.0%
0.03 to 0.01
Weekly
< 0.01
Monthly
Condition 4
TCG within this range indicates excessive decomposition. Continued operation could result in failure of the transformer. Proceed immediately and with caution to implement corrective steps. > 0.03 Daily
5.0%
0.03 to 0.01
Daily
< 0.01
Weekly
(Reference IEEE 57.104-1991)
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Table 11 Actions Based on Total Dissolved Combustible Gas

Total Dissolved Combustible Gas Levels (PPM) Condition 1
TDCG below this level indicates the transformer is operating satisfactorily. Any individual combustible gas exceeding specified levels should prompt additional investigation. > 30 Monthly
Total Dissolved Combustible Gas Rate (PPM/Day)
Sampling Intervals and Operating Procedures for Gas Generation Rates Sampling Intervals Operating Procedures
Exercise caution. Analyze for individual gases. Determine load dependence. Continue normal operation.
< 720
10 to 30
Quarterly
< 10 > 30
Annual Monthly
Condition 2
TDCG within this range indicates greater than normal combustible gas levels. Any individual combustible gas exceeding specified levels should prompt additional investigation. Action should be taken to establish a trend. Fault(s) may be present.
Continue normal operation. Exercise caution. Analyze for individual gases. Determine load dependence. Exercise caution. Analyze for individual gases. Determine load dependence. Exercise caution. Analyze for individual gases. Determine load dependence. Exercise extreme caution. Analyze for individual gases. Consider planned outage. Advise manufacturer. Exercise extreme caution. Analyze for individual gases. Consider planned outage. Advise manufacturer. Exercise extreme caution. Analyze for individual gases. Consider planned outage. Advise manufacturer. Consider removal from service. Advise manufacturer. Consider removal from service. Advise manufacturer. Exercise extreme caution. Analyze for individual gases. Consider planned outage. Advise manufacturer.
721 to 1920
10 to 30
Monthly
< 10
Quarterly
Condition 3
TDCG within this range indicates a high level of decomposition. Any individual combustible gas exceeding specified levels should prompt additional investigation. Immediate action should be taken to establish a trend. Fault(s) are probably present. > 30 Weekly
1921 to 4630
10 to 30
Weekly
< 10
Monthly
Condition 4
TDCG within this range indicates excessive decomposition. Continued operation could result in failure of the transformer. Proceed immediately and with caution to implement corrective steps. > 30 Daily
> 4630
10 to 30
Daily
< 10
Weekly
(Reference IEEE 57.104-1991)
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Blanket Gas Sampling Method - When on-site testing for the presence of combustible gases is performed with a portable meter, the gas sample is typically collected in a rubber bladder. The bladder has a valve at each end to allow for flow-through purging before closing off one valve to trap the sample. The bladder is then connected to the portable meter for the test. This type of test serves as a first level effort to determine if any combustible gases are present and their approximate percentage. When results from this testing indicate a 0.5% or greater presence of combustible gas, another sample is collected and sent to a formal testing laboratory for a comprehensive analysis. When gas samples for analysis at a formal laboratory are taken, they are collected in special airtight containers using strictly controlled procedures. On request, most laboratories provide these containers (Figure 115) in a prepared kit suitable for collecting the sample. Typical sampling kits consist of a stainless steel cylinder fitted with valves on each end, a plastic bag used to determine the approximate volume of gas purged through the cylinder and connectors and tubing used for connecting the cylinder to the transformer valve. To collect the sample, first purge the outlet valve for the transformers gas space by exhausting a small amount of gas. Then connect one end of the stainless steel cylinder to the gas space outlet valve using the supplied tubing and connectors. Attach the plastic bag to the other end of the cylinder and tape in place. Starting with all valves closed, open the transformer gas space outlet valve first. Following this, slowly open the valve on the end of the cylinder that is closest to the transformer and allow the pressure to equalize. Now, open the valve next to the plastic bag, then close the remaining cylinder valve. Remove the tubing and plastic bag. Mark the identification for the sample on a tag, attach it to the cylinder and package the cylinder for shipment to the laboratory. Note: Careless sampling can result in dilution of the gas sample which in turn will provide inaccurate test results. Warning: Gases generated in a transformer can be explosive and may cause personal injury or death. Strict precaution should be observed when drawing samples of blanket gas from the transformer.
Figure 115. Gas Sample Kit
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Gas-In-Oil Sampling Method - Conservator type transformers and any others which are completely filled with oil have no gas space and thus do not allow for analysis of transformer gases by the blanket gas sampling method. For this type of transformer, airtight containers are used to take oil samples, which are sent to the laboratory where the gas is extracted from the oil and analyzed. A common method for collecting the sample to be used for gas-in-fluid testing is the syringe sampling method. A typical sampling kit available from the testing laboratory is shown in Figure 116. This technique uses an airtight syringe with a piston, three-way stopcock valve, and a length of flexible tubing. The transformer valve is slowly opened and insulating fluid allowed to flow through the tubing and out a side port of the stopcock to remove all air from the tube. The piston of the syringe is pushed all the way in, expelling air from the syringe, and the stopcock turned to allow insulating fluid to enter the syringe. The piston is then pulled back to draw the fluid into the syringe. The stopcock is closed and the syringe held vertically to check for unwanted air that may have entered with the oil. If a bubble is present, the process is repeated until the sample is free of unwanted air. The stopcock is closed and the syringe, with the stopcock remaining in place to seal it, is packaged for shipment to the laboratory.
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Figure 116. Typical Sampling Kit for Gas-in-Fluid Analysis
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PCB Analysis Test All transformers must have their insulating fluid checked for PCBs. After testing, then all transformers must be labeled to show whether or not they contain PCBs. In accordance with the "Final Rule" (CFR, Title 40, Part 761) issued by the US Environmental Protection Agency in 1979, following is a partial summary of the requirements for controlling and labeling transformers: Partial Summary of Requirements for Controlling Transformers with PCB Liquid 1. Testing and Labeling All liquid-filled transformers must have their fluid tested for the presence of PCBs. All liquid-filled transformers must have one of three federally approved labels attached in a visible location to its outside case: PCB content 49 ppm; PCB content 50 to 499 ppm; PCB content 500 ppm; requires Blue label reading "NonPCB" requires Yellow label reading "PCB Contaminated" requires Yellow "Contains PCB" label reading
When sampling a fluid for analysis that may contain PCBs, the sample should be collected in an approved, sealed and labeled container. The sampling containers must then be packaged for shipment to the laboratory in accordance with federal regulations. At present, these regulations call for packing the sample container in absorbing material contained in a sealed plastic bag, which in turn is contained in a cardboard box. The box must then be labeled as containing PCBs. The approved containers necessary for sampling suspected PCB liquids are generally available from the testing laboratory as part of a complex kit (Figure 117). The kit contains a glass sample bottle, liquid dropper, plastic bag, container with absorbing cotton, cardboard shipping box, and written sampling and shipping instructions. Following completion of the test, it is the laboratory's responsibility to make sure that any tested liquids containing PCBs is disposed of in an approved manner.
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Figure 117. Sampling Kit for PCB Analysis
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TRANSFORMER SYSTEM PRE-OPERATIONAL CHECKOUT The sub-system pre-operational checkout requires manually simulating the operation of all subsystems to confirm that the proper electrical scheme will function properly without power applied. Therefore, the following tests and checks are performed: Continuity test and point to point wiring checks to all control and protective device circuits Manual operational continuity makeup test on all protective circuits and interlock circuits to ensure proper operation Sequencing of controls, protective devices, and interlock devices
Performance Testing During the performance testing phases, the power is applied to each subsystem to ensure that it will function according to electrical design. This is accomplished before energizing the complete system and tying it to the plant power system. This protects the main and plant power systems from a possible subsystem malfunction that may drag down the main or plant power system. In this way, each subsystem is tested and made operational before tying the subsystem to the main and plant systems. This should be accomplished in two phases: Phase I Apply full operational voltage to each subsystem through proper protective devices and perform sub-circuitry operational test full rate power to ensure that the subcircuitry will handle full rated voltage and operate as designed without being connected to the main or plant power system. The sub-circuitry could be, for example, the cooling system. Power could be applied to the control circuitry of the fans to ensure that all control switches and relays operate and that all fans operate properly with no vibration or problems. Also they will run in manual and automatic modes. The alarm circuits are functioning properly and providing proper indications. This could also apply to the transformer protective device control schemes (sudden or rapid pressure device) to ensure that they will function with various levels of voltage and current applied to the current transformer (CT) and voltage transformer (VT) secondary circuits. This could also check the proper tripping of the transformer primary and secondary breakers. These subsystem tests ensure that when the subsystems are connected into the complete system they will function as designed.
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Phase II
After all the subsystems have been tested properly and are acceptable, configure all the detached sub-circuitry into the main system but still isolated and independent of the main plant power system and normal loading. The last check or test before the full power system energization is to perform a complete operational test of the parts of the power system that pertain to the transformer or transformers that were installed. These pertain to the controls, protective devices, interlocks, and components. Short-term operation will ensure that all system components function as a proper system as designed per project drawings and specifications.
Installation Checklist New power transformers normally are installed through use of a work procedure that was developed before the transformer arrived. These procedures are based on a combination of Codes and Standards, previous experience, and the manufacturers instructions. Part of this procedure should include an installation checklist works. The checklist gives a way to make sure that all the right steps in the installation process have been performed. See Table 12.
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Table 12 PRE-OPERATIONAL FIELD INSTALLATION CHECKLIST POWER TRANSFORMERS (OIL-IMMERSED) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Check complete assembly for damage and missing parts. Temporary shipping blocks and protective crating removed. Visually inspect for cleanliness and completeness of bushings and connections. Check lubrication and freedom of rotation of cooling fans. Check lubrication and freedom of motion of tap changers and other operating accessories. Record transformer tap setting and set for correct voltage. Check oil level gauge and inspect for oil leakage. Determine dielectric strength of insulating oil and record on Field Test Record. Check pressure-relief device and sudden pressure device. Alarm and control circuits connected and complete. Check inert-gas pressure gauge (should be 2 psig 1 psig). Check temperature gauge. High-voltage cable properly supported, connected and insulated. Check transformer nameplate against purchase specification. Inspect protective devices and controls. Check conduit connections. Check conductor size and type. Check conductor phasing and identification. Perform installation test and record readings on Form P-025. Case grounding and grounding resistor correctly installed and connected to main ground system.
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Electrical External Connections All steps in the installation of a transformer are important. However, incorrect performance (e.g., wrong electrical connections) of some steps of installation can result in immediate damage. Most connections to a transformer are external. These connections include all the wiring to alarm and control devices, tap changers, and BCT instrument transformers. These connections are verified through comparison of the actual connections to those on applicable project drawings. The items that must be verified are: (1) that the wires are in the right place by a point to point wiring check and are compared for accuracy to the elementary diagram drawings and wiring diagram drawings. The drawing and transformer's existing control connections and wiring should all be the same with no exceptions. If any exception exist they should be corrected. (2) The connections should be checked for tightness and (3) that the correct hardware was installed. The external connections are also the input and output power or load current carrying connections and the ground connections. These connections should also be verified through use of drawings to make sure the connections are correct. The verification should include checking that the tightness (torque) and termination surface area are correct, that the required hardware was installed, and that the proper support was provided. Transformer Accessory Component Checkout The component checkout of all accessory equipment both electrically and mechanically ensures proper operation. The components that make up a subsystem should also be checked electrically and mechanically as a complete subsystem ensuring that the coordination of the components function as a complete system. At this time also ensure that all component adjustments are made according to manufacture specifications. These are the accessories that should be specifically inspected and tested for the power transformer or system requirements for: Pressure vacuum gauge, to ensure proper performance, and gauge in good operating condition and proper calibration Oil level gauge, to ensure that it is calibrated and operated properly, and that no damage has been done Both temperature indicators (top-oil and hot-spot), to ensure that they are calibrated properly, and hot-spot is correctly hooked up to fan controls and warning system, if applicable
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Pressure relief device, to ensure that proper venting and reset of overpressure of the tank is done Leads are properly terminated, torqued to the proper tension and are the correct size leads
Pressure-Vacuum Gauge Test The pressure-vacuum indicator indicates whether the gas space in a transformer tank is under positive or negative pressure. The testing and calibration of the pressure-vacuum gauge requires the following equipment: Calibrate pressure gauge using the same psig calibration range Nitrogen tank with regulator capable of providing up to 30 psig and a shutoff means Plastic tubing with clamping means
The testing calibration diagram would be as shown in Figure 118.
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Figure 118. Pressure-Vacuum Gauge Calibration and Press-Relief Device Test
259
After the listed equipment is connected per Figure 118, the Press/VAC Bleeder is opened and the pressure readings from the tank gauge are compared to the calibrated gauge. The pressure/vacuum gauge is checked by adding and releasing nitrogen from the bottle at four different pressure values. After recording these numbers the pressure in the tank is released slowly in increments of the gauge pressure values and each reading is compared between the two gauges. When the zero value is reached, this is also compared. At this step, an adjustment of the tank gauge may be needed (if gauge provides the means). After adjustments and gauge reading are recorded the Press/VAC Bleeder valve can be closed and the nitrogen tank pressure turned on slowly. Again the pressure readings between the two gauges should be compared for each number division of gauge scale up to 5 psig. If all the tank gauge readings are within 1% of the calibrated gauge then the tank pressure can be returned to 1 psig if transformer oil is below 40C. If the tank gauge is not within 1%, the gauge should be replaced. This test can only be performed if the transformer tank has a pressure relief device that is on the tank and is completely functional. The vacuum half of the tank pressure/vacuum gauge is not usually tested because of the complications of finding a vacuum pump that can pull the vacuum on the tank. This becomes a major problem and can have extreme repercussion to the tank if not performed properly. This test is performed at the factory and the vacuum gauge is calibrated at that time. Pressure Relief Test The primary purpose of the pressure relief device on an oil-filled transformer is to relieve excessive pressure and prevent transformer tank rupture when an over pressurization occurs. Power and distribution transformers have a device (mechanical or diaphragm type) that relieves pressure and then resets itself. The type of pressure relief device used is the resettable type dependent on tank construction set to relieve tank pressure at 7 psig. This device is located on top of the main tank. This device is a testable device. The device should be inspected and tested during installation and periodic maintenance intervals. Also, check if the indicating button is in the reset position. If not, a pressure relief leak occurred. The test hook-up is the same as for the calibration of pressure/vacuum gauge (Figure 118).
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Oil-Level Inspection and Test The oil-level indication is located at the top of the tank at a position as indicated on the nameplate to ensure proper operation. The indicator is a two-part, self-contained, float-type device. The float part of the assembly is attached to the side wall of the tank and is a sealed body with an actuating magnetic shaft and float arm. The gauge part attaches to the outside tank wall, and is the bezel containing the dial and indicating needle. A magnet connected to the needle allows it to move in unison with the magnet float inside of the tank. The variations in transformer liquid level will occur only as a result of changing liquid temperature. The amount of variation with regard to temperature is typically stated on the transformer nameplate. (See Figure 119.) Example The nameplate states "The 25C liquid level is 10.0 inches below the top of the highest manhole flange. The liquid level changes 0.50 inch for each 10C change in average oil temperature." The only test or inspection is to ensure that the oil level is located at the proper level from the manhole flange with consideration for the oil temperature. Then check the oil level indicator and see if it is at the proper position. Example Oil temperature = 45C Oil level is 10" from manhole at 25C Oil level change is 0.50" per 10C 45C - 25C = 20C temperature change 0.50"/10C x 20C/1 = 0.5" x 2 = 1" Therefore, the oil level has increased its height by 1". The distance is now 10" - 1" = 9" from manhole to oil level. Gauge should read one division off the 25C mark. This requires opening the tank manhole cover to measure oil levels. The transformer gas space will have to have nitrogen added back when the test is completed.
261
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Top-Oil Temperature Inspection and Test The liquid-temperature indicator or top-oil is located near the top of the transformer tank with a minimum of one inch below the top-oil level and measures the transformer's liquid temperature. Since all of the heat dissipated in the core and coils is transferred to the insulating liquid, the temperature of the liquid is an indication of the load on the transformer and the temperature of the windings. However, because of the time lag between winding temperature and liquid temperature, the liquid-temperature indicator is not a suitable device for effective protection of the windings against overloads. It is used instead to monitor the operation of the transformer in a general way. The liquid-temperature indicator typically has built-in control switches that can generate hightemperature alarm signals or turn on cooling fans when the liquid temperature reaches preset levels. Calibration of the temperature indicator will normally not be required. However, if desired, the thermal sensor can be removed from its metal well and submerged in a temperature controlled oil bath. After a 15-minute period, the indicator should read accurately to within 2% of its full scale value. Calibrations cannot be performed unless access to the indicator can be achieved without becoming imprudently close to the terminals of the transformer or other energized conductors. Cooling-Fan Inspection and Test Visually inspect the cooling fans for signs of mechanical problems. Look for indications of rubbing or clearance problems. Check the tightness of blades on their shafts and clearance from guards. At the control cabinet, set the Fan Control Switch to the "Manual" position and operate the cooling fans electrically. (Note: If there is no control power for the fans run an extension cord to a close electrical panel and provide proper power (voltage and current) for the transformer control panel.) Verify that the fans operate normally with no excessive noise or vibration. Listen for unusual sounds that might indicate a bad bearing, rubbing blade, or other problems. When practical, simulate operation of the fans from their thermostatic control (temperature indicator). For transformers with more than one bank of fans, check for proper sequencing (turn on) of the banks in accordance with their thermal controller. If there is an alternate or emergency supply of control voltage for the cooling equipment, verify operation of the fans from this source also. At the conclusion of all operational checks for the cooling fans, verify that the Fan Control Switch located in the control cabinet has been returned to its original setting for normal operation.
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Power Cable Termination Checkout The purpose of this checkout is to ensure that the power-cable connections on primary and secondary are: Terminated properly Phased properly Connection torqued properly
Terminations - The primary stress cones (if required) should be inspected to ensure that the stress cones are built properly for the voltage applied. Ensure that the proper grounding of cable shields is done. The primary cable is sized properly for transformer size and raceway support used properly. The secondary cable or bus bar is terminated and supported so as not to place any weight from cable or bus bar on transformer bus connections. The proper size cable and bus duct is used for voltage and transformer size. Ensure that if bus duct is used, it is not connected directly to transformer bus. There should be a flexible type connection between transformer bus and bus duct. Cable Phasing Check - The primary and secondary cable phasing should be checked to ensure that ABC relationships of cables for primary and secondary are per power system supply and load requirements. Connections Torqued - Both primary and secondary power connections should be torqued to the requirements of GI form P-000 in the transformer installation and inspection section. The purpose of checking the torque of the bolts on each connection is to ensure that each connection has enough contact pressure and surface area to maintain a low resistance connection in each cable or bus bar termination. When a connection is not tight enough the resistance in the connection will start to overheat and the overheating will affect the resistance of the metal in the connection. This condition will continue to get worse until enough resistance and heat melts metal in the connection and causes a failure. This is the reason why it is an important check prior to energizing transformer.
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TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL TESTING This part of the cycle is where all the inspection and testing is finally proven by applying fullrated system voltage to the transformer from the primary source of the plant power system. The secondary of the transformer is left open so there is no loading of the transformer. The transformer energization tests (performed as a final check to make sure the transformer can safely be energized without being loaded) are described below. Operational Test The transformer has full-rated system voltage applied to the primary winding. The secondary windings are left open-circuited to prevent current flow or the transformer from assuming load. The transformer should be energized with system voltage and no loading on the secondary for four to six hours depending on ambient conditions. This allows any moisture picked up during storage or shipment to be driven out of the windings from the heating effect of the energized primary. The 60-cycle vibration will also help release any possible air bubbles to the oil surface and away from the winding. After four to six hours, if no problems are evident, the transformer can be slowly loaded and the time, voltage, current, temperature and noise level monitored. Complete System Functional Test Before the transformer assumes a loaded condition, the operational test of the control systems, protective devices, interlocks, or safety system should be performed and verified to project drawings, standards, specifications, and applicable industry standards. The transformer should be energized for two hours minimum to check the voltage, current, and temperature. These parameters should be checked several times during this period. Perform any operational test of control systems, protective devices, interlocks, or safety system operational test. Ensure that all systems function according to project drawings, Saudi Aramco standards, and specifications, and applicable industry standards. After all the testing is completed, and system and transformer are in complete operational status, allow the transformer to assume loads. Maintain the load long enough to check transformer voltage, current, temperature, and power factor relationships. All the alarms, annunciators, and indicating devices should be checked and ensure that they are operational and functional per project drawings.
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Types of Transformer Operational Testing The operational tests to perform on power transformers are: Exciting current check No-Load secondary-voltage output check Secondary-voltage phasing (or rotation) check Synchronizing for parallel operation Transformer noise-level check
Exciting Current Check The primary of transformer should have an ammeter placed in a position to measure the exciting current when the transformer is energized with the secondary open. This can tell if excessive current is being supplied when transformer is energized. Excessive current could be an indication of transformer internal insulation problems and would be the determination to investigate in more detail. No-Load Voltage Output (Secondary) Check After the transformer is energized at the primary, the primary voltage should be measured with a voltmeter. When medium voltage is applied this can be done by reading the system bus-voltage voltmeter on the switchgear feeding the transformer. The next step is to measure the transformer secondary voltage while the secondary has no-load and is open-circuited. The secondary voltage should be some higher than the system secondary voltage or load voltage required. If the secondary voltage reads low, the primary winding tap position could be wrong. Check the tap position and to ensure that it is located at the required position if tap position is wrong. Deenergize the primary and isolated primary power to transformer and change tap position to the proper tap. Warning: Do not attempt to change the no-load tap position while transformer is energized. If the tap position is located in the center position and secondary voltage is low, further investigation of this situation is necessary.
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Voltage Phasing (or Rotation) The phasing of conductors should be checked at the secondary of the transformer. A rotation meter can be used to verify the correct rotation required at the load. When phasing is wrong at the secondary and it is not possible to change at the secondary conductors, the phasing can be changed at the primary conductors. Ensure that no stress is forced on the conductors that are changed. Be sure to retorque the primary connections after the reconnection of conductors. Then recheck the phasing of the secondary after energizing the primary. Synchronizing for Parallel Operation This check will not be necessary if there is no way to parallel two or more transformers. This is usually required on larger transformers with bus tie capability. The method for testing is to verify the voltage between two secondary outputs. What is being accomplished is verifying that ABC are ABC on both buses - phases A to A, B to B, and C to C. This is accomplished by using a voltmeter to read from say bus X A phase to bus Y A phase and the same for the other phases. The reading should be zero. If voltage is read on the voltmeter, this means that phases are not matched A to A and the buses X and Y are not synchronized. All three phases have to be checked with a voltmeter in this manner. All three phases should read zero voltage to be in phase with each other. Transformer Noise Level Power transformers, when placed in service and operating, are typically less noisy than drytype transformer designs. A rule of thumb estimate is that the sound level for a dry-type transformer operating at rated voltage and frequency and no-load is approximately 20 db higher than for a liquid filled transformer of the same rating. As an illustration of expected sound levels, Table 13 gives the average sound level for a selection of dry-type transformers. Use the rule of thumb by subtracting 20 db from all values listed. When the transformer is energized, the sound (noise) level of the transformer should be observed and compared to the level observed of other transformers of the same size. Although there is no practical and simple way of measuring the actual sound level, an inspector can very often detect an increase or change in sound level based on his experience from previous inspections of the same, or a similar transformer. Any increase in sound level, or change in the type of sound, should be investigated to determine the reason for the change.
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When a transformer is installed, steps can be taken to minimize its operating sound level. This is normally accomplished by applying the standard techniques of using flexible connectors for primary and secondary terminals, flexible conduit for connections to the case, and tightening all enclosure hardware and panels to prevent their vibration. During the energizing of the transformer, any change in sound level can be an indication of a developing problem. As an example, the level of audible sound generated by the core iron in a power transformer is directly related to the condition of the core and its level of excitation. A change in sound level might indicate that the core steel has shifted due to short circuit duty placed on the transformer or that the core has become grounded at more than one point allowing circulating current to flow. An increase in sound level could also be an indication that the core is overexcited, in which case the transformer's tap setting should be checked for appropriate setting. Sometimes, vibrations from driven machinery and other sound sources can be transmitted through the structure of a building to the transformer where they are radiated and function to amplify the sound level of the transformer. When structure-borne vibrations are identified, they can often be isolated by using various damping devices on the transformer. For these cases, the manufacturer should be consulted for specification of the appropriate damping devices. Large increases, or changes in sound level are an indication that enclosure panels or hardware have worked loose from vibration. These observations should be noted on the observation report to allow for their correction during the next deenergized "shutdown" or immediately.
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Table 13 *Average Sound Level for Selected Dry-Type Transformers at Rated Voltage and Frequency and No-Load
(Reference: Westinghouse Power Apparatus Maintenance, Volume 3)
Average Sound Level (Decibels)* Equivalent Two-Winding kVA 50 300 700 1500 2000 3000 5000 7500 Self-Cooled Ventilated 50 58 62 65 66 68 71 73 Self-Cooled Sealed 50 57 61 64 65 66 69 71 Ventilated Forced-Air Cooled --------69 71 73 75
*Subtract 20 db from self-cooled sealed category for oil-filled transformers. Note: As a means of practical comparison, a 64 db sound level is equivalent to the level of sound that a passenger would hear while sitting in his seat on a jet airplane during take-off.
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TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL OBSERVATION PERIOD CHECKS AND INSPECTIONS All transformers should be given an observation period in which operational checks and inspections should be performed. These are the most important observation checks on newly installed power transformers: Transformer and system temperature checks Transformer operational checks Oil leaks Abnormal pressure Overheating
Load voltage, current, and temperature relationship checks
Transformer and System Temperature Checks The transformer temperature checks are best performed while the transformer is 80-90% loaded. This is the ideal condition for performing temperature checks. The transformer and associated connected equipment should have an infrared thermoscan performed while under a loaded condition to determine if overheating of cable, connection bushings, or any other operating related devices, or loose connections exist. If heating problems are found, use an infrared thermometer to verify temperatures of the problem areas. During the beginning startup and loading of the transformer, monitor and record hourly the temperature levels of the transformer top oil and winding temperature. There should be special attention paid to any elevated or continually rising temperatures. If any abnormal conditions are found, they should be investigated immediately before damage can occur. Transformer Operational Inspection The transformer operational inspection is performed after the transformer is energized and loaded. During the beginning startup and loading, monitor and record the system and transformer electrical parameters such as voltage, current, time interval, and temperature for a minimum of eight hours. During this hourly monitoring period, notice any abnormal sounds or smells emanating from the transformer or associated equipment, such as: Cooking Frying
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Arcing Popping Vapors Smoke
Any of these sounds or smells should be investigated immediately with the power system and transformer completely deenergized and the transformer isolated. During the hourly monitoring period, notice any unusual sounds such as mechanical problems like: Vibrations Rubbing of moving parts Rumbling Chattering
Be aware of any other abnormal-sounding mechanical operating sounds. The observation period can be reduced after the transformer and its associated components' operating conditions are found to be normal and no problems exist. Periodic attention should be paid to the transformer electrical parameters for a couple of months after all the final testing and acceptance of the transformer is completed. Transformer Operational Problem Inductors The following items should also be observed over this same period of time. Oil Leaks Be sure no oil leaks develop over the observation period. Sufficient time should elapse so that seals and insulation have time to settle and saturate fully. If oil leaks are observed, shut-down may be required to repair the unit. It is absolutely necessary that the acceptable level of insulating oil be maintained to ensure proper cooling of the unit. Pressure (Over/Under) Ensure that the pressure remains within the specified limits. Check the pressure gauge periodically to ensure that it is functioning properly and no vacuums or over pressure conditions exist.
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Overheating Ensure that all the overheating gauges are working properly and that the unit remains within the parameters of heat generation specified. If overheating occurs check the ammeter gauges to ensure that the load to heat is adequate and the temperature gauges are working properly. If gauges indicate correctly, shut-down will be required to correct the overheating problem. Load Voltage, Current, and Temperature Relationship Checks After the transformer has been energized with no load for approximately 6 to 8 hours to dry out the insulation and remove air bottles, the transformer can have a load applied. This should be accomplished in stages to observe the effects on the transformer such as the secondary current, temperature of transformer, ambient temperature, and the voltage with respect to time the readings are taken. There should be special attention paid to the amount of load and the temperature increase of the transformer. This should be related also to the ambient temperature the transformer is in. Any drastic increase in temperature could be a potential problem. The secondary voltage should be read when load is about 60% to 70% and compared to the no-load reading. This should give some indication of transformer voltage regulation. If the secondary voltage has dropped below acceptable limits the transformer may have to be shutdown, de-energized and the no-load tap changed to provide a higher voltage level.
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PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND FAILURE MODE ANALYSIS The life of the transformer depends upon the type of preventive and predictive maintenance that it gets. Preventive and predictive maintenance can extend the life of the transformer and improve its performance. Although there is a natural aging process, it has been recognized recently that this aging process can be slowed by proper operation with various types of testing and preventive maintenance. There are two categories of maintenance inspections that are performed on Saudi Aramco transformers: (1) in-service inspections and (2) out-of-service inspections. One task of an Electrical Engineer is to be able to direct the maintenance inspections of transformers. In order to perform this task, an Engineer needs to understand the following topics discussed in this module. Specifying in-service inspections for transformers Specifying out-of-service inspections for transformers Analyzing maintenance data in transformer records Use of ANSI C57 transformer failure mode analysis method
In-Service Inspections for Power Transformers In-service transformer inspections are performed while the transformer is energized and operating. A transformer should receive an in-service inspection weekly or monthly. The results of the inspection should be recorded on a standard form. The forms should be saved as part of the transformers maintenance history. Figure 120 shows a general purpose Transformer In-Service Inspection Report. This form can be used for both liquid and dry type transformers. Blocks that do not apply should be marked N/A (Not Applicable).
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Figure 120. Transformer In-Service Inspection Report for Dry-Type and Liquid-Filled Transformers
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In-service inspections on power transformers are a combination of three things: Current operating information Testing aspects that can be performed with the transformer energized Visual inspection of components
These in-service inspections are performed weekly or monthly to give an overall indication of the transformers condition, and to identify any problems that need immediate or future attention. A list of repairs required during the next outage of the particular transformer should be developed during these inspections. The three items can be further broken into individual inspections as follows: Current and voltage readings Temperature readings Liquid level indicators Pressure/Vacuum gauge reading Insulating oil field tests (yearly) Gauges and alarms Cabling system Visual inspection Grounding equipment (tank, stress cores, Xo, conduits)
Current and Voltage Readings Most transformers are equipped with instrument transformers and meters to show operating current and voltage levels. These values normally are monitored by an operator. They also should be recorded during the in-service inspection to show how much load and at what voltage the transformer was carrying during the inspection. This information is useful to those who review these forms in the future for maintenance or troubleshooting reasons.
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Temperature Readings The value of all temperature indicating devices should also be recorded during in-service inspections. These values are useful when evaluating the overall condition of the transformer with regard to the current level, voltage level, and power factor. Harmonic loading consideration should be looked at with regard to temperature levels of the transformer. Liquid-Level Indicators The level of insulating liquid in each tank or compartment equipped with a level indicator also should be recorded during an in-service inspection. The level shown should correspond with the oil temperature and load on the transformer. If these are not in the right proportion, then the situation should be investigated. Pressure/Vacuum Gauges Any routine inspection of the gas blanket type transformer must include the gas system itself. The nitrogen gas blanket pressure should be checked to find out if gas should be installed before the next routine inspection. Equipment maintenance records should show the average amount of gas lost through leakage and venting over a given period. Gas blanket systems normally have pressure/vacuum gauges. Pressure inside the enclosure should be between 0.5-1.0 psig top oil temperature of 60C dependent on ambient temperature. If internal pressure is too high or too low, the temperature of transformer with relation to the ambient temperature should be checked. The system can be checked for leaks by ensuring that the tank valve is closed and observing the transformer enclosure pressure gauge over a period of time. The gauge should show no loss of pressure. If the gauge slowly drops over a period of several minutes, this is a sure sign of a gas leak in the enclosure, or in the gas piping downstream from the press/vac bleeder. Any leaks must then be found and repaired. Some gas blanket systems include a set of alarms for indicating low-gas blanket pressures in the enclosure. In some systems, these alarms can be bypassed for maintenance purposes. Any routine inspection should make sure that all alarm switches are in the automatic position, so that future problems do not go unnoticed.
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Gauges and Alarms Transformers are equipped with various gauges and alarms. Those included vary with each installation. The most common gauges and alarms are listed below. Each should be inspected during an in-service inspection. Top-oil temperature Low oil level Loss of AC Liquid level Pressure relied indication Loss of voltage Pressure/Vacuum gauge
Visual Inspection The visual inspection should include all items whose general condition can be found by visual observation. The following sections give a brief description of the specific items to be inspected. Relief Devices - should not be obstructed by any equipment, foreign materials, or debris. Gaskets and diaphragms should be checked for leakage. Yellow button checked to determine if a pressure relief of tank has occurred. High-Voltage Bushings (HVB) - should be checked for overall cleanliness, cracks, carbon streaking, and tracking or corona. Make sure that all conductors are properly supported, and no undue stress is placed on the HVB bushings through tank top or wall. Secondary Cable Connections - should be checked for cleanliness, corrosion and overheating. Make sure that all conductors are properly supported and have no undue stress on secondary connection bushings through tank wall or top. Paint - The exterior finish is important to the overall life of the tank, and the tanks heat removal capabilities. The application of protective coatings or paints to steel surfaces can help to protect the transformer from severe deterioration caused by destructive atmospheric elements.
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Electrical Grounds - should be checked for tightness and integrity. Corroded connections should be cleaned, and broken or frayed ground straps or bonding jumpers should be replaced. Contact resistance should be checked periodically. Foundations - should be checked for cracks, chipping or unevenness or unlevel, and any signs of oil leakage. Radiators - should be checked for leaks and exterior finish. The cooling system should be unobstructed from equipment or debris so air circulation is occurring properly. If overheating is occurring, this condition should be investigated first. The radiators should be cleaned to restore their heat removal capabilities. Ensure that no rust, pitting, or oil leak occurs on fins or tubes. Cabinets - should be checked for their overall condition and exterior finish. All door latches and hinges should operate smoothly. Analyzing Failure Modes Investigating the reasons for failure is essential in developing a maintenance plan. As previously discussed, a study of the types of failures under specific circumstances gives historical data bases to work from. Failure investigation and recording is essential to maintaining the transformers within an organization. Transformer Failure Investigation of failures should be done in a logical manner. The Information Section later in this module gives a complete method of investigating failures. It includes a logic flowchart diagram on the steps that will lead you to the problem. Notice that there are two indications on when to investigate using this flow diagram: 1. 2. When the unit shuts down due to tripping or malfunction Routine test shows a drastic deviation from past performance that requires analysis of data
The logic diagram leads you through the process and refers you to information sources. It refers to various tables, which are attached. These tables provide checklists to follow to investigate the problem. The logic diagram also refers to various sections. This is a reference to Appendix A to IEEE standard C57.125. For instance, reference to Section 6, refers to oil testing described in the standard and specified by ASTM standard. Also, under ANSI C57 Transformer Failure Mode Analysis Method, later in this module.
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These are some other factors dealing with failure investigation: Age Environment Overheating Overloading Contaminated oil Oil leaks Damaged high voltage bushings Corrosion
Age - A discussion about what happens with aging of a transformer was covered under the section on installation inspection and testing. It is known that aging is a natural process and that in this process certain gases are given off that cause or indicate certain types of failures. As the age of the transformer increases, closer inspections and trend analysis should be undertaken. These trends may show that the transformer has a specific life in certain conditions and at a point before total breakdown, shutdown for repairs may be indicated. Oilin-gas analysis is one of the main tests to assist the engineer in this endeavor. Environment - The environment around the transformer is a critical consideration. Such things as dirt, water, and the condition of air circulation around the transformer are important in the life of the transformer. The transformer must be sealed and oil added in such a way to prevent water from entering the oil. Water and/or moisture in the insulation and oil is one of the main factors leading to breakdown. Dirt in the oil along with gases forms sludge which also leads to breakdown. The oil loses its insulating quality because dirt changes the viscosity of the oil and water changed the specific gravity of the oil. Both are detrimental to the transformer operation. Overheating - As previously discussed, overheating is caused by the environmental factors discussed and by mechanical breakdown in the system such as arcing, corona, etc. Overheating can also be an indication of overloading or harmonic (non-linear) loading. Two things are important in the examination of overheating, the cellulose and the oil. Remember, the key gas for overheating in the oil is Ethylene. The key gas for overheating in the cellulose is Carbon Monoxide. These key gases may be an indication of the physical problems. The temperature of the transformer oil should not exceed 60C for the oil and 105 to 110C for the solid insulation.
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Overloading Overloading can cause overheating and certain types of mechanical breakdown. Overloading should never be allowed to continue for an extended period of time. Under the conditions that cause overheating discussed before, overloading should be limited to a hot spot temperature not to exceed 140C. If overloading continues, the unit may require shutdown and repair/replacement. Contaminated Oil - Oil contamination is a process of operation of the transformer. As previously stated, the operation of the unit produces gases. Some of these gases dissolve in the oil. Along with dirt, they form a sludge over a period of time which interferes with the operation of the transformer cooling passages and heat transfer from insulation. Even desludging fails to get all of the sludge from the windings, so operation is hampered. However, when the test indicated that the unit is reaching the failure point, desludging must be accomplished. One of the biggest contaminants in oil is free air. When oil is added or replaced, it must be done by the vacuum and filter method to ensure that free air, which contains moisture, is not allowed to get into the system. Also, ensure that when the system is open for maintenance, it is protected from the elements such as early morning dew and the maintenance personnel breathing into the open unit. Oil Leak - Oil leaks are critical because they can allow ambient air into the system and because they can indicate internal problems. Oil leaks should be repaired as soon as practical to ensure that a proper oil level is maintained. Oil leaks are also dangerous as potential fire hazard. Damaged High-Voltage Bushing (HVB) - HVBs can be damaged by mechanical or environmental means. Damaged HVBs may cause shorts or may allow the outside elements into the transformer unit. All damaged HVBs should be replaced as soon as practical. Corrosion - Corrosion mainly affect the exterior portions of the transformer unit. Corrosion occurs from the natural elements. Corrosion can cause electrical faults in switch gear and bushings. Corrosion can also cause deterioration of the cabinets housing the transformer. The main way to stop corrosion is by frequent inspection of the electrical elements and by coating exterior surfaces with proper protective coatings as specified in the standards. Flashover can be a severe problem with corrosion in the HVBs and insulator structures. These parts should be cleaned on a periodic basis, even before corrosion is detected.
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Out-of-Service Inspections for Power Transformers Out-of-service transformer inspections are performed while the transformer is deenergized, and disconnected from the line. A transformer should receive an out-of-service inspection every 12 to 36 months. The results of the inspection should be recorded on a standard form. The forms should be saved as part of the transformers maintenance history. Figure 121 is a checklist which show a general purpose Transformer Out-of-Service Inspection Report. This form can be used for both liquid and dry type transformers. Blocks that do not apply should be marked N/A. Out-of-service inspections on power transformers include the following: Exterior out-of-service items Interior out-of-service inspection items Insulation testing Gauges and alarms Cooling equipment Tap changer
Table 1, Adendum B contains a chart on field testing of transformers for various types of service. Tables 2 and 3, Addendum B contains tables of field inspection of both exterior and interior of out-of service transformers. All of the normal in-service inspection items are included in the out-of-service inspection, except for current operating information. The difference here is that all minor discrepancies like defective gaskets, oil leaks, paint problems, etc. should be repaired. The out-of-service inspection is when all the list of repairable items that were found during in-service inspections but could not be repaired until the transformer had an outage. These items are added to the list of items found during the out-of-service inspection and repairs are completed.
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Figure 121. Typical Out-of-Service Inspection Report for Oil-Filled and Pad-Mounted Transformers
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Insulation Testing Two different tests can be performed to measure insulation condition: Power factors (Doble) test Megger test
Power-factor testing is normally only performed on transformers rated above 50 MVA. Power-factor testing determines the amount of leakage current the insulation will allow to flow. This provides a value of transformer winding insulation. Megger tests are performed to find the insulation resistance of the transformer windings and insulating medium. These tests should only be performed when the transformer is filled with oil. If tests are performed at any other time, the readings will not be consistent with those performed at other maintenance periods, or with the manufacturers test results. The megohmmeters range and voltage should be noted. Different instruments and ranges produce different results. Care must be taken when analyzing data from different instruments. A megohmmeter with a minimum range of 50,000 ohms should be used. These tests should be performed at 2,500 volts, however, if previous tests were performed at another voltage level, the test should be performed at that voltage also. The megger readings should be performed from HV to LV winding, HV to ground, and LV to ground. Oil temperature and humidity readings also should be recorded to properly correct all insulation resistance readings. Gauges and Alarms The out-of-service inspections should include the inspection and testing of temperature, pressure, and oil level indicating devices. The oil level indicating devices are inspected in accordance with the in-service inspection, and the results can be recorded on the out-ofservice inspection form. The accuracy of the level gauge can be found with the transformer deenergized, and the top manhole cover removed for inspection. Calibration levels are noted on the transformer nameplate, and can be used to check the accuracy of the indicating device. To repair or replace the entire oil level indicator, the transformer oil level must be lowered below the float and magnetic parts of gauge, before removal. Pressure relief devices should be tested by mechanically lifting, or making the alarm contacts manually, to make sure an alarm is activated. The settings of these relief devices are preset at the factory, and can not be adjusted. Hot-spot and top-oil temperature indicators should be tested and calibrated using a calibrated test unit. Temperature alarms and control setpoints should be adjusted in accordance with the specifications given on the transformer nameplate or engineering drawings. The transformer cooling system should be checked for the right operation with the temperature switches.
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Tap Changer During out-of-service inspections of power transformer, test the NLTC. The frequency of overhauls differ from one manufacturer to another. Each transformers technical manual will specify when the complete test and inspection should be performed. The out-of-service inspection needs to operate the NLTC through its full range of operation several times to help clear the contacts before testing. After operation and testing ensure that the tap changer is put back to its proper position before the inspection begins and record its current position. This position should correspond to the previous inspection, unless remarks on previous inspection forms say otherwise. Based on all positions of the tap changer, the turns ratio is calculated using nameplate data. A turns ratio test is then performed, and the results recorded on the inspection form. Analyzing Oil Test Data in the Transformer Maintenance Records The maintenance data in transformer records should be analyzed for several reasons: 1. 2 3. To find out if there are problems that need immediate attention To find out if there are any minor problems that need attention in the future To find out if there are any indications of potential problems
NOTE: The inspection (test) values may not be good/bad in and of themselves, but major deviations from trend lines established by previous inspections may indicate problems requiring further investigations and tests. One of the most important areas for preventive maintenance is the oil. It needs to be kept clean and uncontaminated, and capable of cooling and insulating the system. Oil that contains dirt, water, or sludge cannot do its job. Therefore, it is imperative to have yearly oil testing program. But if potential problems are found then testing should be performed more often until the problem is diagnosed or repaired. The new sample is taken and tested to begin the new base line after oil recondition and transformer repairs. These are some of the oil test that should be performed for periodic/predictive maintenance: Dielectric test Power-factor test Interfacial tension (IFT) (35 dynes/cm min, ASTM-D-971) Visual (Color) (1.0 max, ASTM-D-1500)
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Neutralization number (acidity)(minimum 0.25-0.35 mg KOH/g max) Moisture content (35 ppm, ASTM-D-1533) Specific gravity
Dielectric Test The dielectric breakdown voltage of an insulating liquid is important as a measure of its ability to withstand electric stress without failure. ASTM-D877 and 1816 give two different methods of performing this test. The dielectric breakdown voltage is the voltage at which breakdown occurs between two electrodes under prescribed test conditions. The dielectric breakdown voltage test serves primarily to indicate the presence of contaminating agents in the oil, such as water, dirt, carbon, or any other conducting particles. One or more contaminating agents may be present when low dielectric breakdown values are found by test. However, a high dielectric breakdown voltage does not suggest the absence of all contaminants. Other tests must be performed in the series of tests covered in this section. Three tests should be performed and a mathematical average calculated. This is the final kV value. These are kV values for the various conditions of oil: Old oil > 25 kV good oil Oil with 24 kV is bad oil New oil 35 kV
Oil Power Factor The oil Power Factor test is specified in ASTM-D924. It measures the leakage current through an oil. A high power factor is a measure of contamination or deterioration, such as oxidation products, metal soaps, charged colloids, etc. Power factor is the ratio of the power (in watts) dissipated in the oil to the product of the effective voltage and current (in volt-amperes).
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This test is a negative screening test used in the field to limit the number of samples that must be sent to the laboratory. This test is not specific on what it detects; only that polar material is present. Other tests must be performed to determine what type of polar material is present. When the power factor exceeds 0.5%, further investigation is indicated. New insulating oil will typically be 0.01% to 0.05% at 25C. Used oil will typically be 1.0% at 25C. Any used or new oil with P. F. 1.2% is bad and should be reconditioned or reclaimed. Finally, if a reading at 100C is 7 to 10 times that of a reading at 25C, it indicates soluble contaminants in the oil, other than water. Interfacial Tension Test The interfacial tension between an electrical insulating oil and water is the measure of the molecular attractive force between the unlike molecules at the interface. This test provides a means of detecting soluble polar contaminants and the products of deterioration. The interfacial tension value will decrease as the soluble-contamination or oil-deterioration products increase. Visual (Color) Examination ASTM D-1524 is the standard for color of oil. The color of an insulating oil provides an indication of oil deterioration or contamination. The color of the oil is compared to a color gauge to determine the degree of contamination or deterioration. This test is not useful by itself, but it is significant with other tests, particularly there is a marked change from one test to another. The color test should be compared with the Interfacial Tension test and the acidity test results. The three tests together can indicate polar compounds (sludge) and fatty acids. Neutralization Number (Acidity) This test is used to determine acidity of the oil as specified in ASTM-D-974. The acidity in oil is due to oxidization. The neutralization number for service-aged oils is a measure of acids in the oil causing sludge. This value is important to compare to the value for the new oil.
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This test is the second most common field test used in oil analysis. The acidity test is not intended to replace standard laboratory tests. Field tests are intended as screening tests to minimize the number of samples submitted to the laboratory. The field tests allow approximate evaluations of the amount of acid and polar constituents, and the degree of deterioration, and/or contamination of the oil. The test is performed using an acidity buffer, filter paper, transformer oil, and an indicating solution. The combination of these products causes a specific color. The color indicates the condition of the oil. The standard contains information of what the colors indicate. Be aware however that orange or brown always means high acidity. This does not mean that the oil is good or bad, but it is a good candidate for further laboratory tests such as the Acid Number Test. Water Content Test ASTM-D1315 contains the specifications for testing for moisture content. The test is called the Karl Fischer Method. It detects moisture in the oil in parts per million (ppm). The reason it is important to detect moisture is that moisture is absorbed by the cellulose winding insulation limiting its insulating ability. The moisture content test is performed to determine the total water, as well as soluble water content of the oil. It is difficult to find moisture in oil. That is why this test is used. The test will indicate small amounts of water in the oil. If the oil contains more than 50 ppm, it indicates that the insulation is most probably wet and has lost it ability to properly insulate the oil. Gas-in-Oil Analysis The gas-in-oil analysis is the most effective oil analysis test. It is accomplished in two ways, but by far, the most effective is Gas Chromatography. That test will be the emphasis of this section. The test was discussed at great lengths in the operational checks, so the actual test method will not be discussed here. However, some of the results will be given here. In evaluating the total combustible gas, use the tabular data below for your analysis: Range of Combustible Gases (ppm) 0-500 500-1000 >1000 Satisfactory Decomposition exceeds normal aging Decomposition significant; requires more frequent sampling and analysis; determine rate of trend, if increasing Indications
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>2500
Decomposition getting extreme; monitor by frequent samples and analysis; if any increase in trend, schedule shut-down inspection, testing and determination of repair
Combustible Gas Test This gas-in-oil analysis is accomplished according to ASTM D3284, which is a field test. This test only test the combustible gases. It does not test dissolved gases or noncombustible gasses. A gas-in-oil test tests total gases in the oil and is accomplished according to ASTM D3612. It is done in the laboratory. The only responsibility of the engineer is to ensure proper collection and submission of the samples to the laboratory. The field test is accomplished with a portable Combustible-gas Meter. It has an catalyticoxidizing element. The meter registers in Milliamperes which can be calibrated to read directly in percent of total combustible gases. A standard reference (baseline) gas is used. The standard calibrating gas is a mixture of methane in nitrogen. The sample is mixed with a fixed ratio of air and introduced into the tester through an orifice at a pressure of one atmosphere. The meter then reads the percentage of combustible gas in the sample. Ensure that the instrument is calibrated according to the manufacturers instructions. This test is excellent to determine faults caused by combustible gas. It does not work well on soluble gases. But, gases with low solubility, such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen, are easily detected, and make up a huge portion of gases. Detection of these gases is usually the first indication of possible malfunction. The detection of an incipient fault, if present, involves these things: Evaluating the amount of combustible gas present The rate at which these gases are generated The rate of escape of these gases from the generator (or fault source
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Dissolved Combustible Gas Testing One of the best ways to determine if there is gas in oil is through the use of dissolved combustible gas testing. Dissolved Combustible Gas Analysis This test is the most used for gas-in-oil analysis and is called a dissolved combustible gases(CG) analysis (CGA.). This test which is specified in ASTM D3612 contains the method of testing to determine the amount of dissolved gases in insulating oil and the total amount of gases. It uses a testing method called Gas Chromatography (GC). GC provides both quantitative and qualitative analysis of the gases in oil and it determines these things: If gas exists Type of CG Quantity of CG Type and degree of abnormality (fault condition)
This test only requires that nine gases be analyzed during the process. It measures the range of gases in ppm. Mineral oil consists of 287 liquid hydrocarbon compounds. When some of these hydrocarbons are heated they also free some CGs. This CG dissolves in the oil. Increases in temperature cause disintegration of the oil molecules. This is a list of the types and amounts of gases in oil at normal temperature:
TYPES AND AMOUNTS OF GASES AT NORMAL TEMPERATURE Type Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Methane Carbon Monoxide Ethane Acetylene Heavy Hydrocarbons Symbol H2 O2 N2 CH4 CO C2H6 C2H2 N/A Total Amount(Percent) 59.10 1.36 10.1 4.2 19.21 0.0 0.0 1.17 100%
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Some of these gases can be very dangerous. There is a danger when the amount of nitrogen and oxygen in oil constitutes about 13 % of the contained gas. The reunion of hydrogen and oxygen can cause a violent reaction. Hydrogen levels of 10 to 66% in the air is explosive. This type of explosion will produce a very destructive force. In transformers with gas-blanket cushions, there is a large amount of nitrogen available. Types of faults in a transformer can be determined by determining the conditions that existed at the occurrence of the fault. There are some ways to examine faults: Relationships during the fault condition such as, the decomposition temperature versus the type of gas generated The combined solubility of gas in the oil and the temperature that generated these gasses Investigate temperature levels because different temperatures cause different faults Different gasses are given off at different temperature levels
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Analyzing Electrical Test Data in the Transformer Maintenance Records Oil testing alone will not give a complete picture of a transformers condition. Oil test data needs to be looked at with electrical test data, for a complete evaluation. There are three common electrical tests performed: Insulation resistance Insulation power-factor Transformer turns-ratio
Insulation Resistance Insulation resistance tests generally refer to tests performed with a megohmmeter (megger). The megger produces a high DC voltage that is applied to the insulation being tested. This DC voltage causes a small current to flow through and over the surface of the insulation. The total current through and over the insulation is made up of three components: Capacitance changing current Dielectric absorption current Leakage current
The meter on the megger measures the total current, and is calibrated to read out in ohms. Several factors can cause large fluctuations in megger readings: Equipment temperature Duration of the test External leakage due to dirty insulators and bushings
These variables must be controlled to prevent getting confusing test data. Four different tests can be performed with a megger: 60-second spot test Dielectric absorption ratio Polarization index Step-voltage test
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The most common test for transformers is the Polarization Index. This test involves applying voltage to a winding for a period of ten minutes, and recording the meter value after each one minute interval. The value at the end of the ten-minute period is divided into the one-minute period to provide a value the minimum being > 1.25 is bad. The other key to watch for (during the ten-minute period) when looking at this test data is a continuous downward trend over this period of time. This signals an impending problem if the previous values for the prior test were a higher value. Insulation Power-Factor on Power Transformers Insulation power-factor gives an indication of the quality of the insulation. Each winding in a transformer is separated from the other windings and ground by solid insulation. This solid insulation forms an effective capacitive network. A dielectric loss exists in each capacitance. This loss can be represented by a resistance in series with a capacitor. The insulation power factor is defined as the ratio of the resistance to the impedance of this combination. This is easily measured by applying a voltage across the capacitance, and measuring the current and watts loss. This information can then be used to calculate the power-factor. Power-factor readings of 0.03 percent are not unusual under ideal conditions. However, values this low are not normally obtained in older transformers. In-service oil-filled transformers can have power-factors as high as 2.0% and still be considered acceptable. Insulation power factors above 2.0% should be looked at more for problems. Like the megger test, power-factor readings should be looked at for trends from prior testing. Increased readings over time show impending problems. Transformer Turns-Ratio Transformer turns-ratio tests are performed to identify short-circuited turns, wrong tap settings (misalignment of tap changer not being on right tap it indicates) or shorted turns, mislabeled terminals, and failure in tap changers operation. The turns-ratio test uses the principle that the no-load voltage ratio on a transformer nameplate is equal to the turns ratio between the primary and secondary windings. The turnsratio test does not give the actual number of turns on the primary or secondary windings. It only gives the ratio of primary to secondary turns. The turns ratio that is measured should agree with the nameplate voltage values ratio calculated within 0.5%. More testing should be performed if the results are outside this percentage.
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ANSI C57 TRANSFORMER FAILURE MODE ANALYSIS METHOD Determination and Investigation of a Failure Occurrence Following a Suspected Failure This guide suggests procedures to be followed after the transformer has been tripped by protective equipment or when it is suspected that a transformer is unfit for service. Deciding what to do after a transformer is tripped by protective equipment will vary depending upon the circumstances, the transformer application and the transformer value. In practice, the operating procedures of the user companies dictate the actual sequence of events following the isolation of a transformer. However, it must be recognized that reenergizing a transformer with an internal fault will increase the damage and original evidence of the failure can be destroyed. Whether or not a transformer is re-energized, the facts available prior to and during the initial trip should be recorded. This is the opportune time to accumulate this data and subsequent actions may depend on this information. Investigation Flow Chart For many companies, it may be desirable to perform selected tests at random. Figure 122 flow chart has been developed to aid in the determination and investigation of a transformer failure. This flowchart forms the basis for this guide. The two starting points for this flowchart are (1) transformer tripped or malfunctioned, and (2) routine tests show deviation from past history. Routine tests cover such tests as those listed in Table 19 and Table 20. The paths in the flowchart lead to scrapping or to return to service. Prior to returning to service, it may be desirable to perform selected tests to verify suitability for service. Following return to service, it is suggested that the transformer be monitored by periodic electrical tests and tests including oil sampling for dissolved gas in oil analysis. Based upon the external observations (Table 17) or the presence of obvious damage, selected tests can be performed. From their results, a hypothesis of failure can be developed. This may be confirmed through internal inspection and teardown as deemed appropriate. When a transformer is shipped to a repair facility, the teardown of the transformer should be observed by troubleshooting engineers to use as an educational process and also to ensure that the repair is appropriate to the field problems and testing observed.
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Failure Mode Data Collection General Approach Cooperation at all levels of the user company should speed the user's investigation work at the site and improve the accuracy of the diagnosis. It is important that the transformer manufacturer be informed of the equipment failure, especially when it is under warranty. The manufacturer will probably be required to supply information, in particular, the transformer factory test data, inspection history, and nonproprietary internal construction drawings. Development of a team concept may be helpful for the final analysis of data. It is suggested that the team include representatives of the user and manufacturer/ repair facility. This may speed the work and may also eliminate any considerations of bias in the final diagnosis. On-Site Investigation Timeliness of an inspection of the failed transformer is very important. Data could be destroyed because of movement of the transformer or changes in the system configuration. Therefore, data collection and tests should proceed as quickly as possible. Work crews are almost always on site before investigators. However, it is usually not practical to cease restoration of service until the investigators get there. Thus, instructions should be given to operating personnel for restoration of service with minimum negative impact on failure investigation work. If possible, all work should cease on the transformer until the investigators have a chance to look at the transformer, take photographs, notes, and perform tests which will assist future analysis. Familiarity with the site, transformer, and general area is important. Personnel familiar with the operation and maintenance of the transformer should be part of the investigation team. It is better that at least two individuals initially inspect the transformer. Two people can support one another and discuss the various findings and the immediate "next step" at the site. Items which may be of importance include conditions at the time of the failure, physical inspections of the transformer following failure, and electrical conditions of the transformer following failure. Tables 17 and 18 are suggested checklists of observations.
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Figure 122. Suggested Investigation Flowchart that Forms the Basic for this Guide
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Table 17 SUGGESTED CHECKLIST OF GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
External Conditions No lights call Storms or lightning in area Unusual sounds, odors Debris expelled from transformer on accessories Dead animals in area on top of transformer Evidence of animal contact (animal may not be dead) Foreign objects in area Glowing parts - visual Infrared Transformer deluge system Evidence of vandalism Interview of witnesses or station operators present when unit tripped or failed Load on transformer System disturbances Switching configuration in station at time of event Coolers Fans or pumps operating Radiator valves fully open Air flow thru radiator or heat exchanger impeded by debris or corrosion
Recorded Data
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Table 17 (Continued) SUGGESTED CHECKLIST OF GENERAL OBSERVATIONS Surge Arresters Surge arrester operation (Note) Surge arrester counter reading Physical condition Electrical condition Surge arrester ground connection Surge arrester blocks if mounted in transformer tank Main Tank Bulged Cracked Leaks Signs of overheating Oil level in conservator Gaskets or seals, leaks, etc. Gas pressure on sealed transformer Control cabinet problem Bushings Leaks Broken porcelain Holes in cap Tracking Oil level Tap Changer Position of LTC - as found Maximum position Minimum position Position of DETC Oil level in LTC compartment LTC counter reading Recorded Data
NOTE: Confirming proper operation of surge arresters may require returning the arrester to a factory test facility.
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Table 18 OBSERVATIONS OF ALARM OR TRIP Protective Relay Targets Differential (87) Overcurrent (50, 51, 6) Phase current (50, 51, 67, 21, 32) Ground fault (50N, 51N, 64) Polarizing (36, 32) Overexcitation (81) Meter indications (overloads, unbalances, open phases) Operation of fault pressure relays (63, 63FP, 63SP) Operation of pressure relief device (63PR, 63P) Temperature (as found and maximum) Liquid (or top oil) (49, 26) Winding (or hot spot) (49, 26 Oil Level Main tank (71) LTC (71) Conservator (71) Operation of: Gas detector relay (63GD) Gas accumulator relay Oil flow gauges (80, 74) Targets on an alarm annunciator (30, 74) Blown fuse Data recorder sequence of events Oscillograph sequence of events Recorded Data
NOTE: Numbers in parentheses are ANSI numbers (C37.2-1979)
298
Electrical Tests Before performing any tests, precautions should be taken to assure that the transformer is disconnected from all power and auxiliary sources and has been properly grounded. Electrical tests should not be conducted until the unit has been tested for combustible gas and found to be safe. Purging may be necessary before making electrical tests. Table 19 is a suggested checklist of electrical tests. It is recommended to consult the manufacturer's instruction leaflet. For tutorial information on these tests, see Appendix A.
Table 19 ELECTRICAL TEST

Tests that are common - Field Tests Insulation Resistance Winding to winding Winding to ground All windings to ground Core to ground Dielectric absorption (polarization index) Other Common Field Tests Transformer turns ratio Insulation power factor Winding DC resistance Oil dielectric breakdown (on-site) (by Compartment) Excitation (low voltage 60 Hz) Other Diagnostic Tests which may be performed if possible Low voltage impulse Induced voltage test Impedance (single phase) NOTES: The notes suggest a probable area of concern: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Major insulation - electrical Minor insulation (shorted turns) - electrical Mechanical damage (short circuit forces, etc.) - mechanical Indicates damage location Indicates electrical path from core to ground (3) (4) (2) (2) (3) (4) (2) (2) (4) (1) (2) (4) (4) (2) (3) (4) (1) (4) (1) (1) (1) (4) (5) (1) Notes
299
Sampling and Tests of Gas and Insulating Fluid Samples of insulating fluid should be taken for field and lab testing and for additional tests later. Samples should be taken prior to opening the transformer for inspection. Table 20 is a suggested checklist of gas and insulating fluid tests.
Table 20 TESTS OF GAS AND INSULATING FLUID Recorded Data Field Tests Field measurement of total combustible gas present in gas space for gas blanketed transformers, or in gas detector relays of sealed-type conservator transformers; ANSI/IEEE C57.104(1) Dew point of gas space Laboratory Tests (should be performed according to applicable ASTM standard methods) Laboratory analysis of individual component gases present in gas space for gas blanketed transformers, or in gas detector relays of sealed-type conservator transformers; ANSI/IEEE C57.104(1) Laboratory analysis of individual component gases present in gas which is dissolved in oil; ANSI/IEEE C57.104(1) Laboratory analysis of oil defined as laboratory tests by ANSI/IEEE C57.106 Various laboratory analyses of particulate matter and trace metals in the insulating oil PCB-in-Oil ASTM D4059
300
Focused Tests Gas tests can provide information as to the category of transformer problem. These problems are categorized by C57.104(1). Table 21 suggests electrical and oil tests that can be used to confirm problems detected by gas analysis. The order of tests shown reflects not only the significance of the test with respect to locating the failure, but also takes into account the ease of performance and probability of equipment availability.
Table 21
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS TO SUPPORT GAS ANALYSIS FAULT TYPE
Oil Tests of Ins Resis Physical A1 & TTR Properties A2 A6 Oil Tests of Ins Resis Physical A1 & TTR Properties A2 A6 Oil Tests of Ins Resis Physical A1 & TTR Properties A2 A6 Oil Tests of Ins Resis Physical A1 & TTR Properties A2 A6 Power Factor A4
TEST SIGNIFICANCE
F LV Excitation A3
Electrical Arcing
Impedance A9
Resistance A5
Induce/RIV A8
Electrical Corona
Power Factor A4 Induce/RIV A8
LV Excitation A3
Impedance A9
Resistance A5
Thermal Cellulose
Resistance A5
Power Factor LV A4 Excitation A3
Impedance A9
Induce/RIV A8
Thermal Oil
Resistance A5
LV Excitation A3
Power Factor A4 Impedance A9
Induce/RIV A8
NOTE:
Refer to the paragraph in Appendix A listed in each block for help interpreting the results of each test.
301
Table 22 lists common problem areas, along with supported test results. The priorities, as shown, allow each suspected problem category to be supported or dismissed by referencing more than one test per category. While this table only lists a few broad categories, expansion of this table should be developed by individual users as case histories within their organization show significant correlation between a category and two or more tests. In all cases, gas-in-oil tests may detect or support any of the categories shown. However, when it is difficult to detect a category in any other way except gas-in-oil tests, gas-in-oil tests are listed as a priority. Table 22
FIELD TEST INTERPRETATION SUSPECTED PROBLEM CATEGORY SIGNIFICANT TEST DATA FIRST PRIORITY Out of Tolerance Ratio A2 Note 3 Out of Tolerance Ratio A2 Note 2 High Insulation Power Factor A4 High Insulation Power Factor A4 Deviation of Exciting Current A3 Higher Impedance A9 Abnormal Gas Analysis Note 1 SECOND PRIORITY Lower Winding Resistance A5 Higher Resistance A5 Oil Tests Low Dielec-tric, High Moisture A6 Low Insulation Resistance A1 THIRD PRIORITY Increase in Excitation A3 High RIV A3 Low Insulation Resistance A1 High RIV A8
Shorted Winding Turn (Minor Insulation Open Winding Circuit
Moisture
Damage to Major Ins.
Through Fault Mechanical Damage
High RIV A8 Low Core Ground Resistance A10
Change in LV Impulse A7 Increase in Excitation A3
Core Heating
NOTES: Refer to the paragraph in Appendix A listed in each block for help interpreting the results of each test. 1. Gas Analysis indicated a therma l problem in oil as described by C57.104-19XX. 2. Gas Analysis indicated an arcing problem as defined by C57.104-19XX. 3. Gas Analysis indicated a thermal cellulose problem as described by C57.104.
302
APPENDIX A (TEST REFERENCED IN TABLES 21 AND 22)
A1 A1.2 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6.0 A6.1 A6.2 A6.3 A7 A8 A8.1 A8.2 A9.0 A9.1 A9.2 A9.3 A10 A11
Insulation Resistance Test Polarization Index Test Transformer Turns Ratio Single-Phase Low Voltage 60 Hz. Excitation Test Insulation Power Factor Winding Resistance Oil Testing Dielectric Breakdown Interfacial Tension (ASTM-D971) Moisture Content (ASTM-D1533) Low Voltage Impulse Testing Induced Voltage Test Radio Influence Voltage Method (RIV) Acoustic Emissions Method (AE) Single-Phase Impedance Test Single-Phase Transformer Three-Phase Transformer Three-Phase Results Equal to Factory Test Core Ground Resistance Applied Voltage Test (Hi-Pot)
303
Table 23 INTERNAL INSPECTION Main Tank Oil Unusual - odor of oil Color of oil Indications of moisture and its location Free water in tank and amount Debris - Type Amount Location Sample for analysis Burns, Discoloration or Deposits which are the result of arc or stray flux overheating in areas such as: Tank walls Bushing terminals Corona shields Copper connectors Bus bars Misc. (list) Loose Connections or Splices to: Tap leads Bushings Terminal boards Recorded Data
304
Table 23 (Continued) INTERNAL INSPECTION Main Tank Collars Spacers Core ground strap Core hold down angle (braces) Condition of DETC Contacts Operating mechanism Coupling shaft Shielding Carbon Tracking Location Amount Porcelain damage Copper or aluminum splatter Spongy insulation or leads Condition of Windings and Leads Lead clamping Winding support system Clamping Winding distortion Winding movement Insulation discoloration Lead distortion Lead movement Recorded Data
305
Table 23 (Continued) INTERNAL INSPECTION Main Tank Recorded Data Condition of series transformer Condition of preventive auto Indication of local hot spots Connection overheating (squeeze all accessible connections) Condition of CTs CTs Hot spot measurement system Wiring Support brackets Tank wall penetration block Condition of Core Electrical arcing Overheating Abnormal test results of insulation resistance from core to ground Evidence of oil level inside tank Tank wall stray flux shunt packs damaged Core ground connection at core Rust on core (location and amount) Condition of yoke bolts Loose core steel Evidence of core damage Condition of core framing structure (welds, deformation)
306
Table 23 (Condtinued) INTERNAL INSPECTION LTC LTC Compartment Unusual burning of contacts Arcing between contacts Arcing from contact to ground Mechanical failure of parts Misalignment of parts Failure of vacuum bottles Condition of motor drive Evidence of oil level Condition of tap board Correct operation of electrical and mechanical end of travel limits Evidence of parts broken Evidence of parts bent Condition of transition resistor Condition of series transformer Condition of tank seals Condition of silica gel breather Presence of carbon deposits Parts missing Loose parts found Condition of preventive autotransformer (reactor) Condition of vacuum switch (if used) Note position of all contacts Note evidence of moisture Condition of stationary contents Condition of movable contents Condition of reversing switch
Recorded Data
307
Table 24 TEARDOWN ITEMS Core Damage - Breakdown of core insulation due to: Ground current thru core Overheating due to excessive magnetic flux Welded core laminations Evidence of tracking results from dielectric breakdown due to: Moisture Contamination Clearance problems Gas evolution Static electrification Partial discharge (corona) Length of track and path Burned charred or discolored insulation Punctures in insulation Burned conductors Melted conductors Scalloped conductors between radial spacers Evidence of radial failure: Conductor stretching Inward radial collapse Scalloped conductors
Recorded Data
308
Table 24 (Continued) TEARDOWN ITEMS Evidence of axial failure: Conductor tilting Beam failure Collapse of winding end supports Evidence of Mechanical Failure: Evidence of mechanical wear to conductor insulation (check at edge of radial spacers) Circumferential displacement of conductors Evidence of foreign objects - location Core thru bolt insulation breakdown Overheating due to excessive magnetic flux Movement or distortion of the clamping structure Winding spacers out of line in core type, indicating looseness of winding Washer board spacers and collars out of place or not located properly to support shell form pancake winding conductor Loose or damaged core ground connection Evidence of Thermal Failure Discolored insulation of unfailed phase
Recorded Data
309
WORK AID 1: PRE-OPERATIONAL FIELD INSTALLATION POWER TRANSFORMERS (OIL-IMMERSED) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
CHECKLIST
Check complete assembly for damage and missing parts. Temporary shipping blocks and protective crating removed. Visually inspect for cleanliness and completeness of bushing and connections in primary and secondary compartments. Check lubrication and freedom of rotation of cooling fans. Check lubrication and freedom of motion of tap changers and other operating accessories. Record transformer tap setting and set for correct voltage. Check oil level gauge and inspect for oil leakage. Determine dielectric strength of insulating oil and record on Field Test Record. Check pressure relief device. Alarm and control circuits connected and complete. Check inert gas pressure gauge (should be 2 lbs. 1). Check temperature gauge. High voltage cable properly supported, connected and insulated. Check transformer nameplate against purchase specification. Inspect fuses and cutouts. Check conduit connections. Check conductor size and type. Check conductor phasing and identification. Measure insulation resistance of the windings and record readings on Field Test Record. Case grounding and grounding resistor correctly installed and connected to main ground system.
310
WORK AID 2: FIELD TESTING
311
WORK AID 3: TABLE OF FIELD INSPECTION FIELD EXTERIOR OUT-SERVICE INSPECTION

PURCHASE NEW TRANS.
Oil Filled Dry Type
INSPECTIONS
REWORK TRANS.
Oil Filled Dry Type

Oil Filled Dry Type
Oil Filled Dry Type
CORE Ground Clamping Structure COIL Insulation Connections Cable Routing BUSHING CT Insulation Cable Routing Connections Mounting ON-LOAD TC Motor & Drive Contact Surfaces Aux & Limit SW's Crank Operation Position Indicator OFF-LOAD TC Contact Surfaces Crank Mechanism Level Float Mechanism Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/n Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/y dop/y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N N N Y N N N N/A N N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N N dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/y dop/n dop/n Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N dop/n N dop/n N
NOTES: dop = Depends on Problem; N = Normally No; Y = Normally Yes; N/A = Not Applicable
312
WORK AID 10:
TRANSFORMER TEST METHOD DATA
These are the various transformer test methods with pertinent data to assist with evaluations of test results: Work Aid 10A: 1. Turns Ratio Test (TTR)
Acceptable Values Values should be 0.5% of nameplate calculate ratios to TTR measured ratios
2. 3.
Correction factors - none needed Information needed Transformer nameplate no-load tap change (or jumper) values Nameplate phasor diagram Insure winding primary to secondary phase relationships are correct Perform same test to all no-load tap changer taps on all phases Load tap changers should have only the neutral tap and end tap both up and down tested The red leads connections on tester should match phases when hooked primary to secondary (H1 - X1) Obtaining a balanced reading is objective of using TTR accomplished Unbalanced reading indicates problem with hook-up or transformer problem
313
4.
Types of problems tests can determine Shorted winding turns Incorrect NLTC or LTC (if used) tap settings Bad contacts on tap changer Incorrect transformer polarity Performs polarity test (because of hook-up) Errors in turn count Mislabeled terminals Broken tap changer
5.
Other Tests that confirm TTR test Winding resistance will confirm the following problems related to TTR: Shorted winding turns Incorrect NLTC or LTC (if used) tap setting Bad contacts on tap changer
314
Work Aid 10B: 1.
Polarity Test (3 Methods)
Voltmeter Flick Method a. Acceptable values b. c. Meter deflection is the same for Hi side winding & Lo side winding = subtractive Meter deflection is the opposite for Hi & Lo = additive
Correction factors - none Information needed Transformer nameplate phasor diagram Battery, voltmeter and test leads Insure polarity of test leads (+, ) are matched to transformer polarity A switch is needed to switch battery on and off to get deflections on meter Polarity only Listed below (Parts 2 and 3) TTR
d. e.
Types of problems tests can determine Other tests that confirm polarity test
2.
Voltage Reading Method a. Acceptable values b. c. Larger voltage reading between H2 - X2 with H1 and X1 connected together, transformer is additive Reduced voltage reading between H2 - X2 with H1 and X1 connected together, transformer is subtractive.
Correction factors - none Information needed An analog DC voltmeter is usually used Insure polarity of test leads are matched to transformer phase relationships Battery for test connection to H1 and H2
315
d. e.
Types of problems tests can determine Polarity only TTR test Parts 1 and 3 this section Other tests that confirm polarity test
3.
Vector Group Test a. Acceptable values H3 - X2 = H3 - X3 H3 - X2 < H1 - H3 H2 - X2 < H2 - H3 H2 - X2 < H1 - H3 If voltage readings below meet values above transformer is subtractive
These are values to be verified from voltage reading with H1 and X1 tied together. Voltage reading are H3 - X2 H3 - X3 H1 - H3 Also H2 -X2 H2 - X3
b. c.
Correction factors - none Information needed Need transformer nameplate diagram phasor relationship H1 and X1 must be tied together Reading as stated must be taken and verified against connections as stated reference GI P-024 or P-025, page 6 information Vector group to determine transformer type none
d. e.
Types of problems tests can determine Other types of tests that confirm any polarity test
316
Work Aid 10C: 1.
Winding Resistance
Acceptable values 2% of factory test values new transformers 1% older transformers prior reading and comparing trends 55 C temperature rise transformers corrected to 75 C; see table 6 (Module 1), or 8 (Module 2), or 3 (Module 3) 65 C temperature rise transformer corrected to 85 C; see table 6 (Module 1), or 8 (Module 2), or 3 (Module 3) When reported as single value for three-phase delta transformers then: add three reading together and then 3/2 times the sum gives total resistance value Must make different connection for copper or aluminum windings; see table 6 (Module 1), or 8 (Module 2), or 3 (Module 3) Factory test values must be provided Prior transformer test values used to develop trends to compare reading to Can perform test with two different type instruments: wheatstone bridge or digital low-resistance ohmmeter (DLRO) A third method not mentioned here is calculation method (reference info in text) Shorted turn Poor joints or connections (high resistance) Bad contacts on NLTC or LTC Dirty contacts on NLTC or LTC Open circuit Turns ratio (TTR)
2.
Correction factors
3.
Information needed
4.
Types of problems tests can determine
5.
Other tests that confirm winding resistance test
317
Work Aid 10D: 1.
Winding Insulation Resistance (Four Types of Tests)
60-sec. Test a. Acceptable values b. System voltage 0600 V use (1 meg-ohm/ 1 kV) + 1kV System voltage 1000V-34.5 kV use (1 meg-ohm/ 1 kV) + 1kV System voltage 69 kV and up use (3 meg-ohms/ 1 kV) + 1kV
Correction factors Readings must be corrected to 20C Humidity and dirty surfaces affect readings
c.
Information needed Must correct all readings to 20 C (need correction factors) Clean surfaces of the devices provides better readings Do not use test voltages above the rated system voltage Ensure that correct connections are made for 3 readings as below: Test HV winding to LV winding and ground, LV to HV and ground, HV and LV to ground
d.
Types of problems tests can determine Ground faults Dielectric level of insulation Moisture Contaminates Winding to winding shorts Heavy carbon tracking (readings zero or very low)
318
e.
Other tests that confirm Winding Insulation Resistance Test Insulation power factor test Oil test - (dielectric, moisture content) Any of the insulation resistance test
2.
Polarization Index Test a. Acceptable PI values b. c. <1 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.25 1.25 2.0 > 2.0 bad poor questionable fair good
Correction factor - none Information needed Insulation resistance measure can vary with applied voltage Do not use test voltage above system rated voltage Clean surfaces of devices to provide better readings Prior test values or factory test values needed
d.
Types of problems tests can determine Ground fault Dielectric level of insulation Moisture in insulation Heavy carbon tracking (reading 0 or very low)
319
e.
Other tests that confirm winding insulation resistance test Insulation power factor test Oil dielectric test Oil power factor test Oil moisture content test Step voltage (insulation test) Dielectric absorption (insulation test)
3.
Dielectric Absorption Test a. Accepted values b. The curve developed as stated in information section should have a regular rise with time to have a good insulating system
Correction factors Data can be plotted without correction to 20 C Either corrected or not the results will be the same in this case
c.
Information needed The data obtained for Polarization Index Testing is used to plot the graph on log-log paper of insulation resistance in meg-ohms x 100 vs. time in minutes. Same information as Polarization Index
d.
Types of problems tests can determine Ground fault Dielectric level of insulation Moisture in insulation Contaminates Heavy carbon tracking (reading 0 or very low)
e.
Other tests that confirm dielectric absorption test

320
4.
Insulation power factor test Oil dielectric test Oil moisture content test Any other three insulation resistance tests
Step-Voltage Test a. Accepted values Not > 25% between difference in test results of one voltage level test to another higher voltage level test to have acceptable insulation level Meter readings should be close to the same at both test voltages if results are very good
b.
Correction factors Applied voltage of two test should be a ratio of 1 to 5 or > Applied test voltage for one minute No correction needed Both test performed on same test instrument
c.
Information needed Same information as other insulation resistance tests Need tester (megger) with large range of test voltage capability (500V to 5000V) "+" lead to metal winding connections and "-" lead to ground
321
d.
Types of problems tests can determine Ground fault Moisture Contaminates Heavy carbon tracking (reading 0 or very low)
e.
Other tests that confirm step-voltage test Insulation power factor test Oil dielectric test Oil moisture content test Oil power factor test Any other three insulation resistance tests
322
Work Aid 10E: 1.
Core Ground Test
Accepted values > 200 meg-ohms corrected to 20C with 1000 V megger Ohmmeter reading, 300 ohms to 400 ohms corrected to 20C, means there is foreign material between the tank and the core ANSI requires 1000 meg-ohms for new unit 50 meg-ohm can be acceptable on old unit Ohm-meter reading of 1 to 2 ohms indicates a solid second ground (not wanted)
2.
Correction factors Readings corrected to 20 C
3.
Information needed Disconnect the core ground strap and make a reading between ground strap and ground tank Some shell form transformers can have more than one ground (no problem) Some transformers can have 250 to 1000 ohm resistors in core ground circuit (heavy-duty resistor) This helps limit circulating currents.
4.
Other tests that confirm core ground test None
323
Work Aid 10F: 1.
Transformer Tank Ground Test
Acceptable values Determine no current is flowing in ground cables before disconnecting Micro-ohm resistance values for connections to tank Typical resistance of 2 ohms for ground cable to earth resistance electrode
2.
Correction factors None
3.
Information needed Test tank ground connection resistance prior to cleaning connection (record) and after cleaning and reconnection then compare values. Cleaned value should be much less Before disconnecting tank ground connection use a clamp-on or ammeter probe to check if current is flowing in ground cable. If current is flowing, determine problem and correct before disconnecting
4.
Types of problems tests can determine Imbalanced load High-resistance ground fault Inductive voltage and currents High-resistance ground connection for tank ground
5.
Other tests that confirm transformer tank ground test Earth-resistance test to electrode system part of this test
324
Work Aid 10G: 1.
Insulation Power-Factor Test
Acceptable values Over-all test has 0.5% (corrected to 20 C as the maximum per Saudi Aramco GI P-025 Bushings test < 0.10 watts at 10 kV test voltage < 0.006 watts at 2.5 kV test voltage
Field oil power-factor test < 0.5% corrected to 20 C
Core excitation current 3 H1 and H3 phase high and H2 phase low-current 1 both H1 and H2 = same current Usually problem excitation current > 10% over normal value
2.
Correction factors All reading corrected to 20 C
3.
Information needed Over-all test (winding insulation Power factor) Three measurements made for CH, CL, and CHL CHL may be measured directly by UST method Transformers 15 kV or less that have been in service a long time can have P.F. 2% and still be in good shape, should isolate what is causing high power-factor, the insulation, oil, or the bushing All tests should be performed on a dry day with no contamination around or on the connection surfaces Humidity and high temperature effect test values
Bushing Test
325
Has two different types of tests - UST and Hot Collar Cannot exceed bushing tap voltage level on test The bushings have to be clean prior to test or reading will not be accurate Hot collar test used when bushing has no tap for UST test Hot collar test should be evaluated by comparison of prior readings
Field Oil Power Factor Test Test does not provide any info about the remaining life expectancy of the oil This test should be compared to the oil test for moisture content
Core Excitation Test Need the manufacturers' test data for excitation current test Routine test should be confined to the high-voltage windings Defects in low-voltage windings will still be detected even though not connected Load tap changers should be set to neutral Test one step above neutral and one step below Test voltage should not exceed rated L to L. Voltage for delta and L to L to neutral for wye Test voltages should be the same for each phase and set accurately
326
4.
Types of problems tests can determine Overall test Condition of ground Condition of interwinding insulation which is an index for dryness Operating conditions and failure hazards from moisture, carbonization of insulation Defective bushing Contamination of oil Improperly or ungrounded cores
Bushing test Contamination and moisture Voids in bushings
Field oil power-factor test Contaminates (particle content) Moisture
Core excitation test Heavy core damage Shorted laminations Core-bolt insulation failure
327
5.
Other tests that confirm insulation power factor test Overall test Winding insulation test Field oil dielectric test Oil moisture content
Bushing test Insulation resistance test (megger)
Field oil power-factor test Field oil dielectric test Oil moisture content Insulation resistance test (megger)
Core excitation test Core ground test
328
Work Aid 10J: Oil Test Results Comparison
Acidity Dirt R ust Sludge or Polar Contaminants Askarel or Silicon, Paraffinic Carbon or Conductive Particles TYPES OIL TEST Water or Moisture TEST LIMITS
**Dielectric D-877 D-974 *Acidity = Neutralization
30 kV min. Good=Green & Yellow max 0.03 mg KOH/gm New = 0.01-0.03 mg KOH/gm Bad = Orange, brown, high acidity Good - 40 dynes/cm min. Bad - 18 dynes/cm
Interfacial Tension D-971 (IFT) *Color D-1500 D-1533 Moisture Content Specific Gravity D-1298 Visual Examination Sediment D-1698
IFT IFT Acidity Acidity Y
Max. 0.5 Light color - Good Max - 35 ppm
1.0 Fair
Paraffinic Oil - < 0.84 New oil = 0.91 Askarel - > 1.552 Bright & clear color-Good ; Cloudiness-Bad Organic matter in oil - Slight T-G Moderate - Investigate Heavy - Bad (Investigate)
D-924 Power Factor 25C % max. 100C max. Gas-in-Oil Analysis
Y 0.05 max. 0.30 max.
Not analyzed in same manner Moisture content = Water content Oil Viscosity - has big effect on heat transfer/transformer cooling. *Acidity Test = Neutralization Number Test *Color had to be compared with IFT and acidity **Dielectric indicates rust if conductive
329
TABLE OF CONTENTS ADDENDUM ADDENDUM A: FORMS ..................................................................................... 330 ADDENDUM B: DATA........................................................................................ 346 ADDENDUM C: INSULATION POWER FACTOR TYPES OF TEST.............. 360 Power Factor Testing................................................................................... 361 Bushing Power Factor Tests ............................................................ 361 Liquid Insulation Power-Factor Test ............................................... 366 Core Excitation Current ................................................................... 368 Askarel-Filled Transformers ............................................................ 373 LIST OF FIGURES Figure C1. Figure C2. Figure C3. Figure C4. Figure C5. Figure C6. Figure C7. Figure C8. Figure C9. Ungrounded Specimen Test on Transformer Bushings.............................. 362 Typical Field Test Data for a Large Transformer Bushing, Undergrounded Specimen Test (UST) ........................................................ 363 Hot-Collar Test Method for Testing of Bushing Insulators......................... 364 Typical Field Test DataBushing Hot-Collar Tests..................................... 365 Liquid Insulation Cell Connected for Ungrounded Specimen Testing........ 367 Measurement of Ie in a Single-Phase Transformer ..................................... 369 Measurement of Ie in a Wye-Connected Transformer Winding ................. 370 Measurement of Ie in a Delta-Connected Transformer Winding ................ 371 Variation of Power Factor with the Moisture Content of OilImpregnated Pressboard .............................................................................. 372
330
ADDENDUM A: FORMS
Form P-000 (Sheet 1 of 3)
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
ADDENDUM B: DATA
347
Westinghouse: Transformer Insulating Liquid Analysis
348
349
350
351
Westinghouse: Dissolved Gas Analysis
352
353
354
355
356
FIELD EXTERIOR OUT-SERVICE INSPECTION

PURCHASE NEW TRANS.
Oil Filled Dry Type
INSPECTIONS
REWORK TRANS.
Oil Filled Dry Type

Oil Filled Dry Type
Oil Filled Dry Type
CORE Ground Clamping Structure COIL Insulation Connections Cable Routing BUSHING CT Insulation Cable Routing Connections Mounting ON-LOAD TC Motor & Drive Contact Surfaces Aux & Limit SW's Crank Operation Position Indicator OFF-LOAD TC Contact Surfaces Crank Mechanism Level Float Mechanism Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/n Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/y dop/y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N N N Y N N N N/A N N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N N dop/n dop/n dop/n dop/y dop/n dop/n Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N dop/n N dop/n N
NOTES: dop = Depends on Problem; N = Normally No; Y = Normally Yes; N/A = Not Applicable
357
TABLE 2 FIELD EXTERIOR OUT-SERVICE INSPECTION

PURCHASE NEW TRANS.
Oil Filled Dry Type
INSPECTIONS
REWORK TRANS.
Oil Filled Dry Type

Oil Filled Dry Type
Oil Filled Dry Type
BUSHING Stress Surface Cracks Chips Oil Level Connections Creepage Distance RADIATORS Impact Damage Oil Leaks Paint Condition Cut-Off Valves Corrosion Workmanship Excessive Dust & Dirt Shipping Hardware TANK Oil Level Paint Condition Workmanship Corrosion Impact Damage Excessive Dirt & Dust Electrical Ground Press Relief Device N = Normally No; Y = Normally Yes; Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y N Y Y Y Y N N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A dop/n N N dop/n N N dop/n N N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y N Y Y N Y N N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N N N N N N N N N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y N/A Y N N Y Y N Y N N Y Y N/A Y N
N/A = Not Applicable;
dop = Depends on Problem
358

PURCHASE NEW TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A REWORK TRANS. N Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y N Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A MAINT. EXISTING TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A TROUBLESHOOTING TRANS. N N N N N Y N N N dop/y dop/y N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
TANKS (cont'd.) Press Relief Semaphore Manhole Covers Drain Valve Fill Valve Vent Plug Gas Press + Shipping Hardware Removed Load TC Compartment Press-Vac Regulator Sudden Press Device No-Load TC Selector INDICATING DEVICES Oil Leaks Glass Face Operable Drag Hand Reset Paint Condition Gauge Scales FOUNDATION PAD Cracks Uneveness Oil Leaks LOAD TC Crank Operation (Manual and Motor) Tap Position Indicator Oil Level Indicator
Y Y Y Y Y Y
N/A Y Y Y Y Y
N Y Y Y Y Y
N/A Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y
N/A Y Y Y Y Y
Y N Y Y N N
N/A N Y Y N N
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
N N N
N N N
Y Y Y
Y Y Y
N N N
N N N
Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A
dop/n dop/n dop/n
N/A N/A N/A
359

PURCHASE NEW TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y REWORK TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y MAINT. EXISTING TRANS. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y TROUBLESHOOTING TRANS. N N N N N N N N
COOLING FANS Proper Installation Rotate Properly Motors Shock Mount Paint Condition COOLING PUMPS Oil Leaks Indicating Devices Isolation Valves Paint Condition CONTROL CABINET Wire Connections (Tight, Corrosion) Wiring Accuracy (Per Wiring Diag.) Cleanliness Corrosion Excessive Dust & Dirt Water Damage Elect Devices Op Manually Wiring Vs Diagram Heaters Lamp and Fixture Door Hinge Door Latches
Y Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y Y
N/A N/A N/A N/A
N N N N
N/A N/A N/A N/A
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N/A Y Y Y
N N Y Y Y Y N N N Y N N
N N Y Y Y Y N N N/A Y N N
Y N Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Y N Y Y Y Y N N N/A Y Y Y
360
ADDENDUM C: INSULATION POWER FACTOR TYPES OF TEST
361
Power Factor Testing The text covered the winding insulation test method. But there are other test methods used: Winding insulation P.F. test Bushing P.F. test Liquid insulation P.F. test Core excitation current Askarel-filled transformer values
This information was obtained from the book "A Guide to Transformer Maintenance" by "S.D. Myers, J.J. Kelly, and R.H. Parrish." These other test are performed in the field when more diagnostic information is needed to isolation of a transformer problems. Bushing Power Factor Tests Bushings can be tested in several different ways without removal from the transformer. The most effective test method utilizes the potential taps, power factor taps, or split-mounting flanges with which most modern bushings are equipped. This method as shown in Figure C1 is referred to as the Underground Specimen Test (UST). Figure C2 lists typical field test data. Care must be taken not to exceed the allowable tap test voltage. Consult the manufacturer's published information for the maximum permissible test voltage for the particular type of bushing being tested.
362
Figure C1. Ungrounded Specimen Test on Transformer Bushings (Courtesy of Doble Engineering Co.)
363
Figure C2. Typical Field Test Data for a Large Transformer Bushing, Undergrounded Specimen Test (UST)
364
The Hot-Collar test was designed to detect localized defects (contamination or voids) in compound-filled bushings or cable potheads. This test is applied, using single or multiple collars on transformer bushings (Figure C3) if the UST method cannot be performed or to supplement the UST test when compound-filled bushings are involved. A single Hot-Collar test is also often applied to oil-filled bushings not equipped with liquid level gauges in an effort to detect low liquid levels. Figure C4 shows some typical Hot-Collar test data.
Figure C3. Hot-Collar Test Method for Testing of Bushing Insulators (Courtesy of Doble Engineering Co.)
365
Figure C4. Typical Field Test DataBushing Hot-Collar Tests
366
Since relatively low dielectric losses and currents are normally recorded for Hot-Collar tests, small changes in either value can result in misleading changes in calculated power factors. Because of this, it is recommended that Hot-Collar tests be evaluated by comparison of currents and losses obtained for similar tests on similar bushings and potheads under the same atmospheric conditions. Power-factor values need not be calculated. As a general guideline, losses up to 0.10 watt at 10 kV and 6 milliwatts at 2.5 kV can be considered acceptable. Contamination and moisture will affect the measured losses, so be sure the bushings are clean and dry before testing. Liquid Insulation Power-Factor Test To complete the routine power-factor testing of the transformer insulation system, a sample of oil must be drawn from the transformer and tested for power factor. Although this test by itself offers little information about the remaining life expectancy of the oil, when this information is properly applied along with other oil screening tests, it will assure you that the oil is in a safe and satisfactory condition for continued operation. Oil samples are tested for power factor by the UST method as shown in Figure C5. Good, new oil should have a power factor of 0.05 percent or less at 20C. Power factors can gradually increase in-service to a value as high as 0.5 percent at 20C without, in most cases, indicating sufficient deterioration to warrant investigation. When the power factor exceeds 0.5 percent an investigation is indicated.* The question of what decision to make regarding disposition of the oil depends on what is causing the high power factor. Insulation resistance or Karl Fisher moisture content tests may be made to see if moisture is present. The necessity for further tests will depend, to a large extent, on the magnitude of the power factor, the importance of the apparatus in which the oil is used, its rating, and the quantity of oil involved. Insulation power-factor tests can also be made on lightning arresters, air and oil circuit breakers, current and potential transformers, capacitors, cable (500 feet or less) and rotating machinery, such as motors and generators.
------------------------*If a 100C reading is more than 7 to 10 times the value at 20C, then this usually indicates a soluble contaminant in the oil other than water.
367
Figure C5. Liquid Insulation Cell Connected for Ungrounded Specimen Testing (Courtesy of Doble Engineering Co.)
368
Core Excitation Current The technique of using excitation current measurements for field detection of shorted turns and heavy core damage was developed in 1967. This test method is a natural extension of the power-factor test and makes use of the same power-factor test equipment. Figures C6, C7, and C8 show test hook up's for various winding configuration. Numerous cases of extensive core problems such as shorted laminations or core bolt insulation breakdown, have been detected by excitation current measurements.* The following guidelines should be followed for routine excitation current tests: 1. 2. All loads should be disconnected and the transformer deenergized. Routine tests can be confined to the high voltage windings. Defects in the low-voltage windings will still be detected and the excitation current required will be reduced. Winding terminals normally grounded in-service should be grounded during tests, except for the particular winding energized for the test. For example, with a wye/wye transformer, the neutral of the high-voltage winding would be connected to the UST (Undergrounded Specimen Test) circuit, while the neutral of the low-voltage winding would be connected to ground. Caution should be exercised in the vicinity of all transformer terminals because voltage will be induced in all windings during a test. For routine tests the load tap changer (LTC) should be set to neutral; one step above neutral; one step below neutral; full raise or full lower; however, to ensure that the tap selector is functioning properly throughout the entire range of selection, it may be desirable to sometimes perform tests on all LTC positions.
3.
4. 5.
------------------------*Other tests such as transformer turns ratio (TTR) and winding DC resistance tests must be used to detect tap changer contact problems, high resistance joints, and coil movement.
369
6.
Test voltages should not exceed the rated line-to-line voltage for deltaconnected windings or rated line-to-line neutral voltage for wyeconnected windings. Generally, these tests are made at 2.5, 5, or 10 kV as the capacity of the test equipment permits. Test voltages should be the same for each phase and because of the nonlinear behavior of exciting current at low test voltages, should be set accurately if results are to be compared. For single-phase transformers excitation current test results are recorded with the high voltage winding energized alternately from opposite ends. This should also be done on the individual phases of three-phase transformers if the unit is suspect or if the initial exciting current measurements are questionable.
7.
8.
Figure C6 illustrates the excitation current test procedure for single-phase transformers. Figures C7 and C8 illustrate the excitation current test procedures for three-phase wye and delta connected units respectively. Note that all excitation current tests are performed by the Undergrounded Specimen Test (UST) method. On single-phase transformers, the two currents obtained should be the same. Currents recorded for single-phase transformers should be compared either with similar units or with data obtained from previous tests on the same unit.
Ie H1H2 H2H1
Energize H1 H2
UST H2 H1
Float X1X2 X1X2
Figure C6. Measurement of Ie in a Single-Phase Transformer (Courtesy of Doble Engineering Co.)
370
The test results recorded on the individual phases of three-phase transformers are also compared. For a three-phase core-form transformer, a pattern of two similar currents and one low current is expected. The lower current for one of the phases, usually phase H2 H0 for wye-connected windings and Phase H1 H2 for delta-connected windings, is associated with that winding which is wound on the center leg of a three-legged core. The magnetic reluctance of this phase is lower than the other two phases and, therefore, results in a lower excitation current value. Three-phase shell-form transformers may also yield a pattern of two similar currents and one low current, but only if the secondary winding is delta-connected.
Ie H1H0 H2H0 H3H0
Energize H1 H2 H3
UST H0 H0 H0
Float H2H3,X1X2X3 H1H3,X1X2X3 H1H2,X1X2X3
Ground * * *
*If X is Wye-Connected, X0 is Grounded.
Figure C7. Measurement of Ie in a Wye-Connected Transformer Winding (Routine Method) (Courtesy of Doble Engineering Co.)
371
Sufficient experience has been gained with this low voltage excitation-current test method so that abnormal readings are easily recognized and numerous defects have been located. When excitation current tests are included in factory specifications, these tests then could be performed in the field so that comparison of test data can show if any changes have taken place. On repaired transformers the value of excitation current will generally increase along with, but not necessarily proportional to the increase in core loss. Joint construction severely affects the magnitude of the excitation current. Changes in the hysteresis and eddy current characteristics due to handling the steel also affect the excitation current. High precision in excitation current measurements does not appear to be necessary. The serious faults found have increased excitation current magnitudes by greater than 10 percent over normal values.
Ie H1H2 H2H3 H3H1
Energize H1 H2 H3
UST H2 H3 H1
Ground H3,* H1,* H2,*
Float X1X2X3 X1X2X3 X1X2X3
*If X is Wye-Connected, X0 is Grounded.
Figure C8. Measurement of Ie in a Delta-Connected Transformer Winding (Routine Method) (Courtesy of Doble Engineering Co.)
372
Figure C9. Variation of Power Factor with the Moisture Content of Oil-Impregnated Pressboard (W.L. Teague, "Dielectric Measurements on New Power Transformer Insulation," 1954)
373
Askarel-Filled Transformers An increase in the power factor of the liquid will also affect the overall power factor of the transformer insulation system since the two are interrelated. Recent test data for 50 typical service-aged askarel-filled and 50 oil-filled transformers revealed that the average power factor for the askarel-filled units was between four and five percent, while the average power factor for the oil-filled units was 1.1 percent or less. Tabulations were obtained with no distinction made for kVA or insulation ratings. All units were power and distribution transformers. In time past variations up to 50 percent power-factor values have been found acceptable for in-service askarel-filled transformers. However, the data also indicates that limits of five percent appear to be the norm. Power factors above five percent merit further investigation. It is the rapid departure from normal values which is significant for both oil and askarel-filled units. The power-factor value of transformers in service is a very important test number and takes on added value in comparison to the values previously recorded during the equipment's use.
374

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Engineering Encyclopedia

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Chapter : Electrical File Reference: EEX10803

For additional information on this subject, contact W.A. Roussel on 874-1320

Electrical Power Transformers

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ADDENDUM ......................................................................................................... 329

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Figure 3. 14-SAMSS-531 Table of Contents (contd)

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9.2.5 (10) 9.4.5 (30)

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PAGE 13 31 41 53 71 80 84 95 102 109 115 129

Figure 5. SADP-P-121 Table of Contents

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8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

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