STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

A. DARKOV and V. KUZNETSOV

MIH
P\JJlLIS HE RS

A.

n.

AA PI<OO. 13. H. 10'3H E UOB

CTP011TE.TlhHAH MEXAHf.fE\A

H<I.IJ;A'l'EJtbCTDO UblCW AII lliHOJIM

MOCI\DA

A. DARKOV and V. KUZNETSOV

STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
Translat~d

from the Russilln by B. l.achfnov

MIR PUBLISHERS MOSCOW

1 98 9

UDC 62t. .04 (lli5.8) = 20

First Published 1966

SecQnd Edi t iQn

COr\'l'ENTS

fnl.l'Od\lcli)n
Ch:rpl('l' 1. KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
15
15

1.1. S npp orld 2.1. Geometrical Slnhility of Fwrnrtl :;t.I'HC .lurc.-. 3.1. StllliiAII y Dt>t<>mtin:lle Jo't'llllwll S~ru~Utrs .
C!Japl(H' 2. BEAMS

17

:m
31

1.2. G(HI)ral . . . . . . . 2.2. H tA~ t i on l Hri ti<!CICe L itl("< fr,r Si rup ly S upp!t~'l(d f! P.UIII ll ot Wi Uumt 0\'Nhaug . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111
\1 il.lt

3(;

3.2. l;:('nding l\l ~ntnl aod Sht:t r Jnfl ncm.,.! L iuc;; for ~uup l r Su pJ'<Irlt"l Hoamo> wi t h (lr \\-tlhou t l 'v<>rh llug . . 4 .2. {n (hl(ln r.l.' Lin e!' for Sirn pi( C'llnl Hover Beaml\1 5.2. In nu~nr.o Uncs in Cn~O' 1 1[ l nd i t'< !Cl Lo!ul t\ppl tcat.uu 6.2. D( INmi nnt.it>n of Fon;o:;. anl ) (ouu; ltl$ wHi t l ht Atd In

4V t,g
'o!)

"r

52
7.2. f) P.((>rmiull t\on uf Lh ll Mo,;t Uu l'nvNtral.f,.
Po-.i t.i<~n

u( '' Lmul

5~

8.2. Dt.c-tminnlill n of Ma'>i rn nm ~I OJnonl$ 11nd Fot'CI!~ 111111{ Equivalen t l.! niform Lnach . . . . . 9.2. M n hl~pau Statically DoltrtniiU ill' l:ll.'lrll1!< 10.2. D~term in lion of M1m onl~ ~n!l t'<.>t~.es Jnonc.l'<l l>y n ~ y:;t.('m of Fi :nd Loads in l\hthi:-;pa n S lolica lly Dell!rrni!Hllt> Ht>um:> 11 .2. l nfln enr1 T.ino~ fo1 1\.-lltlt.r~pan Slulict~lly Dc tllrm ill ULI.' l.ltlllnl! 12.2. l'ltH td in~ lii>tnt)nts and Sh N\I'IItg Forr.N lntlnc1Hl by Fixl.'d

70 7ti

W. \,I I

f..l>tHis in i'tntir.nll y DeL('J'IllirHllO

BtiJll.~.

Knl'e

Fwmo.~ 11 11cl ~15

13cato ~ ..r l' olygonnl J) Mign . . . .

Chaplet 3, THREE-HINGED ARCHES AND FRAMES . . . .

1!'11.
tn-'1 1('7 I'\.'I

. . . . . 2.3. Support Ro1u:tio n~ o[ a Thtl~t\ll ingcd Arch . . 3.3. Dtlltlrmination of Strl'!>~t~~ in 'l'htoe-TI ingoll Arc! roo;

1.3. Thrce-r1inged Systoms .

UDC 6V..Ot\ (075.8) = 20

First. PubHshM '1!)66 Second Edi t ion

CONTENTS
Jnt,oduc tion . . . .

Chaptc 1. KINEMATIC ANALYS!S OF STRUCTURES 1.1. Support s 2.1. Gcorno~rical Slo~bil ity nf Frnmed S trucL urc:-. ~01. S ta lic11lty Dct,(lnniuule F'ntnNI l:'i tl'llc ln rt'S 0
0

15
15

l'i 20

Chaptr 2. BEAMS 1o 2. Gcn.ornl 2o2. ll <'tlr t,inn lufluP.nr.t I.in.:i! fo r ::\ 11up ly !;u pJ~<ll'lt<l B ouJl l~ w1th r \\' iUwuL O" chnug 0 o 0 . . . o . o . . . 0 o 3.20 A<JI(Iing !\lom"nL ilnd RIH. n l nOau:u<:c LJn<'<~ f<:ir Sml p l~ol:\u pPIrt cd Ream!> with or \\' itlw11t Qv,rh:mg . 4o 2. Jnfl ul' nCO Lint'o fur S implo Clll1t tl t'' 0' T11am~ 5.2. luflntHI I' Il Li nes iu Ca:":S <Jf l nd imct Load ApJil Jctll.ifl 6.2. Dl.-tNil'llllll t ion c f Fcrcog nnd M(IIIIOnts \~itl1 th o A ul 11f lunutlJr..t Liti!'S . o . o o o o . o . . . . 7.2. Dl)t.l-rn dnat ion tf t.ho \ l ost UJfn"m.unh\(1 Pu~ iliuu uf '' Lt~~ul 8o 2o 0 ('tl'nuifllll i(\n <If Maximum ) IOIIINtl'l 11nd f'Hrl"' t '~iug gq uiYnlrn t l' niform Lo:ul~ . . 902. )fnltiqpan S ln lic111ly Dck-rnll na tc l:\c1111~ . 10.2. D cl..rmi nnt itm of Mct!frenl:lllnd Forc~s Jn.JncNl hy n S y<~lelll of F ixl!d L oncl s in ~iultiS (IIIIl ::5 tll lJcnlly Detcrmi r,nt~:> Bennt>; 11.2. In n utt u:l' L i llo~ ror 'l{nlti!>pnll S \11 \icnlly Dot.enni rntl' Hwuns 12.2. Bonding 1\lomont:> and Shonl'i ug ~orcl.'s l ud ucod hy Fi~l.'tl Lon1ls in Slutic.ally Dell'l'minul.t) l3!!u ll', Kncl! F1111ll t)l\ swtl Boamo; ,,( Polygcmnl 01~igu .
0

ill
31
3t} lot)

4R 1!) 52
~8

7(1 71i

W.
\11

ft5

Chapt~r

3. THREE-HINGED ARCHES AND FRAMES . o . o o

lfl't
lilt,

1.3. T11tCtl-Hinged Systens . 0 0 . . 0 2.3. Sttppcrt Hoactions of a Thlot:G- IIingocl Arch 3.3. Dt ltuminatitm of S tro>tses in T hrco-Tlingml 1\rclu~~

1M 114

Content.
4,3, \latitnum EconlllllY Arch<:>s . . . . . . 5.3. Dl~ign uf Three-H inged t\rchos Subj(1C .t('d to Moving Loaols 6.3. Ctwo ~lomont.s. < Hlil Norm,,! StrcSSI!S in Thn~-tl inged Arc.hos '1.3. ;\ualy~is C>f 'fltrot>-Hingod Tied Arches 11nd Ut-ttt.s

128
12~ 142

144

Chaplt>r

4. THE TRUSSES . . . . . . . . .

1:-J(l
150
153 1i4
1!52
1~6

1.4. Dtdiuit.i<n~ 11ud C:lass iflcllti(l(l of Trusses

2.4. Du:c.t. M11tbod s of farc.s~ Dl\te~mination in \hllllhf'r~ nf SJTnplt~ Tru~sos . . 3,4, GI'<IJ>Itical !\!()thod c~f StJ'lS.S An11lysi.s in tii111ple Tt uss<'s 4.4. Dir"d '\ht.ftod of SL!'t>~s Dr.teomiu~tion iu Complic.ntccl Stnt.ic.ully Del<rmillnlA~ fraJileil St-ructures . . . 5.4. ::;Lr<"" Dbl.oibut.i\ln in Different Typos of Trusses . 6.4. '\l11l l ~,~is ol' G11motri~al St.uhility o[ (?ramcd Structures '1.4. Iufiol(ll!Cl' Lines for Stl'eS$C'S in Simple }' mmecl St rucluoes 8.4. Inihtel~<:r. f.invs for Stressos in Complica1(d F1amed St.rllel.ou~s . 9.4. Trn~~s wi~b Subdiv ided Panels , 10.4. T IHu~t Dlwe>l{lping F'rn11H:Il St.ru<:ttJres 11.4. Vat'ianl.8 of Tms!3ed Acll(l.. <;

191 HlO 213 216 22.1 23ti

24:~

Chapto:>t' 5. SPACE FRAMEWORK

1.5. G!\ll.t'l'ill

2.5.
3.5. 4.5.

5.5.

. . . SpaC't' i<Jamnwork Supports Tilt ~,mna.tion of Stsrtic:nlly Det.erminat.e Spuc.e fo'rmnC\\'Ork Slrl''>l; Aoilly~<i~ in Spnco Fran:H\W(H'k . . . l~ s:.11uplos of Stro5s ;\n.tlysis iu Sr>aco Fl'amework . . .

24:-l

245 2!,1:1 251 257

Chapt11r 6. KINEMATIC METHOD OF INFLUENCE LINE CONSTRUCTION

2!'1
261 262 266 2G9 273 27ii
27f)

1.6. 2.6. S.6. 4.6. 5.6.

(it \u eral . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . Basic Pomciplcs of the K inmnatic :'1-(11thod . . Hl'plac.:>uwnt of Constraints hy Correspond ing F'orc.:>s Cotlst.nJc.tion of tho Dis plllCI!ltlOnt Grap'hs Determination of Utl' Sc.ah l~uc.tor J

6.6. Tlw Sign Corl\' tntton 7.8. I~ '\am]Jles of !nflu('nn Lin() Construction
Chapter 7. RETAIN ING WALLS AND EARTH PRESSURE COMPUTATION
1.7. G l'JIOrnl
. . . . . . . . . . .

2)\J.

2.7.

Phy~ical

3.7. ..:'\c.tiv~

PropNtics of Granular Material,;; Prl'ssur(' of Gran ulat Mult\rials . .

2i l 282 2%

Con-tent!

7
2tli

4.7. Graphkal Oetennination o ;'l!o.xhnum Active !ro~urc

5.7. Poncolet.'s Methot! . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7. M(~thod of Direct Computntion of ,the Ear~h f'l't>-~suro 7.7. Prtl'tic.u lar C rt3eS of Prossuro Computntiu,t 8.7. Passive Pre~sure of Granular Materials

2!l0 21)2
29R 30i'>

Chaptt>r

B. STRAIN ENEROY THEORY ANO PLACEMENT COMPUTATION

1,8. Gonl't'lll
2.8. \V otk of

~GENERAL

METHDOS OF DIS-

310
310
3HI

Ex ltmn I Forc-ts
Work:~ ('J'h~Ol'Cll'l

or BcUy) ' 5.8. Th!!OI'~m or lleciprocal Oisplnccanr.uts (Theorem elf MII\Wflll 6.8. Mctltorl ~ of Di:;plac~.>menl Computation 7.8. 'fern prrature St.ra'ius . . . . . . . . . . 8.8. lli!!Jllnc~mont \.omtml.at.iou Tcchnittul"S . . 9.8. Exurnplr~s of Di~pl:~cmnNH Comvutation Using V1rc

3.8. Strain Energy 4.8. 'l'IH,'OI'(>J)) tlf Hl'cipncal

3-17 321
325 :-!27
3..~7

:.0
:Y,!'i
:ir~~~

sltc.'hllgin 's )h)thod . . 10.8. Sttnin Enllrgy Mot.bod of l)i':'plnr..cmont Crnnp11tnt.i"u 11.8. The Ela~tir Loads ) -feth ocl 12..8. Simplilicd Rxpre$o;ion I)[ li:la.Lic Loads for n(lams 111111 1\ igill Frnrne.4 13.8. Simplilicd l~:tl'r<>ssion of Elnstic Loath for Iiiu~~> CIrtlJC'<:. t.ed
Swnc turc~

357

31\3
;1116

. . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14.8. Dlfomntions of St:ttically lktemiunle Slruc.turcl! C11u~-ud by lh<' ;\l nv(lment. of Suppol't.!! . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.8. Def<unHtLin ns t[ a Kinemtt lic Cit a in f:ausNI by Lito~ ~I utunl TI<tat.ion of Two Neighbouring LiJtlcs . . . , . . . 16.8. o~nocti(HI'l- or Th.rec-Dimtn;;iuna l FriiJT)!)d flll-uctures . . .

372

371l 37lS

Chapter

9. ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLER STATICALLY INDETERMINATE

STRUCTURES BY THE METHOD OF FORCES

1.9. Gonornl . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

~~ :1~3

EqiH\I.iUM Deduc.~Jd by th e Method or )"()f'r,,,~f. Analy~i.s of th1 Simp)pr Hcclundant Strttcture!'. Strc~" In 1\cdundant Structures due to Tempcrn.luto Chan~t<'S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9. Str"~:<c~ in l\ cd untlnnL Structmes Cnuse!l by tho )lov< ment ur Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.9. Diag~m ~ iot Sho11ring and Direct Stresses. Ch(\ckin({ of Di:tgtorus . . . . . . . . . . . , 2.9. 3.9. 4.9,

C~tuonlca l

31\\l
3\llt

408

410 415

Contents
7.9. Slr;uns uucl D uflc.-cti nns ur ::i tnlic nlly lndotenn inll le Struc
tUrt 'S

8.9, Th o El11:;~ic. Ctnt-ro i\f o > thod . . . 9.8. l nfho onct Li no-!1 fur tlJCl Simplor liNluudunt S t.ruc turM

'o23 -12(i <l31

Cluoplcr 10. CONTINUOUS BEAMS . . . . 1.10. 'J'Iotl(rt.m u! Tlo rtl() ~louwnt.s 2.10. Th o Jo'or,,J P<linL~ Mt' tla od 3 10. L k ntli ng t.111mont l::nvelopc CurVet!! 4.10. l nO uomcu Liowl' f(r C toullmwu~ n <.tu.
C~~~r

11. REDUNDANT ARCHES 1.11. Odiu i t ion ~. C:lonicc .,f the N<utrnl Line 2.11. ;\rch<..~ wiLh Vur ia lle Cross-~ecl.iun a l Dim oJISit.JM! 3.11 . Conjngnt.t' ::i tat.icuii.Y DL'l~miutlte St.ruoLures Vsod for Stres AnnJysill of F'ixc.J End Arc hes 4.11 . ....\pp ro.rlmo t.e. ~f(th od!! of Design llnd .'\ naly$;il! of Fi1o:od Enol A rdw.. ~ 5.11. l; tic~ t or Shl' lllk~gv aud 'l'CitiJI(' I'OLnoo Changes on Fi.xtld Enol lt <,i nlmoP.cl C'.o ncr ~l.' Ao c.hl\S 6,11. Oi r<.rt Cc m l'ut~tt iun of ['.-.rubolk Fixo~l E nd Arch es 7.11. 'l'wc,..J i wg ...d Archu~ .
47oi 41;11
~!> I

li8-'.
~ I ~

521
:i28

Chap~r 12. ANALYSIS OF HJO HL Y REDUNDANT STRUCTURES

52H

1.12. Pro

,,f

~ymrl\Ct ry

2 .12. GnUJtlll~ uf tho Uulcuown~ 3.12. $ym molrit:;ul a mi Antisyrnmct.~ic.al L o&di ng 4.12. L~>arl 'frn n!!fCJIuoa ~inn . . 5.12. Accuruc~ Ccl tro l of .-\II tl\il TL'rm s E nt.cring the Simultaneous
ciJII.<llHllll-1

529 533
:'i3U

538
:';t,Z

i\hridgCld ScllutiCIJI c'l' Cunonirnl ~q\h'\lions . Sovtrrol Pr., bll'tW! i ll S trc:;.~ Aua l y,is of llndun<l.>~ ul J?rames S~a l ic~ ll ~' f n<l<'tnnn in a I.(' T ru~S(lS . . . . . Cmpul.aUtJ u , ,f Stntically f nd Cl L erminutc Stru c lures \~it.h tho Aiol o [ Ro mpl~w Structures Hodundnnt. to a J.ower Degrco 10 .12. 1Joflu t111t ( r. I!'IOMOllcls f or Cout.irttJ O II ~ l$ 1 !31n!! . .
6.12. '1.12. 8.12. 9.12.

54.3 5:'\(J
~75

5l:i l
~1:$5

C.hnptcr 13. SLOPE AND DEFLECTIONS. COMB/NED AND MIXED METHODS

1.13. Ch oico n[ t : nkuowns . . . . . . . . . . 2.13. Dotennination o f Lhe Xumlwr of lJnkn<lWns 3.1 3. Th tl Cc111jugnlo Sy$tcrn of Horlund<~nL Tlt'nu;,

588

581:! 59') 593

4.13. Canonical Equntinu s Pt!culinr t.o tho S llpo and Oc:fl~>c t.i t>n!l Methocl 6.13. Stnt.ical 'Mth ocl "f D~:tctm inlng th e Cllc )rJicicuts tn tltu Unknowns nnd th e frot' Terms 6.13. Dcturmina lion of Utt Cocfficionls to the Unk nowns a ncl of th o ms by lhc \<{(>t,Jwrl o Graph ,\lu lt.iplicaLion FrQII Te1 7.13. CllC!c.l<lng t he C.:oo!f1ciuut.s t o the l ' 11k11own!< und t he Pnt 'l'<Will" l'L> I'loining to thr ::iimu lt.arwun~ Erttnti <HI$ or tho Slope a uti Deflec.l itms Met ltlll 8.13. C.onstuc licm or lh o M. Nand Q Diagrnm~ _ 9.18. Com rJUtilti<>Sl th e TIWT111!11Stm irt~ by Lh oSlopo and Donee-

GOt

(lfl7

6i2

or

1\11> IHH

l ion~

Mnthorl

ou:
024
&2~

10.13. Anal yeis of Sy-mm ttric.:l .:;tl'ur.turM 11.13. ,\u l!:xnmp ll' of Frtnot o Annly~i:; by lhe Slr atul Do0L'f'lions Motl1t> d . . . . _ . . . . 12.13. Tlu: Mi ...od MoLlHJI . . . . . 13.13. Tlw Cmnbincltl ~{uthod 14.13. Cuns truc.tion of InO nunc.e Ln !Jy tht> Slupc aJul [)(lflcctlons
M~tltucl

f,l,1
041.\
C-4~1

Chapt.er 14. APPROXIMATE METHODS OF STRESS ANALYSI S FOR REDUNDANT FRAMES 1.14. Clol'l'ifiolltion <tf /qJ]mJxima~c Methods 2.14. The lrTt)lhod o[ llroment Oist.ri outiiu Chapter 15. MODERN DESIGN METHODS
1.15. 11uRic Ptincitll~s 2.15. D <l~ign of Sl.lltJcl\lly Dctenniunte Ill'lllotS . 3.15. Dc~ign of Statically Jndolcnni na\ " Beam.4.15. Dosign of Hl'ch111dant J"nuno..~ 111111 Arc.h c~ 5.15. D<.>~ign of Tiodu~aclant. 'l'rn..~~l'~ 6.15. l\<:>1 lnn dant S\.IIIC LO t'N~ Subjected t.o Rt~pNtled LHuling

ti54 055
f~i7

llB7
G71

6i5 61.!4
093 694

lndc:x

097

lNTRODUCTION

Structural mocha-nics is a science which studios the strength, the rigidity and the stability of engineering strud.ures 1\nd p;nts thereof. The strength of materials dealing with the strength, rigidity and stability of isolated members; the t.hcory of olasticity, which is concerned with the same problems but giv(.ls more strict solutions; the t heory of plasticity which investigates the stresses and strains of plastic and elasto-plastic. matf,rin ls, and finall y the theory of struetu.res which studills t.hc sttength , rigidity and s tability of whole structures-all form parts of this discipline. It was Leonardo da Vinci (1.4!i2-Hl19), the gteat llalian scientist and artist, who was the first to formulate a number of valuable ideas on the strength of materials. These ideas never became widely known and remained confwed to his manuscripts on mechanical resea.rch. In those days, large-scale St\ldics of problems which form the subject of c.ontemporaty struclural mechanics were utterly "impossible. Only partial solutions of isolated problems rc~latNl to the strength of certain structural members could be obtained. The eminent physicist, mathematician and a!jtronomcr Galileo Galilei (1564.-1642) is generally considered to he the father of sc.ientiiic. !ltndies in the strength of enginoerin~ materials and strucl;urcs. ln those days the expansion of maritime t rarle called for large inacases in the tonn age of cargo vessel.'3 and for improvements in their design. Dealing with thesa qnestions Galilei discovered that the ship's overall strength and sca-wolthiness c<Juld not be satisfactorily ensured sim ply increasing the dimensions of: het' mernbors in direct propottion to her si7.e. He also proved that the d ead weight to ultimate load ratio may differ fot geometrically similar bodies. Galilei's ~tudios of beams subjected to bending led him to a num ber of valuable conclusions which have not lost interest up to date , l>ut he was unable to dove lop a true flexural theory, as he proceeded from a false c.onc.eption that the whole cross e.oction of the beam is 11niformly extended. Neither had Galilei any knowledge of the relation existing between stresse" and strains. The simplest form of

1:.!

I ttlruduc:lim~

this mlal.iun Wll$ di!o\co vcmd in 1678 by Hol ~:~ l'l Hooko who <lX.pte~sNI lt as ''ul, to t:siu s ic vi:-;" ("the t+Xtension is as greaL os the force"). 'T'hc facl tiHtt ccnnpr~~:llivl' SLI'IlS~es a!' wolla!> the tcno;iJc outs exist, in the cro~ section nf a beam suhject.cd to bonding was discovered in lht> second half of 1 :1te 18th contury as tho out.come of a Sl.rit!S of
wi th gr~a t. thoroughness. At: lhaL t.iJrH.I tlte rapid t.rnc.le.s and indm;trieii was c-onsta nt,l y r..a lling fornow seiNttiti~; addcvemcJlts among w hi('lt was t lw COl'l'CCt: solution of tlle prohlcm of bending pnt. by GaliJei. S ign irtcaut aclvannll ill highor m alh6matics an<l rn tchanics ach icv~d iu I hu 18th ccntu1 1' <'ontri buted grtJatly Lo lhtl developmont or :studit>s ill t lw strength of mnteria ls 1tnd struc tmos. Works by J. Lagrn ngo oud L. EuJor w.,re of portie ular int}lol'lonce in t his tests
l'liSPt'< "!.l.
condtH~t<!cl d~.vn loprncnt. of

tbr, Uwory or ~truc:tures}. 'l'ru.'ises. :uchcd sy::;tcms, rolaining wa lls and r igid ftame.s forrn tho main classes of sl.ruc Lures ch~all, with by Juod1~rn st-ntcl.u ro I mllchanics.

Vigorous growth of ind11sLry in the 1!)lh contury, th< inl-n)duction of. the :illllcrtl l' ngin n. Lhe coul>Lruc:.t.ion of railwnys. bl'idgc.::;. dams, cnna ls, lnrgc1 st.eamships and g-rcn L buUtlinw; accolNated tbtl stud ies iu tlu. strength of ougiucoring mRtorial~ and stru(:turc~. The evorgrowing t:O lrl(Jloxil.y of stru<; tural forms and tho pre.~sing de mand fM 11 rtdtH'I.iou i11 IJoilding co.:$t S rcsttlU~d in t.l1t dcvelopmant of new mol.hod:-; of .\ll.rength computation and in tho formation of a new ungi nooring scie uco -slructura l mo~ h auirs (nlso raflod

In th(ir ~ impl e.~ t form many of these ~truc. tut'l!S had bct~n a lroady by tho andeuts, bul. t he methods o!' thoir t~O mpu Ln ti o n romailll' d unknown. A L pr1~:sc:. nL. lruSSC!1< und trianguJated systems arc widely u~tl in bridge and NHJf c.oustl'u c~ion (bridge lind roof tms.st>s) as woJI us in LJ:;wc.lling c:.ranu.s, toWN' erun e:;, power-line tower,<:~, aeri :d 1-'llppol't.s and in a largo unnthor of otlwr .!!tructures. Arched systl! ru s made their appe.aranrt-. i11 a11c:it~. nt. Rome. whnrc> thoy wore .~uc<:tl!lsfu IJy used fot the consttrcLinn o( nHl~wnry bridgps ancl aquetluet~:. In t.he seco11d half oi tho l9Lh rE:\ntury thr.se ~'stems becarno usod ill sl.tel-bridgo r.on~ tru c;t.iou 11nd in the 20Lh ~~t- n tury rcinforcod coucrol.t hcc.omes Lite main mat.orial used fo that. typo tlf st:ruc(:nrc,s.. At: prcsortL arc.hod sy1:1torns am widely n-.:tlcl in many
1r ~MI

l( inds of large-s pan consLrnc t:ion work. Hf..\Laining wa lls have hel:'n used to provont Ll1e ~liding down of stoep ~ l opes in variou~ bruncltcs of engineer ing ac-t ivities sinc.e time-5 inme mol'ial. Rigid frames be.c.amc widespre-ad in modern tinws. roinf(Jrcod coJJc.rot.c artd steel frames being e urren tly used for the construction of s ingle and mu lti~toried industria l and othet buildings.

I ntrodtuUon

1 3

As a rcsulL, meth ods of computation of com pl watccl mc.lundnnl .struet,ure!; ha YO been furtlltlr pcrfec Lioncd and si m plif~ed to :;uclt an extent th at t:oday ~hey nrc nscd in eve ryday tlcr;ig n JH'He.lico. I mporlant a d vant~cs ha ve u lso ht>I:Hl mndc in tho stud ius of thinwalled tuhnlar soctinns which 11re fre quent ly utilir,ed iu a ircraft eonstrnc t.ion as well as in oLber brand1cs of engineering. Val'ious problotns rt>latcd 1 ,o the stability o[ structurol:i hav~:~ been suc.cl'<~Sfu ll y solvc.d. Of hLc the dynami<:::. of onginc Jtlting sLrtu>Luras have bee n ncqniri ng an ever ioetcnsing importance. It form s now a separate branch of the ::.t ruc.tural m echanics, same as l ht.' theory or IHH'a l and neronauticnl a.l'chitecturo. A mung the Svviet: scientis ts and resoarch wo rkers the following have made Lhc gteatest ~o ntri butions to Lhc devol opmon t of stmctural mechanics: A. Krylov , H . G alerkin, A. Gvozdov, H . Zhemochldu , 1. Rabinovich, N. Stre l e~sky, L Prokofye v, N. Bezukhov , N. Bolyacv , V. Bolotin , K. Zavriev, A. Sm irnov, S. Ponornarov, V. Vlasov . : M. Filonenko-B orodir..h , P. Papkovich and 1 \ . Snitko.

1.

KINEMATIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

1.1.

SUP PORTS

Structural mechanics deals with unyielding ~yst.ems or st.ru cluw~ . in other words, with such struct.nral systems no poiut or which can bo displaced without a deformation of their element.~. The im mutabi lity of such systems (their geometrical .'!lability) with rolation to the ground* is ensured by m<!atiS of supports. Rear;t.iorH; orising at these supports togot.her wi th tho applied loads form a balancod syste.m of outer or external force~ which maintain thtl structuw in

equilibrium.
Let. us lirst t>Xnro ine the different types of supports which may be enc.o11ntercd in planE' structures. The first t.ypt> as represented in Fig. 1.1 con.<>ists of two rockor.s (the upper and the lower one) with a pin in between permitting the rotation of tho upper roc.ker with respcc.t to the Jowet om. At the same time both 1 oc.kers ean move together on ro llers along the bea.r~ng pla.te. 'fhu:>, lho system has two degrees offreedom, t.he frict.ioo developed in the l>caring being usually neglec.tctl. Tho reaction of thi~ type of supporlpa$eS through the centre of the pi 11 and is perpcndicuhu to the bearing p late surface, i.t~ . to the surface along which th~ rollers may t ravel. Thus, only one parameter of the rr.nction , i .e., its magnitude, has to be known in order to determine this reaction completel y. Support.s of t his type are known as free end or movablr: rolltw supp orts. Schematically they a re represented lJy ono-ba r with h inged ends* (Fig. 2.1). T he bar is conventionally considered to be of inf1nite length; its upper ext remity may mov~ only a long a straight line, nor mal
The word ground will hereafter cfor t o any r igil invariable bodv. In wme cases rnovuble supports acLually consist of a vertical' detneilt wfth hinges nt both extremities, i n which CAse they llr<' mf~rotl to ll!l r>crr.drtlurr1 s~tppurts.

1f;

Fig. 1.1.

Pit: . 2.1

F ig . U

J?ig . 1.1

Jlig. !U

-------+--- ------1
Ffg. C.l

2.1. Geometr/cnl Stability of Framed S trudures

f7

t o its axis, a straight line bning a circumference of infinito radius. Tho bar is also regarded as infinitely rigid so that its stra ins can be completely disregarded. These two conventions f1t very closely into the actual working conditions of supports of the type just dcsc.ribed. The second type of supports differs from t he first one by the fact that the lower rocker is fixed and cannot move (Fig. 3.1). This type of bearing possesses only one degree of freedom. It is usually termed hinged immovable or fixed end support. 'l'he reaction will still pass t hrough the centre of the pin, but its direction may be arbitrary, and accordingly to determine it c.ompletely two par~meters have to be found -its magnitude and direction (or, whieh"ili the same, the magnitude of two of it.s components, say, the vertical and the horizonta l one). Schematically t he second t ype of support may be represented by two bars with hinges at their ends, the top hinge being common to both bars (Fig. 4.1). That fixes the point of application of the reaction which coincides with the top hinge, but in this case the direction of this force remains unknown . The directions of the bars themselves may be chosen at will as any force may be resolved into two components of any direction. The third type of support is the butlt-in end (Fig. 5.1) whose degree of freedom is niL The determination of the reactions developed by this support requires the knowledge of three parametersthe direction and magnitude of a force passing through any point chosen at will and the magnitude of the moment about tho same point. Actually this forms a combination of tho reaction of a hinged immovable support with the reactive moment. This type of support may be represented by three bars ns in Fig. (i.t. To att.ain perfect rigidity of the support the distanc.e l 0 must be regarded as oxtremoly small or tho built-in end of the beam as absolutely rigid. h is worth noting that the numbt>r of bars in these schematic repre:;enfatlons of supports is always equal to the number of parameters dett>rmintng completely the reaction at this support.
2.1. GEOMETl\ICAL STABILITY 0[1 FRAMED STRUCTURES

Framed or through structures consist of a series of separate, us:;ually slraight,, membars connected together by welded, riveted, bolted or other types of joints. Oue of the simplest two-dimensional forms of framed s tructures is tho plane truss. In most cases thtl joints of framed structures are not hinged nnd possess a certain degree of rigidity. Tho exact computat ion of trusses with rigid joints is extremely complicatod as the system becomes
2- 863

IS

Kinematic Analysis of Structures

many times statically indeterminate. On the other hand, when rigid joints are. conventionally replaced by hinged ones, the analysis becomes greatly simplified and under certain conditions equations provided by statics alone will suffice. Tests carried out as well as the results of theoretical analysis indicate that in general the conventional introduction of hinges does not lead to any substantial errors in stress computations pertaining to through structures loaded with a system of forces acting at the joints. Therefore, for design purposes ordinary trusses are always regarded as being hinge-jointed. Let us now examine a system consisting of three rigidly connected straight bars as represented in Fig. 7 .1a.. If the rigid joints are replaced by hinges, the system will continue to be unyielding (Fig. 7.1b), i.e., it will be uncapable of undergoing any distortion without the deformation of at least one of the bars. Should, however, the quadrilateral system, shown in Fig. 8.1a, undergo the same treatment, we shall obtain a system whose shape can be altered (Fig. 8.1b) without any deformation oi its members. The simplest unyielding system consisting of a number of separate pir1-jointed bars is a triangle with hinges at all the three vertices (Fig. 7.1b). Let us establish the rules governing the formation of geometrically stable systems comprising more than three pin-jointed bars. In the first instance let us examine a system consisting of two bars (Fig. 9.1) placed along a straight line and connecting joint C with two fixed points A and B. If the bars AC and BC were disconnected at point C, the extremity C of bar AC would become free to move along the circular arc m-m, while the extremity C of bar BC-along the arc n-n, the two arcs having a common tangent at point C. It follows that if the extremity C of one of the two bars moves over a very short stretch along a perpendicular to AB, the other bar will offer no resistance. Thus, the system is geometrically unstable, as its shape can be altered without any change occurring in the length of its members or, in other words, without aoy deformation of the bars. Hereunder we shall refer to systems consisting of two bars placed along a straight line (see Fig. 9.1) as instantaneously unstable, these systems becoming rigid as soon as a small shift of point C along the perpendicular to AB has been completed. The situation would change entirely if the two bars AC and BC were not in alignment (Fig. 10.1). In this case the circumferences m-m and n-n have no common tangent, and, therefore, even the slightest displacement of joint C is impossible without a corresponding deformation of the bars.

2.1. Ceomctrtcal StabWty of Framed StructrlrU

19

p ""
.,-.

A
/al p
(a )
Ff~.

I
L.

;'\.. ,

,b)-\
~-- --- - -

- - "'9
I

I
I

I
I

I I
I I

I I

'
{b)
~. {

m
I
/

/n

~
~

''c
\

sf,-

I'
I

'm ' n
Fig. 9.1

':t
"- ,
,

;.

n m
Fig. JO.l

1/

.~f;v

lm I I , -- n

20

K inematic Analysis of Struc.tures

It follows that each additional joint forming part of a geometrically stable system must be attached thereto by means of two separate bars the axes of which do not lie b 1 J s 6 s m on the same line. Consequently, any system developed from a hinged triangle by successive addition of joints, each new joint being connected to two existing J ones by two bars not in alignment, will be geometrically stable (invariable). Systems so formed will be called hereafter simple. framed structures in order to distinguish them 0 c 2 't s 7 !J from the complicated ones, usually derived from the former by replacement of a number of bars or by 9 7SJlo b superposition . All the plane trusses represented in Fig. 11.1 belong to the simple frames, each having been obtained 8 fj 3 b successively by adding hinged joints to a basic pin-connected triangle abc, in the sequence indicated. Any 9 s 2 1 triangular combination of three 70 7 pin-jointed bars may serve as a basis for verifying the geometrical stability of simple framed structures. Thus, any system consisting solely of triangles is obviously unyielding (geometrically stable). This property 7 may be checked with eq11al succes~ in a reverse order, viz., by rejecting one by one all the hinged joints together with the two bars ab11tting to each of them. If in the outcome c a a pin-jointed triangle is obtairwd tlte system is geometrically stable. Fig. 1.1.1 Let us now establish the relation between the number of bars and joints forming a simple truss. As stated above, such a truss consists of: ono basic. pin-jointed triangle, to which a number of additional joints have been successively attached, eac.h by means of two separate bars not in alignment. Let S be the number of bars and K the number of joints. The basic triangle consists of three bars and three joints; all the othor joints, numbering (K - 3) are

~~

7~

2,1 GeomiJtrical Stability of Framed Structures

21

attached by means of two bars each. Therefore, the total number of bars in J:\ simple truss will be

S = 3+2(K-R)=2K-3

(1.1)

If the number of bars S < 2K - 3, the truss does not contain a number of bars sufflcient to ensure its geometrical stability and

0[2]~
(a)
(b)

(c )

Ptg. 12..1

lho syst.em will evidently be unstable. Au example of such a system is furnished hy a quadrangle (Fig. 12.1a) characterized by S = 4 aud K = 4. Conseqtumtly

S =4< 2K-3=2x4-3=5
This quadrangle may be converted into an unyielding system
by adding a fifth diagonal bar, as shown in Fig. 12.1b. Should

Fig. 19.1

we introduce a second diagonal bar which would give a total of six bat's as against four joints (Fig. 12.1c), this sixth bar would be redundant from the view-point of geometrical sta bility. This example shows that we may encounter geometrically stable systems for which S > 2K - 3. It should be noted that the condition S 2K - 3, though necessary, is not sufficient to ensure the geometrical stability of a hingeconnected system. Thus. the truss represented in Fig. 13.1a is unstable although the number of its bars totals exactly 2K - 3. The truss shown in Fig. 13.1b has an even greater number of bars but still remains unstable. This is due to tho fact that the righthand panels of both these trusses consist of hingejointed rectangles.

>-

'22

K tnemflltt Atmlysts of Structures

'FurLhermore, in certain c.ases framed struct.ures for whkh tho con d iLion S = 2[( - ~ is fu lftllcd may he instantaneously unstab le. Let us now con~ i der the proble m of connecting geometrically stable systems to t ho g1ound by means of supports.

Fig. JJ.. l

In the majority of cases a plane structure (which may be regarded as a r igid d isk or plate) will reston Lwo hinge supports- one Jllovable and the other ftxed (Fig. 14..1a). This type of connection between Commof1 hif1ge

(b)
Fig. 15.1

structure and ground is geomt~trically stable (unyielding). It is not essential that two of the throe ~up porting bnrs should have a common hinge; indeed they may have none (Fig. 14.1b). However, should the directions o all t he supporting bars intersect at one and the same point (Fig. 15.1a.), this point will constitute an instantaneous centre of rotation a bout which the whole system will be able to accomplish an infinitely small rotary movement. (Practically such a displacement may become quite appreciable.) Once this movement accomplished, the supporting bars will no longor COJlcur at the sn me point and all futther displacements will

2.1.

G'tomtlr~cal

Stabill(q of Fram.:d

Slrrut"r~s

23

bcc.omc i uqwssi hie wi lho11t a corrc!'pondi ng deiorma tiou of these bars. 1 \ .~ystcm connected to the ground in the way just do~<'ri bed wi 11 bo instantaneonsly unstable and, therefore, such an arrangemont of supporLs cannot he toleraled. On thH contrary, three nonconcurring and nonpnrallelu' bars will al ways provide a geomeLrically stable support..

P.tg. 16..1

Fig. 17.1

Al l Lh~ above a pplies equally to t11e connedion of any two geometrically sl.t'lb le $Lructures (or rigid plates) between thom.selvcs th11s pcnnitti ng to formt1la te the following rule: two rigid plates will form a geometrically stable (unyielding) system if they an: connected together by means of three bars which are not parallel and do not conv-erge a.t a common point of intersection., 1f a hinge is placed at the point of iutersection of any two or the t h1cc bars and is connected to the plate, the system will remain unyielding and may he regarded as consisting of two separate plates comwrt.ed by means of OM c.ommon hinge and one bar (Fig. 1:Ub). l t. follows that two disks may be rigtdly connected together using one hinge and one bar provided the direction of this bar docs Mt pass through the centre of this hinge. Three plates muy be connected to form one single unyielding syslem with the aid of three hinges placed at the vertices of a triangle, ~ach of tllesc hinges connecting one pair of plates (l<'ig. 16.1 ). Alternatively th e same result will be obtained by placiug six independent bars (Fig. 17.1), as each hinge may be replaced by two bars iutersec.t.ingl al tJ1e cent.re of this hinge. However,l the system represented in Fig. 18.1 is instanlaneously llllSlable, the int-ersections of the bars connecting each pair of p lates
As will ho shown in Art. 6 .cl, even very small external Loads rna y stress tlae instantaneous1y unsta ble systems very ben,vily. Parallel lim>s hnving a ]Joint ot intersection in tile infrniLy.

Kinematic

Analv~ts

of Structures

(i )
Flg. 19.1

(j}

Fig. 20.1

2.1. GeometricaL Stability of Fram.ed Structures

25

being in alignment. This system is similar to the one shown in Fig. 9.1. Thus, three rigid plates connected together with six bars, provided each pair of plates is connected by two bars and provided also the intersections of these two bars do not lie along one straight Une, will always form an unyielding combination. Fig. 19.1 shows a number of systems constituted as just described. A plausible arrangement of a statically determinate multispan (cantilever) beam is illustrated in Fig. 20.1 (such systems being

Fit:. 21.1

described in greater detail in Art. 9.2). Let us check the geometrical stability of this beam. l<'or this purpose, let us first select sornc unyielding portion of the structure rigidl y connected to the grou nd and then let us see whether all the other geometrically stable patts of the structure are connected to the former by means of a st1ff1cient numb(:'r of bars. It should be kept in mind that the ground and any portion of the structure conneeted to it with the required minimum of three bars constitute an unyielding combination and therefore it is quite immaterial on which of the two the connecting bars will take support. In the system under consideration bar I is rigidly connected to the ground with the aid of three bars which have no cornmou point of intersection and which are not parallel. Bar II rests on two uprights standing directly on the ground and is attached to bar I by means of the insert ab. Bar III is connected to bar II in a similar way. Finally, the hinge e and an upright connect the last member ef to bar III and to the ground, respectively. Consequently the system as a whole will be geometrically stable. Another illustration is afforded by the structure of F ig. 21.1. The lateral parts I and I II may be regarded as simple stays AD and CF, and then it becomes apparent that plate II is connected to the ground by means of three bars (one vertical B and two inclined ones AD and CF) all of which intersect at one and the same point E. This system is, t herefore, instantaneously unstable.

2!>

Kinematic Analysis of Structures

3. t

S'fA'!'lCACLY DETE!Uili'IATE :f'MMED S'!'RUC'l'UHES

As has been stated, an unyielding connection of a structure wi Lh the grouna may be schematically represented by three nonconcurrent bars. This type of connection is statically determinate as the number of reactive forces in these bars is equal to the number of equations furnished by statics fo r coplanar forces in equilibrium (for insLance, i:.X = 0, ~y = 0, !M" = 0). Any plane structure will be externally statically determinate (i.e ., statically determinate with reference to the supports) if the number
R

(a )
/

"

, / ', Directions of support // ~ reactions ~-~ ~ t,

'

//
,,/
/ / /

'

',

',

{b)

Fig. 22.1

of parameters determining the reactions at these supports is equal to three. The supports i n the following examples fulfil this condit ion: (1) A combination of one f1x.ed and one roller support for twodimensional structures supported at two points (Fig. 22.ia). (2) A combination of three roller supports for the same type of structures resting on three fulcra, provided the directions of the three reactions are neither concurrent not parallel (Fig. 22.1 b). If a geometrically stable system rests on four or more supporting bars, three of which have no common point of intersection and arc not parallel, the structure as a whole is static.ally indeterminate or redundant Wig. 23.1). Equations provided by statics bec.ome insufficient for the analysis of such structures, additional equations based on the study of deformations or strains becoming indispensable. Having formulated the conditions under which a structure is externally statically determinate, let us now examine those which 1 ender a framed structure internally statically dotcr mina te, i.e.,

.~.1.

S tattcally Dr.termiMle Framerl Structu re3

2i

J>T.

:JL.
Fig. 2/1. 1

{ (])

\
(O )

(b)

Fig. 24.1

Ftg. 25.1

(b)

Fig. 26.1

Fig. 27.1

28

Kitumatic Analysl$ of Structures

such where the forces acting in all of its bars may be computed using equations of equilibrium alone. It may be easily shown that stresses in the bars of a hinged truss subjected to concentrated loads acting at the joints will be always normal to the cross sections of these bars. Indeed, having separated one of t he bars, say, bar ab, let us analyze the conditions of its equilibrium (Fig. 24.1a, b). If no external load is applied d irectly to this bar, its equilibrium will be ensured only in the case when t he forces N acting on the bor Lhrough the h inges a and b are equal in amount but opposite i 11 direction. These forces wiU always pass through the contres o the hinges since in our analysis these are assumed to bo frictionless. It follows that forces N will act along a line connecting tllC hinge cen t.res and, therefore, the cross sections of bar ab will be subjected either to direct tension or to direct compression. Should the truss contain curved bars, these will be subjected to bending moments in addition to the normal forces just mentioned, the maximum value of Lhese moments equalling Jllm 11:c = N.f Wig. 25.1). When the truss as a whole is in equilibrium under the actiort of external loads and reactions (Fig. 26.1a), each of its joints is also in equilibrium (Fig. 26.1b). Accordingly, the external load applil'd to any joint and the internal forces in the bats converging al Lbis joint must be balanced. Statics will furnish each joint subjected to a system of concurrent coplanar forces with two equilibrium equations and
~Y=O

If the truss contains K joints, we may form 2K equations of equilibri um which must provide for the determination of all the intemal forces in the members and of the throe unknown parameters of the reactions. Any other equilibrium equations which may be formed for the truss as a whole or for any part thereof can be derived from the above and consequently will contain no additional information. Hence the truss will be statically determinate, if the number of its bars S is equal to double the number of joints f( less 3

S=2K-3

(2.1)

As will be readily observed, this is the same relation as the one giving the minimum number of bars of a geometrically stable system !expression (1.1)}. Consequently, any simple truss obtained by the successive addition of joints to a hinged triangle, each joint being connected by means

Ktnemultc Analylls of Structuns

of two bars rwt tn alignmPnt, 1.$ both geometrically stable and statically determinate. If, when counting the m1mber of b~\rs of a truss, those forming its supports were a lso taken into consideration, expLession (2.1) will bcc.omo

Stot=2K

(:~.1)

'l'his fo rn111la llecomes particularly useful when the sltuct.ure though being geometrically un$table (the num ber of its bars totalli11g les:. thau 2K - 3) is connected to the ground in such a wny that together they form a single unyielding and statically dctel'lninnte systl'm. A structuro of that type is represented in Fig. 27.1 . Here K = B while tho number of bars (s upporting bars are omitted) totals 12. Thus tbe structure is uustnhle for while However, S 101 (including the supporting bars) is equal to 1() which sf\tisfies equat ion (3.i ) and therefore the wh ole system 11\RY lw (aud in this c.nse actually is) both geometrica lly sLable and slntically dotermio11t.c. * ln a statically determinate system all the bars are absolutely tndispensa.ble to ensnre its geoml!trical stability, in other words, in such a. structurr: there is not a single superfluous (rcdltndant) member. 'W hen a geometrically stable system contains more bnts than js s trictly nec.cssary it becomes statically indeterminate or redundant. The theory of s tructures anal yzes on ly geo metrically stable systl'JIIS both statically determinate and statically indeterminute or redundant. The rend~r is invited to find out on his o wn Lo which of these two categtll'ics tl1e s tructutas represented iu Fig. 28.i bel ong.

+
The nna lr5is of suoh
S)~>tems

is c.onsiolered in cletail later (see Art. 6.4} .

2.

BEAMS

1.2 . GENI::IIAL
The toadtH hnving already st\1died the strength of mattrials must be fnmiliar wilh methods pcrmittiug tbe determinatio n of stresses actiug over the cross sections of statically determ inate simply supported beams, as well ns wi tl:t the construction of d iagrams showing the distributiou of these stresses along n beam subjected Lo a system of tb:ed loads. The same methods are used in structural m!'chanics. The following sign convention will be adopted hel'eunder: Tlu.~ shearing force Q (or simply the shear) will be considered positive when tt tends to uplift tlw left extremity of the rlght-han.d portion of a beam with reference to the right extremity of the left-hand portion. 7'he bendlug moment M tvill be reckoned positive when it ttnds to rotate the kft extremity of the right-hand portion of a bewn clockwise and thi! right extremity of the left-hand portion courtterclockwise. When the loads are not at right Hngles with the ax is of n beam. the latler will also be subjected to forces N nol'lnal to its cross lSI!CLi ons. These wm bl! regarded as positive when they COltS<' tmsile stresses and rtcgatiue when thtsc stresses are compressive. Positive directions o[ bending moments, shearing ani! notuut l force~ are sbown in Fig. 1.2. It will be seen tha t a positivu bendiug moment <.'3-uses compression of the top fibres of a beam nnd au extension of the lower ones, while a positive shoru. will tend to roLnte cnch portion of the beam clockwise with res1>ect to its olhor eud. When plotling thl! diagram~ of shearing and normal forces thllit posi Live values sJ1ould be scaled off above th e x-axis and Lite negal i ve ones below. It is good prncLicc to indicate prominently on the sttcss diagrams the signs of tile corresponding stresses. As for bending momeuts, their positive values shall be scaled off below the x-axis and the negative ones above iL; thus, bendiug moment diagrams will always appear on tile side of tho extended fibres of the beam.*
Jn cerlain treati~s on th(' stnmgth n! materials, positive bending moments arc plotted em tho sillc o compressed ftbns.

32
The sign of the shearing force can be also ascertained with the aid of the bending moment diagram, using the following rule: The shear is positive in. any cross section where the superposition of the axis of the elenumt with the tangent to the bendlng moment diagram requtres a clockwise rotation of the former , provided the angle of rotation does not ex.ceed 00.

Ftg. 1.2

Pig. 2.2

Assume, for example, ~hat it is required to find the sign of the shearing force at cross section x of n beam, whose bending moment d iagram is represented in Fig. 2.2. I n this case, the axis of the beam should be rotated clockwise in order to bring it in coincidence with the tangent to the bending moment diagram (the direction of rotation is indicated by a dotted arrow), hence, the shearing force is positive. However, in cross sections close to the right-hand extremity of the beam the shear will be negative, for the superposition of the axis with the tangent would require counterclockwise rotlttion (see ~'ig. 2.2) . . The shear Q tn any cross section is equal in amount and stgn to the sum of projections of all the external forces acting to the left of this cross section on a normal to the beam axis passing through this cross section, or to the sum of projections of all the external forces to the right of the cross section on the same normal but taken with an opposite sig1L

n the projections being reckoned positive when they a ..e directed upward!$. 1'he bendlng moment 1\1 in a.ny cross section,. is equal in amount and sign to the su~n of moments about the z-axis (this axis passing through the centroid of the cross section normally to the plane of the beam) o} all the external forces acting to the left of the cross section or to the sum. of moments of all the e.:t:lernal forces acting to the right of this section but takm wi.th an opposite sigrl M = 'fM: = - i:.M~ (2.2)
L

Q=~Y=-~Y

(1.2)

*The index z may be omitted.

1.~.

General

33

the moment.s being rctkoned positive when they tend to rolato the c.ross section cloc.kwiso. Tlut normal force N is equal in amount and slgn to the sum oj projections of all the external forces to the left of the cross section under consi(lerati.on on the bea. rn a.:r.is, or to the sum of projections (on the same a:ris) of aU the extema.l fon~es to the right of this sc.!Ction but taken with a.n opposite sign
.Y=~X . -~X
L

(il.2)

these projections being reckoned positive when they arc dircclccl from right to left:. Tht~re is a set of relations between the !11 and Q diagrams aud Uw loading of Lhe benm, these relations facilitat iug Lbe plottiug of: thnsc curves and permitting !.heir veriiicaLion. These relations arc of great importance for th.cy apply not only to beanls but equally lo bents and frames of various types. The lnH;it~ relation can be represented as follows

Q= d:t

d.M

(4.2)

in other words, the shear is equal t.o l;he l'irst derivative of: t;he bending moment in terms uf dx (Lheorcm of Zhuravsky), the ~ign conventioll as set out above 1emain~; in ftH'ec for 1 11 and Q, while the pvsitivo diwcl.iOIL of the .~:-axis is from l eft. to right . .1\'loretWN', thl:!re is cqu;tll~r Llw relation
q . -= d ...
dQ

(5.2)

whkh means that Lhe int.on~ity of the d istributed load appl ied normally t.n tho beam aXi!; is equal t;o the lirst derivative of the shear, the distdbnted load heing reckoned positive when it is directed 111Wmrcls. The fo ll owing 0an he onsily deducted from those two relations*. "1. ~\lcgative shears < lOI.'fCSilond to decreasing bending moment values. indicated l1y an inr..rcase of the hooding momerrt diagram ordinat.os from left to ,ig-lat. Similarly decreasing bending moment diagram ordinates will l:'ignity that the cOI'respondiug sheat.s aro ro~itivc .
*It is rlet~"mcd unHccessai'Y to dwell in ilQtail on Lho corrllspoudiug demonsLralions.

lJeams

2-. '.l.'ho steeper tho slope of the t:angent: to the bending momt111t dingra111 , the greater in absolute value is the shear, for the Jattct is numerically equal to tbo JlaLurnl tang-ent. of l;he angle Jo rmerl hy the tangent to the diagram and the beam axis. 3. The bending moment will pass through a maxi.mum or a minimum at those cross sections whore tho shear .is nil. 4-. The bending momcn t diagram lu~twecn two concentl'a terL loads (no d.istl'ibuted loads intervening) forms a straight line, generally inclined, while thaL of tho shear reduces to .n hori7.ont.al.

f.>. A conic parallola for bending moment diagram will correspond to n nnifnrn.ly distributod load , the shcat diagram becomittg in that case an inclined straight line. fi. The convexity of t.he bending moment diagram i~; always tul'lled in the direction of t ho distributed loads. 7. Concen t.ra ted loa(]s cause breaks in the direction of tho bending moment diagram and jumps in the shear diagram. ~rhe rises and falls in the latter case are equal in amount and direction to the magnitude of the concentrated loads as met when moving from left to right a long the heam . 8. Tho change in the magnitude ofth~ bending moment occurl'ing over a cmtain portion of the beam length is equal lo the area of the shear diagram over the same beam length provided no external moments are applied theteto. 9. The change in the mugni tude of t.he shear occurring over a eertainporLion of the beam length is equal to t.he area of the distributed lo:Jd diagram over the same beam lengt:h. rn the present ch apter we shall study the methods or stress corn putation in croi>S sections of simply supported beams carrying moving loails and in those of multispitn t~antilever beams subjected hoth to tixed and moving loads. Moving loacls are frequently enwunl:ert!d in tho r..omputation of hrhlges, overhead cranes and oLher engineering st,uctlll'cs. An example of a moving loacl is furnished by a t.rain travelling along a railway bridge, or an overhead GL'ane moving along erane tt'llck::;, etc. Stresses and strains .in tbe diffotent elements of a structure depend on the position of the moving .load. Tn order to determine the maximum design stresses. it is a lways necessary to know tlle most; unfavourable posil;ion of the load or loads for the element concerned. T hus, when designing the c.ross section of any truss mombcr, the moviu~,t load must be so placod as to <.~a use the greatesL possible stress in this particular member. This loading position is usually referred to as the most unfavourable or dangerous. A distinct most unfavourable load position can be always found for each truss member, every ctoss sec.tion of a beam, etc.

1 .2 .

(~t:llernl

l t should be noted that. thiR remains true not only for st.re:>se.c; but also for reactions at Lhe supports, for deflections and so forth. The design of str:uctures subjected to moving loads is greatly facilitated by the possibility of applying the principle of .~upet;post~ tion. This m('ans that the internal :forces, flhre stresses and strains

r=l
Fig. 3.2

caused in a s t;rur..t.ure by different loads will adu to one another. It follows that. if some particular load increases a certain number of times, the stresses and strains set up by this load will increase in the same ratio. It also follows that if two different groups of loads are applied ton structure, the total stress in each mcmher will he ('qual to the sum of stresses caused separately by each of tho two groups.* We shall start with our analysis of the effect of moving loads with the simplest C<tse -possible-that of a single vertical unit load P moving along a simply supported beam (Fig. 3.2). Let us investigate the changes sustained by each of the parameters under consid~ eration (reaction at the support, internal force in a ttuss member, bending moment in a particular cross section of a beam, the beam's deflection at a cEn.t ain poin~, etc.) when the load P = 1 travels along the structure. We shall represcnl; graphically the nltorations of the parameter chosen in terms of the load position . The. diagram which depicts the yluctuation of some particular parameter (say, the bending moment in a cross section of a beam) when the load P = 1 travels along the structure. is termed the influence ltne for the said parameter. I nOuenc.e Jines should never bo cnnfounded with the stre..'lS diagrams. In fact, the ordinates to t.ho latter represent t.lw variation o[ the parameter under c.onsideration (say, of tlw heucling

'.l'ho principle of superposition applies nnt only tl> thu case of concentrated loads lint equally to distributed loads, bending moments, temperature st.re!>~es. et.c.. It doP.s not apply in the case of buckling with honding, in all cases when t.h!> material dre6 not follow Hooko's law and in some other cases. h Influence lines ropt05onting the variations of either stresses Ol' strains r.an also be plotted for unit bending moments, external forces nonnal to th~ cross section and Mher types of lul!ds moving along tht> ~tructurc.

./Jeams

moment) in all cross sections of the beam for one definite })osition of the load, whereas those of the iufluenco line indic.ate 'the variation of a p<H'arnoter (say, of the same Leuding moment) in one particular cro.<:S .~ection whon t.bo load uui ty lravels along the whole length of Lhc beam.
2.2. 111~1\CTION INFLUENCI!; LlNES l'On .SIMPT, Y SUPPOilTIW IIA \IS WITH OH VVITI-1001' O\'gJlHANC

L(!t ~~~ assunw thnt a unit load P = 1 moves along a l"imp ly supporLNI beam AB (Fi~. 4.2a.) and lot us designate by .r the di~ tarn:e rrom th e )(lad 1,(1 t.he right-hni'H1 support. Thi~ distance wi ll

Pi g. ,1.2

vary frolll 7.01'0, when the load is dicc.Lly over this support, to l when il is over the left-hand one. In ordt~r to determino the reaction ~tin lor m.~ of x, we c.an wriLo t.ho cqnation of equilibrium of moments of all the cxtornal forces ahout. the l'ight.-hartd 1';upporl:.
'i.M, = Al - l':r;= O

wlwnee
A =-tP:r

However, ::sinc.e P

= 1.,

lhHn

A "'= T = 7

(.r

This equaLion givt1s 111; l;he l11w governiug the variation of tht> t'eacLion A as the load f> = 1 ~hifts from one point; to nnothor. Plotling out t.he relation j11gt. e~tnblishetl we obtain the innuen<~o

line l'or the reaction A at lhe left-hand Sll{'port. Sinc.c this equation

2 .2. 11<'11 (1 /on

lnfltU:I~<'t Liru~

fo r Sunply Supporud 11eanvo

:rT

is o[ the firl>l: dt!.gcc in l.Nms o[ x. lh~ innuoncc line will ht rectilinear (Fig. t'J.2b) 11 11 d fot ,r~=O A ~ 0 for x= l
The ordinates to the inilue.nce line for the reactiou arc llimensio11less. for Loth :r and l arc expressed in units of .length . Some scale mus t be solectecl in order t.o plot the inrlu(luc.c line. H. for insLanct>, we adopL a sralu of 1. in 1 c.m , we shall lay off 1 em ovor Llw lofHtll.nd support. whtwc A = 1. The ordinate to Mw inflncuco l i no .for Lhc nncLi011 at. A meusutcd a d istaneo x from Uw igltth~t. ud support wi ll equal ~ . Tlti~ ordinattl \\ill be numerically equal t.o t lu.. ronctiou A whl'n Lhe <lislanc~ Lo the load P = t as measured from the right-hand support equnlF< x . In ot.her words, the ordinate to the in.fluew.e line for the reaction A at a. giuen eros.~ section represent.~ to seal; the valu.e of the said reaction at the instant when the unit loa1l P is placed directly over thi.~ cro.~s section. Accord ingl y, Uto mn~n i tud"' of the renc.tion A cotrcsponrHng to n givon position of tho loo<l P = 1 can he oht.a incd by simply scaling off tho ord inate to iho in flucncu line at the point of load applic.atiuu. \-Vlaen the load actually applied l.o tho beam amouuLs w P~o 1.he r~acLion A will ho obLainetl by multiplyi ug the ordinate Lo the influenr.~ litw at Lho point. of loading (this ord inule, as already mMtioned, rcpnsentiug lhc react ion A corresponding to a u uit. lntl(l) }Jy l,hc magnitude of. furcc P 1. Should a m1111h~ r of t;onccntrllt()d vortical L oads act on t l1 e beam ~i mu l t~~r cously, lhc totn l roncliou A wi ll be 'f'ounrl as Lhc sum of separate roMliom; due t:o ench of t.hnse tliffcren t forc.es. T...ol t~ now proc-eed with tho consil'IICLion of llto inOucnco liul for cacLion B. For this purpose we mny equate to zero tho sum of nil Lhe lllOlllOiilS of oxternal forc.cs ahoul the hi nge ccnLre at A : leadi ng to

B=

P (l-x) l

= 1 (l l

x) = l-:c l

This equation represents bhc vnria liou reaction IJ in terms of the position of lond un ity P. In order Lo trace tho influence lillO, let us put
I'.hen

or

38

/]eam~

and

x= l

t hen

Fig. 4.2c represonts lhe intluenct.> line for the reac.tion B. The ord inates to t his line aro again dimensionless and the.-. sc.ale should be l hc same as for reaction A. These ordinates represent the amount of reactiou B when u unit load is a pplied at tho cross section corre, .;ponding to tht~ given ordinate. Hence we cnn de termine this reaction for a load unity by simply measuring tho ordinates t o the innucJlCB line.
(o l

(t.. J

..........

:Jj&nnnv ' .

' ::mnifr I
I : . " I I

I
I

'.

II
.
I

..i

Pig . .5.2

The signilic.anco of inlluence lines teprosented in Fig . 'l..2b and cis greatly enhanced by the fact that t ltey permit immediate dctcrminnlion of the load position causing Lho greatest reactions. Thn:;, it is rc:>adily soon tho. t tho reaction A will roac.h its maxim 11m wh(>n load P 1 will stand d irectl y over the left-hand support. The sume is ti'Uc for roact.ion B when the load P 1 i~ applied to Lhe right-hand s upport, i.e. , when i t coincides with tlw maximum ordiu11t:e to llw innuenctl line. Jt should J,e kept in mind. howevllr. that each in.JZuencc lin( u/ill

depict solely the vartattons of the paratnf.ter .for which it has been plottf'd. 'fhu:; the iulluence Jines fo1 rca.ctio11s A and B will conve}' inforu1ation 011 t:heso rc:>nct ions respectively. Let us consider now tle influence li ntts for tho react ions of a ho;tm cantilevering over one of its suppo r~ as s ho wn in .L"ig . 5.2a. The influeuc.c line. for t'P.acLion A will he de,rivod [rom equation

'LMIJ= Al-Pa.: -- 0

2.2. Jleoctlon /nfhuncc Lines for Stm.ply

Support~fl

/leams

3U

whence (with P = 1)
Pz 1.z :r: A = -l - = -~- = T

This equation ic; identical wiLh that obtained before for a simply supported beam. with tho sole difference that in the latter equatioll x c11.n vary from 0 to l while in the present case it can do so from () to (l k) where k is the length o the overhang. T he ordin ate.<~ to the influence line at pBttinent points arc

for x = O

A =0

f(Jr x = l
for x= l ..LJc Wt can now proceed with t he construction of the influence li ne for reaction .4 l>y simply laying off the ordin ntes obtained {Fig. :>.2b). I t should be noted tha t th ore is no toal nccess iLy to <lt~tormine all Lhe thl'eo ordinates, as the influence line is rec tilinear and in this c~ ~B the k nowledge of only two ordinate valu os (sf\y, .nt x = 0 and at x l) is sufficient. A comparison of an iill!uence line for a beam with overhang with tlu~ influence line represented in Fig. 4.2b shows that the ilr::st one ean he easily obt niued by a si mple extension of the lat ter until its intersection with the vet-tical passing through the end of the overhang. The .following cqualion will be usod for the construction of the i nlluencc li ne for reaction B

~ MA =

- B l+J>(l-x) =O

whence

_ B- -

P (l - :r) _ 1 (l -x) 1

--z-= -z-

L-.z

Comparing this equation with Lhe one relating to a simp I y SUJ >poded beam we find that they are exactl y the same, the only difference l'esiding in the limits between which x may vary . Ltlt us now determine the ordiuate val ues of this inn ucncl' line for x=O for x= l

B =T= 1
L- l B =-z=0

1- (L+l) =
l

_!!.._
l

40

JJeatrn;

Plo l..l'ing t.hes<~ ordina tes as iu Fig. [1.2c we obtain the influence Jine Jot roac.tio u B . t...s in the oaSLI of roar.t.ion A. the compu~a l.ion of 1 .ho ordinate for x = l k provt1:' supttrn uous. Th e influence. line Jor t;lw mac!.iou B of 11 htmm with overhn ug can a lso he derived from tho m1e perlai ning to a simple beam by exten<l:Utg tho line until its intersection with the vertical drawn t.hJow!l the e:-:tr('mit.y o f tho overhang.

I
I

I
I I

r
I
I I

,,t~ I 8
I
I I

...

(lJliiW'"

Fig. 6.2
T h~ rac.t Lhat !lome of the ordinates t.o the. iunuMce. tiH('S an~ this L unc ne.gal.i ve indicates that when t ho load point coirtcidos wi tJ, L heso ncgativt~ ordinnlos. t ho reaction IJ ilsol( is ~tl~o uegal.ive Ot', in otlcr wMds. dilect.ed d ownwmxl s. T he sam(> proco<luro as dos(ribc<J ah<lYO should bo followed for :eactions of a hea rn c~ulti tho con.stntr.tioll of influon(:e lines for t.hc 1 levcring o ver iL.~ right-hand supporf. Fig. fi.2 repl'esonts the influence fin o.s for t.hc t'lHtc.Liuns o( a hl'llnt with two ovc.rhangs. Tho reader is in,,ited to write U1e. <'<trr-esp<lllding equntions on his own.

3.2. BENDING MOMEN'r AND SIIBAH IXFLllENCE LIN ES FOH SIMPLY SfJ[POHTED BEAMS Wl'!'H OH Wt'l'IIOUT

OVI1RHANG

Let

llS

now <tnnlyzo (:he consttuction or inllnence Jines for bttnd ing

moments and sh eRring fol'ccs ind uced hy n moving load inn s impl y

supported beam. Wo shall begin our iu\('stigation l>y examiuing t he i.nlllwnu line for the bmding momr11t in cross sediou I 101'1\led a distllnce a from lhe left-hand ~'llp)lort nud a dista nce b from tht~ right-hanrl one (Fig-. 7.2a). l 'he bending moment in this section

3.2. Bending

Mum~nl

oncl Shtor lttiluenu Lltus

41

is equal to the algebraic sum of moments of the oute1 forces lo the left of this :-;ection 11hout it,s centroid or to the s n m or moments o( forces to its right but taken with an. opposite s ign [Sl'tl ex p.:csX sion (2.2)]. A::; long as the load is si tLLa ted to tht:\ r ight: of section-' (Fig. 7.2a.). I"' i.e . . ns Jong as x ~ b, the only external fon;c to the lelt ill the mnction A autl tbt:~rdorc the bending momcn\. lv./' 1 ill ~et;\. ion .I is oqna l. to Aa. I I Accordingly tho inO ttcucc line for t:his bending moment may (c) ho derived from the influence line Ior rllil.ction A by m u ltiplying its ordiuatcs by cL. (d) Suhstituting fot A i t:s valm1 found in Art . 2.2 we ollt.ain

,,,1'

Tho gaphicn.l reprtl'entn.tion of this l'quation requies t.he knowlodgo of two distinct values of M 1 for x=O M 1 =0

(e)

J \tf1 = - 1 ({) U~>iug these valuos Wt' can now trace the right-hand portion of tho influence line [or j1f, (Fig. 7.2c). Tt$ ordin a tes will futn ish the values of the bcud- {g) ing JI\Oment in section 1 when Lhe \lnit loall is situal,cd to the -~r tght of this set~tion, i. o., when Ftg. 7.2 b. \Vhon. th o load passes to the l t~ft of sec.tion 1, Le., when .t ~ b (Rig. 7 .2b) it hccomas nt O I.'l~ conY t nieut to usc the equations pertaiuing tu t he righ t-hand portion of t.Jw bea tn . rn that case the bending moment M 1 = - B b fo, nltltougl. Lhe moment of reaction B about the coutroitl of section 1 acts c.o nntcrclod{w:isc and is therefore negative, tho hending mom ent ca used: by it in the bea m remains positive fsoo expression (2.2)1.

for .c

~""

ab

X"-

Beams

Substituting tho value of B !see Art. (2.2)1 we obtain

Nl 1 = - 1-:t b 1

For a graphical representation of this expression, we shall onco J,gai n find two values of M 1

for x=b
for x. = l

M1=1-b = -lN1' 1 =.!.=!:.. b=O

l

l - II

a.b

T hese data permit the ctnsttuc.tion of tho left-hand portion of .the influonco line for M 1 (Fig. 7.2d). It.s ordinates will furni8h t.ht~ bend ing moment values for section I when l oad u nity P is to tho left of the section , i. e. , wtwn x varies from b to l. * ff the left- and the right-hand portions of U1e inOHenc.e lint {Pig. 7.2c a nd d) are now brought togetbcr (Fig. 7.2t) they will wtersect under cross section I. Should t heso lines be extended until thoy meet with tho wrtic.nl<> passing through tho support~ they would in torcopt thereon the foll owing ordina tos: over the lofl.-ltand one a11 ordinate. equal to a, and ove r the right-h aud one an ordinat.e equa.l Lo b (Fig. i.2e). This can be easily provell hy sub~titutiug 0 and l for x in the expressions of tho righ t- and lefb-hand portions of the infl uence line respectively. 'l'llcrefo re, in practice the 1'-11 iniluence linl' is frequently constructed in the foll owing way: ordinate. a is plutled or;e.r the left-hand support and ordinate b over the right-hand one. a and b being respectively the distances jrorn section I to these two supports. 1'his being done two straight lines connecting r.arh of these orditUJ.te.~ u:ith the zero ordinate polnt at the ba.~ of the othe1 are traced, the two lines intersecting exact.ly under cross section l. The above procedure mny lle simplified ns follows: first draw the line corresponding to an11 of the tu/o portions of tht! influence line (say, to the rtght-ha.nd one) , and then connect its potnt of intersection with the vertical pltsslng through the section concerned with the zero point at the. other b'Upport (in our case at the left-hand one). rhe ordinntes to the bending molflent influence line ore expressed in unit.<; of lcttg tlt. This for example may be seen from the fact lbat the ordinate over the left i!upport is taken equal to the length a. Hence t.he same scal e may bo adopted for both tl1e beam length and the lHmding moment inflnenc.e 1i11e .
Ortlin:ttes of positivf! bending moments ore directed llJlWard~. Accordingly, when t.he bondin~t rnoment iuflue.uee line i~ abovo the beam axis tho lower libres -of tlto beam ar(~ cxte.ndcd .

3.2. Bending ,'rfoment and Sh4ar ln/lrunct Lmes

43

Any ordinate to the influence li ne for M 1 will fumi.~h the value of t he bendtng m oment in section 1 when the unit load is situated over this particular ordinate. Accordingly the determi.nation of the bending mom.mt in section I for a given position of load P = 1 l'eqztlres solely J..he measurement oj the influence line ordinate at the Load point. It should be llorne in mind that the intluence line for 11'! 1 CX.l)L"esses tht' variation of lhe bcndittg moment only in section l. If it were r~>quired to ftod the law governing the variation of Lhe bending moment in some o tbQr section, a ncv.- influence line corr ll.Sponding to th at parlic11lar sec lion should be r,onstructod . .Let U!> now examine the construction of the shear influence line fol' section J. As already stated , the shear in any section is equal to the algllbraic sum or vertical projt~clions ()f all ox.terna l forees acting t.o the left of the scc.t ion concerned, or to the sn me su m tak~ L with the oppo~ ilc sign anrl p ertaining to tho external forces to the r ight of this seclion [sec expression (1.2) 1. E.\:nmining two unit load posit ions, one when the load is lo t he r igh t of sec.t.ion I ancl the other when it is to the left of it, we fnd : (1) I n t he l'rr!>L case, i.e., when x ~ b (see F ig. 7.2a) the equilibrium equatiou relative to the left-hand portion of thl\ hen m fuJiishcs Q1-=A-=T
Graphic.;u represent ation of this r(']o.tiou requires tho corn p utlltiou of Lwo distinct values o Q1
fo x=O

Q1 = 0 Q, = T
b

for ;:r:= b

"lsing these values we can construct Lhe ri.ght-hand porllun of t he Q1 influence liM (Fig. 7.2/), i ts ord inates giving tbP v alues of the shear i n section 1 when the u nit lond is to the r igh t of this sec.lion, i.e., wben .x ~b . (2) l n the second case, i.e., when .x b (fig. 7.2b) the snmc c.on:sidorations as above g ive Q1 = - B [o.lthough reac.tion B is directed upwal.'ds and is therefore positive, it must he taken with th e minu~ $ign, in accordance with expression (1.2)1.

>

S intX\

B=

l -z

l-z QI hccomes - t-

lJeanLs

Compul.ing two disti nct vai U(\S of

fol'x =b
[or :r.=l

Or
--- :....- T

Qr ~

l-b

(t

Or=-

1 1 -; = 0

and plotting t horn ns in fig. 7.2j we oblclin the loft.- hnnd . pol'tion of !lao she< H' influeuce line (as t.hc ordinnt.tls suo ncg-ativo they aro p iott.NI dowrnva rds). Had Wl' P.\lOrrdcd the influcrrcc Hues obluinod. until !hait int.orsection wit lr lhl ' 'orticals J)assi rrg through l.hc suppol't.s the t:orresJl<lndirrg inLenopLs would equnl : at the left l'upport ;-1. and at th& fig ht ouo - 1. This can bo easily proved b y substituting a: = 0 1tt1<l .1~ t irr the equat ions relot.ivc to the right-hand anrJ to th~ lo[thnud porlivnll of t.he influence line, respec.lively. It. l'ollows that Lho shear in f!ucnl:e line cnn be constructed as i ndjcntod in l'ig. 7.2g })y plotting file ordinates + 1 (upwards) and -1 (dou.nwttrds) alMg the vertlcals pa.~ing throu,gh the left-hand and the riKht-hand supports respective,ly and by joining each of the two point.<: so obtained with th<~ bas~ point at lite other support. ] tis ohviou:; that. t.h<:>.fi!.\ Lwo lines will h e parallel. Thjs boing ilona, a ve l't-kal ;, r.; t.l'need through t he scct.ion nrlder considoration as in Fig. i .'2.g. The ordinates vf th~ shear influenoo lines are dimonsionll\SS, he11cfl their scale rnay be tho Sltllle n~ in t ho Ctl~ of alm lrucnt I'twdion i nflrH.IrrC!! I i nc,s.

Ortlt.n.ates to the shew i.nfllH!lUX' lines represent !he .h ear valw.'s in. .w:clil)n I ari.~ing frorn w~lt l.oad P acting in the section corre.~ponding
.~t!Ction

to lht! said ordinate . Therefore, the amount of thP. shl?arin~ forc~s tn J fo r a J{iven position of the unit load P can be obtairu:d by s!mply lll!asurtng the ordinate of the shear influence lin.e at the load poiut. lf. Lht~ ordiuul-c at Joad pojnl. is negativt', lrho shear in tho seet.ion
wil l ;dsn be negntivo for ~h is position of tire .l.oall . 'l'ha vrdin:1tos Lo the Or in!Juonce Hne l'epresent the shoat' V:J l'iation only in nc:tion l. Sho uld iL llo required to find the shea r vsniation in soml' oth<.'l' ~odion, a mw irrfluencc line wo uld havt' to be. (:onstrucl<.d. Let. us now irtvcsliga.t e bond ing m o ment. and :;heAr inOuonco lines for a banm can li levering over Lhc left SllJlport, as sho wn i 11 Fig. >3. 2a. Construction of the influoncc Ji nes for a cross s~ctil)O looaled lle.lween thr.>.suppo1Ls A and B ro mains t:~xactly t ho samo as in tlw previous ca~e, i.o. , as in tho case of a simply .supportod br.arn with no U\'e1 hung. Two luad pvi r1ts- onn to tho l'ight of t.fro sedion and 0(10 to iLs lofL should be ro usidored , t.hc honding mollH'nt.s ancl the s hcars lrcing expressed in llollt cases throug h the reac li(li1S A and B. Sinc.e L he equations of the a lHttmcnt reat~tion ini11Jl\llcc l ines aro tiro s~1nre fot. a s i ropl y snppor:ted hoam wHh or withoul' <)VOI'hilllg

3.2. l l,nd&ng Jfom~nL n11d Sluur I nfLrwut-

UltCS

(sec Art. 2.2), il is ohv iou ~ that. the corresponding eq11nt.ions for the kuding mornen~ nnd shear will1dso he the same fo1 IJolh typos ol' beams, with tho solo difference tlaL a:, whid1 vario1l in the lir::;t CfiSl\ fwm 0 to l. will 110\\' V<ll"Y fro m 0 to (l -:- /c). This will :.!Teet Lhc const.ructivn Qf shear. Hnd ~~~~ uding monwnt infhtcnce lin~s in 1hc samo way as lho~ for the reactions. in othHr
(a)

(bJ

(c)

((fl

reJ.w . l\ JntlvenceuneforMu
t;>
I

(f j

I ln(luence line for au

-1 1mmm111
Fig, 8.2

words, 'those liuuli willsiu1ply have to he extended lo the loft cxlrolllit.y <.1~ l.ho ov-erhartg Wig. 8.2c and d). '.L'he reader i s once again inYitHd Lo check himself analytically tho influence Jines so obtained. i\"ow let u;s !'ee what happens in section II situated a d istance c frnm the left end of the overhang (Fig. 8.2a). Once again wo must ('Onsidcr two positions of the unit lond P. (1) '/'he load point IS to the right of .~ection I I (Fig. 8.2a). In this cast~ l.hcre arc no ext~rual forces to thc.lcft of licction f f and thoefo ro

46
the b~nding mo111ent in this sectioll is nil. The appropria t-e port,iot) of t.he influence line is re presented in F ig. 8.2a by a horizontal line coineiding with the x-nxis, as all the ordinat.es are nil along the wh ole stretch fron1 section II to the support at B. (2) The toad i.~ to the left of section II (Fig. 8.2b). Tn this ('aso t h ere is only one force t<l the left of t.hc sec tion, hence the bend-ingmoment in s~ction If will be

whore x 1 is t.he dilltance fl'om tho loud point to ~ctio n /1. Tl1is may vary from 0 (when tho load point coincides wilh thesection conc.etued) to c (when the load reaches t he er1d of the ove rhang). For t-hese two exlrome values of x 1 W< h ave, res pecliYety, J l1 11 =- (; and .111/ll = - 1 c. 1'his portion of the i nfluence line is represented. in Fig. 8.2e, nogaLivc ordinates boing plottc>,d downwards. Thus, Fig. 8.2e represents the bending m omont inftuene-e lille for section 11 for any position of the load. Let us prvceed wit.h tJ1e constructiOJl of the shear QI r infl uence lin(! for S()C.tion .II. (1) As long as thu load remain.~ to tM right oj the ~>ection t.hcre arc no force8 whatsoever to its left and therefore Q11 = 0. The corresponding par~ of the influence Hue (from ~;cction JJ to the support at B) is represented in Fig. 8.2/ by a horizontal s~retch coinciding wHh the x-axis. (2} When the unit load i.~ to the left of sectton If, tho shear On = 1 which means that the shear remains constant irrt!.s pe.ctivH o i' t ho position of tho load point, prov ided it lies to the left of the SE.<ction. This portio n of the influ e n c~~ line is represeutl'd in Fig. 8 .2/ hy a line paralle.L to the .x.-axis. n!'gat ive shC'ars bning p lotted downwards. Fig. 8.2/ g ives tho shoar infiuenco line for section II iu itsentirety. As will be 110t.iced, tho bending mo mon L and shear inn uoncc lines for $eCLions selectod w ithin tho overhang dHrer very substantially from those relating to sec.tions situated between the supports. In Fig. 9.2 we I1nvc represented th o bonding mollwnt iont)E.'nce Jines for a number of sections of a baam cantilevoring over bothsvpports . sections I I and VI. coinciding with tho loft-hand an1.t rig ht-hand supports, respectively . The sbear influence lines fot thesame sections are present-ed in Fig. 10.2. Two scctions correspoull to each snpport. sections !Ia and VIa being immediately Lo the left thereof, and sections lib and Vlb immediately to the right. 1t will be noted that shear influence lines for sections Jla and III> as well as for sec-tions VIa aud Vlb are quite d ifferent..
di stam~e

=-

+ ~ ..,.. '1 _ ,. ;
I I
: 1

I
I

tnflllefll.'b b.nefiJf' i1 11 I 1
I I 1

I I
I

ln~luence line for Mn 1

'

I I

I~ -r*mm ~ ::,_J lfnftue nceline.(Jr O ne' -. -..._ '

or-~_
I

I
I
I ln/luefla! l1ne for I
I
I

--

M l'l7:
Ftg. 10.2
,(

Fig. 9. 2
- ~,

..,,
I

,. ,___

_ !_ _ _....,---'----., ~

(b)

Pig. 11.2

!Jt't/11111

l' rol.lle m. It is l'l'quii'O!llo ll(>UStruct (.he hlm<liug moment aud shpnr innuence for ,.;ecliuum of a !Joam relH'CSCnte.d in Fig. 11.211, tht> UJlit lo<~d !' Lnp:elling from r W 11. Solutton. Pi r~t c.onstrur.t th(.l innuom\e Jirw (()! reaction A. Bourn rs being J'igully cnmectod to llltllll AD by mean~ of tho st.anchion JJif , tho teaction A will equal (seo Jo'ig. J1 .2b)
11110~

A = -~-

l-z

l>rn~u

Tho J,pnding mocn~?ut in r$ wi II L"l''a I

s~:clion

'" for uuy pu.'!i liuu of the 1111iL lootd on

.1l 1n =AII
1'1Cillly ~mnlur

. i\l'.l)lmli~gly , tho ben<li.ug Iunmunt iofluonc.e !till' for :~ectiou. m. wil.l lm geonwLto thal ul tho JefL-haud mtlCtw u, tho latter ~ ol'dnatL' vahu!s beirg lllnlt ipli!.'d by ;t conslnnl !act<.or l't(Ual to a. Tllis influonco line is rore.\'etlLou iu

Pig. H.2c.

(a)

The shcllf influcrlco Jim will be ohL.aiucti through the sam() prOl'.l:duro and will
difflr in nu nRpcd from ti1 11L for J'l'ac.t.ion A.

(b)

le.2. INFLUEXC.t:; f-INBS FOH

SlllfPf,E
CAi'\TlLEVJ~l:l

l:lt-:AMS

I I
I

LN us first lind the inflncncc Une for roactiou A a L tho support (Pig. 12.2a). The t'quiJibri um lHJHation for tho verlicaJ prOjl'CtiOilll Of tho <xttwua! l'orecs gives
~Y=

I I
I

-l+A = O

hen co

Accor-!liugly. fo1 any position of t.he JlOilll. o[ application of tuo Uuit. load P thf:} reactiou remains equal to 1. Aclopling an appropriate sc.ale m as explained in Art. 2.2, we c-an t race F ig. 12.2 Lhe inflncll (~e 'lino ~hvwn in./<'ig. 12.2b. lu ol'dOI' Lo l'ind Lhe bcn<ling moment inlltH. ' IlCtl line for socl~ i on I loeated 11 distalii'O c forn tho l Pft- h~HI cxt n>miLy of tho l.Joam, we shall prfH~cNI in t.h(\ santl~ way as in t.lll~ cas.! of a beam with ovorhang rcproscnLcd i11 Pig. !=:.2. i.o.. (1} whl'll L lw Jond is Lo tho rig-ht of section I (sol id linu in F ig. ,12.2a}

-! IIIIIIMIIIIIII

Influence line 1 I (or MA I Influence line (or Q11

5.2. influence Lines in Caset of Indirect Load Appl,c,wvn

4!l

(2) wh en t h e load is to the left of section I (dash line in Fig. 12.2a) M 1 =-1x1 =-x 1 where x 1 is the distance from load point to Sl~eL.inn I; for x1 = 0 M 1 = 0 forx1 = c M 1 = - c The corresp onding influence line is represented in Fig. 12.2c. lL is quite similar to ~ho bend ing moment infl uence lino ror a section with in t he cantilevering portion of a beam wi th an overl1ang (sec Fig. 8.2e) . H section I is chosen direct ly at the support A (c being equal to l), we shall obtnin tho i nfiuence li ne or t hl' fix~d-end momont M A This line is shown in Fig. 12.2d. For obtaining t he sho11r influence line we shall proceed as dcse.rihocl in 1 J1o previous article. (1) When the unit load is to the right of section I tho shea r i!< nil, JlO forces existing to the left of t his sect ion. (2} WJ1en the unit load is to the left of section I the shear Q1 = = - 1. which means th a t the ordinates t o t he influenc.l1 line will remain constant an d equal to -1 over t he wh ole stretch from section I to the left extremity of the beam. T he shear influence line Q1 is represented in Fig. 12.2P. lt has exactly the same shape as the one for .section I I in tl1e cantilovoring pa1t of t he beam with overhang shown in Fig. 8. 2/.

5.2.

1NFLUENC.t:: LINES IN CARES OF lNDinECT LOAD APPLICATION

T hus far we have been consiclering c.ases when t he external loads were applied directly to the beams. I n practice, especially in bridge construction, the loads are u~ually transmitt-ed to lhe mairL beam or girder by secondary or floor beams, which in their turn support auxiliary beams or stringers (fig. 13.2a). The s tringers are singlespan simply supported beams, each s tringer span be ing called a panel 1md each point whe.re a floor beam bears on a girder-a panel point. When the load is applied to the stringer somewhere between panel points m and n, it will be transmitted to the girder only a t these two points. This mode of transmission will have no effect on t he girder ab utment. reactions as will bo readily seen from the. equilibrium equat ion of moments about any one of the supports. Hence tl1e i oOucnce lines for the reactions will be exactly tho same as if \.he load we,e applied directly to the girder (Fig. 13.2b and c). The influence line for tho bending moment will a lso remain unaltered for a ny cross sect ion I lying within the panel rnn, as long as
4- 853

50

/Jev.ms

the load point. is either to tllC loft oi m or to the right of n. In other words, as long as the load is situated out.side the panel containing the section under c.onsideration, the bending moment influence line may be drawn in the same way as in the case of d irect load applica tion. This is easily confirmed by the corros]>onding cxprossio ns of the bonding moments. Thus, in section I situated a distance a from the l!l(t support M 1 = Aa when the load point is between n nJlCl " "' B and M 1 = B (l - a) when Floor beo:rr f LSl rtoger _ jB th e load point is hetwC'on m ,. .. "'- 1...)_ and A . These two expres~ions fa! d:""r~ 1 I I r ~ coincide exactly with those ~ 0 Ci~<ter , obtained in Art. 3.2 for ordi1 fR,. 1 nar~ beams, and therefore 1 ~JnfwCA-:e lne 1 bav1ng constl'llcted the bond~ : ing moment i nfluence line fbJ - 1 for section I as explained , I above, we may shade the nrclls --r bounded by portions A1n and Bn of this line indicating thus (C) that these portions are definite (Fig. 13.2d). However, when tho load is within the panel mn, its 1:1ffect will be t ransmitted to the girder at panel points m and n, its components Rm and Rn, shown in dash lines in Fig. i4.2a, being equal to the corresponding reactions of 1 .be stringer beam. In ordet' to fi nd the shape of the influence line when the Fig. 13.2 load is within the panel containing t ho section, let us fmd the value of any function S 1 set up in sectiop. I by a unit load (P = 1) situated as stated above. Assuming that Ym and Yn arc the ordinates to the intluence line at the corresponding panel points (Fig. 14.2b) and using the method of superposition we cn u write the following equation
A

11,. :d

'''if..; ::

---

where
Rm= p.z =...!.:!._=..:._
d d d

1).2. I ntluence

Lin~s

in Casu o.f Indirect l,oftd A pplwztion

5I

and where d

]l~ ..

P (d-z) cl

'1 (d - z)
d

d- z =-cl.-

z = distance Irom t he l oad point lo the right-hand panel

panel length

point. Substituting the values of Rm and Rn in the llrs t equatiOTI, we obtain

S 1=d Ym+-a.-Yn
m and n, t he !unction S r varies linearly wit h z from S 1

d- z

Accordingly, when the load is situated between the panel points = Yn for z = 0 to S 1 = Ym for z = d. 1~,jRn I z
( a ,I
P~f

[ ~a----~------~ ,n~:~--~ d---~~~~ n------~ ~ ~ -. :-T.'f17

r=-------,1

'4

1 . ---, J

'

( b}

L------ - -- --''--- - ----...1

Fig. 14.2

mm~~~hn

Hence t he influence line for such a function is a straight line connecting the panel point ordinates Ym and Yn It follows t hat in the case of the influence line for bending moment M 1 we must simply connect by a straight line the ordinates at panel points m and n determined previously, obtaining thus t he influence line represented in Fig. 13.2d. The const ruction of the shear influence line for section I is quito similar. From A to m and from n to B the ordinates t o this line will be exaetly the same as if the load were applied directly to tho girder. Within the panel mn which contains the cross section I the influence line will be represented by a straight line connecting the ordinates at panel points (Fig. 13.2e). Thus, when the load is applied through an intermediate beam the inDucnce line may be constructed in the following sequence: (1) first draw the line as though the load were applied directly to the main beam or girder;

52

lJeams

-tlllml l f

'
1

I
I I
I

ln/luence lifle for Mu-

--

I I nt{ueflce line far

Fig. 15.2

Orr

Fig. 15.2 rep1esents tho inUucnce line for Jl.f and Q corresponding to sections I a nd II o( a beam with an overhang. Influence lines for the reactions have been omitted as thoy clo JlVt dil'fer in any respect from lhose of a beam S\Jbjeeted to direct load ing.
G.2. DETElU.II NATION OF .FOHCii:S AND MOME?\TS W l T H THE
AID OF lNF LUENCE LJNES

T he construction of influence lines having been discussed in delail i n tlu~ previous arlicles of this c.hap tt"r, tel. us now e.xnmino the determination o forces and moments with the usc of the~ lines (tlwy can also be used for the det~rmination of strains, deflect ion!', and other deformations). Two cases will be considered : (a) concentra ted loadl" and (b) uniform loa<ls.

Case of concentrated loads. As already explained in Art. 2.2, tlw dotNmination of any function caused hy a load P 1 requites the

6.2. Delenni>lalion of Forces antl Moments

53

llleasurcment of the ordinate to Lho influenc.o l ine for this function and its multiplication by the magnitude of load. If the structure carries several loads at a time (Fig. 1S.2a), the full value of the function in a section he obtained by measuring the ordinate under eac~h load , these OL'dinatcs being then multiplied by the ml'lgnitude of tho ~orrosponding loads and the products summed up.

,..,.ill

(a)

~-- -f.
~::~
I

JJe
I

:a~

.. _ :Influence line
1

( b)

(c )

Ftp. 16.2

T hus, in order to obtain the bending moment in soction I (the infl ucncc li no for jVJ 1 is represented i.,n Fig. l 6.2b) we must multiply the load Pt by the orclinnto h, (since this ordinate is negative, the product P 1 h 1 will alc;.o be Mgative}, the load P 2 by the ordinate h2 and the load P 3 by the ordinate h3 The bending moment !csulting from lhe combined action of loads P 1, Pz and P 3 will equal

M 1 = "i.Ph= -Pth1 +P2h1.+P3h3

Tho ordinates to the bending moment influence lino being measured in length units, say, metes, if the l oads are measured in tons, tho product Ph representing the bending moment will be expressed in tons- multiplied by metres. . A similar procedure may be used for the determination of tho shearing forco Q1 in section I (the influence line for Q1 is represented in Fig. 16.2c)

Q1 = P 1h;-P 2h; + P3h~

where h;, h~ and h~ al'o the ordinates Lo the shear influenco line under the loads P 11 Pz and P 3

Beams

The ordinates to the shear influence line are dimensionless and therefore the product Ph' giving the shear value will be expressed in the sa me units as the load P . T he support reactions can be found in a similar way, using the relevant influence lines . Thus, in order to compute any function (abutment reaction, bending moment, shear, internal force in any tr uss member, etc.) arising under the action of several concentrated loads the ordinates to the corresponding

Fig. 17.2

influence line must be measured at all the load points, they must be then nmltiplied by the respective loads, the products so obtained being finally summed up.
Problem. Using the influence line for the bending moment llfr represented in Fi_g. 17 .2b determine the value of th is moment in section I of the beam shown in, F1g. 17.2a. This beam carries three co ncentrated loads the amounts of which are also indicated in the same figure. Ordi nate values at load points are shown on the influence line, but they can also be scaled off the drawing or calculated. Solution. The bending moment in section I equals Mt= -P1h1+P2h2+P 3h 3 - - 4X0.5+8 X 1.0+ 10x 1.0=16.0 ton-metres The 6rst term of the right-hand pa rt of the equation is preceded by a minus s1gn, the ordinate h1 being negative.

Case of uniform loads. The sequence of operations is illustrated by the -following example: a uniform load of intensity q is distributed along a certain length of a beam represented in Fig. 18.2a and it is required to determine the bending moment in section I (the influence line for Jl.f I is shown in Fig. 18.2b) . Let us replace the un iform load acting along an infinitely sma ll length dx by a concentrated load qdx (Fig. 18.2a). The moment in section I due to this"load wi ll amount to q dxh" where h" is t he influe nce line ordinate ,under the load. Proceeding in the same way we ca n replace the whole load distributed along the beam by an infinitely great number o( concen-

6 .2. D etermllllltioll of Foreu

lllld

/lfo~lltl

55

trated loads qdx and the bending moment in section I due to all of these loads will be then obtained by a summation of all the products qdxhx or

M1 =~ qdxh,. = q~hxdx
the load intensity q remaining constant. The integration limits c and d indicate that the summation must be carried over the whole length of the beam section , along which the load is di!tributed. The ter m ~ hx dx represents the area bounded by the influence line, the ordi~atcs corresponding to the limits of loading and the x-ax is (this area being shaded vertically in Fig. 18.2b) for hx dx

F tg.

18.2

is an elementary area shaded with slanting lines in the sa me figure. If we denote the whole area by w the bending moment in section I will be
Th~, in order to determine the amount of any function arising in

a given section a.s a result of the application of a uniform load, the

intensity of thls load must be multiplied by the area bounded by the influence line, the x-a:xis and the ordinates passing through the load limits. When the inOuence line within the load limits changes sign the areas will be t aken with their signs. Thus, the total she ar ~in section

56

B eams

I (the corresponding influence line is dra wn in Fig. 18.2c) will be obtained by summing up t he areas w1 and w2 Q 1 =q(w1+w2) w1 being reckoned negative .

~~~di~~~~~f~!~:e:!~hth~ 1 ~h:~/i~e~~~t>:n1d\:~~g ~~ ;;:)bei~s ;:au:;;~d r~~c~i:nt~~

the left su pport using the influence lines represented in Fig. 19.2b, c and d .

Problem I. Assume that a simply supported beam is uniformly loaded over

,,,
(d)~ ~ I
0

rr-----'

fn{l uence line 1

I

for Ql

-~-- ~- __

IJ

Fig, 19.2
Solution. As this load is sp read over th o whole length of the beam the areas bounded by the influence lines must bo calcula ted for the entire span. Determlnalion of rtactlon A . The area bounded by the influence line being

th e abutment reaction equals

Wt""'+l1 ""'+
A=qw 1

Dtt ermination Of t.hc bmdlng momtnl MJ. The area bounded by tho infl uencelinobeing 1 I jZ

=*

wz - 714-8

the bending moment will equal

M r -q~=~

6.2. Dettrminallon Df Forttl and

D t ttrmf114! li on of lht 1hea r

Mom~n/1

57

Q,. The inO uence line consists of two porLions bounding areas equal in size hut opposi te in sign

WJ=-+++--f;

w, - +-}

Therefore

Problem 2. Determine with the a id of influence li n~s the bending moment and the shear in section 1 of a ~imply su pported beam wtth an overhang loa ded. u indicatedln Fig.20.2a.

Fit. 20.2

Start hy draW ing the inOuence lines for the bending momen t and" shear i.n Sf!(;tion 1 ( Fig. 20.211and e).
SaluUon.

mo~e'~r~~::~: t/n: ~n~~~dth! :,~~:~:r~'{id ~~~ ~dl:~teu:f t1~ ~~rG~d~2S

11

the area w, under the inOuence line of t ile uniformly rot=-}x sx t .6 - 6.4mz
'l'hert~fore

\oa~ed

stretch totals

the required hendiog moment will amount to

Aft --= -Ph 1 +qro 1 1

- 3x !. 6+2X6.o!.- 8.0 ton-metres

1

Q, u~d':;":~': J~:/~ '!;u:~:~~O.f'..;,h~rs~ ~h~i~~::a "t:~n~: 1ine over the uniforml y loaded portion of the beam i ~

b~~~~~;e ~~iD~e~~~-

~ - -}xsxo.s - 3. 2
Accordingly
QI=Phz + qW:~ - 3 X 0 . 2+2

x3.2 - 7. 0 tons

58

llr.ams

We shall now show that the function S of any load (whether con-centrated ot distributed) acting over a straight portion of an influence line will be equal to the resultant H. of this system of loads multiplied by the ordinate h 0 corresponding td this resultant. ln effect let us coo:Sidar the influence l il1e for fnnctio rt S presented in Fig. 21.2 and

r
.

cl t

rrrrr~ ;.
I
I
1 "E

t--r1..-t-ll---'"';,---.-j
0

ao

:!
:.ol

... I

Fig. 21.2

a set of concentrated loads P 1 , P 2 , . , P 11 with a resultant R situated over the s traight portion cd of this iniTuencc line. Then S=i:.Ph=Pth, -4.P2h2+Pahs+ ... +P,.h,. Let us express the ordinat:cs h1 , h 2 , , etc., in terms of their distances a.,. n2 , etc. , to the point of intersection 0 of the line cd wi L h t.he .r.-a:x is (Fig. 21.2) h 1 = a1 tan a.; h 2 = a2 tau a; h3 = a3 tan a, ... , h~~. = a,. tan CG Substituting these values in the formula giving the value of function S wo obtain S = (P1a., P2a2 P 3a 3 P,..an) tan a As will be readily seen. the expression in parentheses represents the moment of the l oads P 1 , P 2 , P 3 , , Pn auout point 0, the moment being equal to tho moment o their resultant about tho sam() point, i.e., to fla. 0 (Fig. 21.2). Consequently, S = Ra0 tan a = Rh 0

+ ... +

7.2. DETERMINATION OF THE MOST UNFAV OURABLE POSITION OF A LOAD

We have just seen how the influence lines foe various functions (abutment reactions, bending moment, shears. etc.) may be used for the determination of the value of the appropriate function for any given position of a load.

7.2. Deurminallon of the M ost Unfal>eu.rable. Posttton of a

~oad

59

We shall now endevour to fi.nd the position of the load corresponding to the maximum v alue of the function considered. Such a position is usually termed the most unfavourable or dangerous position. Hereafter the maximum positive values of the function will be d enoted by A 11111 x, M max. Q,.,.x. etc., whilst the maximum negative values by -4mi... Jltfmi n Qmin etc. 1. Case of a single concentrated mov~ng load. In this case t.he position of the load producing the maximulfi value of functi on S is found very easily. It coincides with t he position of the maximum

Ftg. 22.2

ordinate to the influen ce line. By multiplying the amount of the load by this ordinate we shall obLain the maximum value of the fUJI C ~ion under consideration. Positive maximums oi the function are furnished by t he largest positive ordinates whilst t.he negative maxi mums or minimums-by the largest. negative or4linates. 2. Case of a set of concentrated moving loads. In this case we must f, nd ~ uch a pos ition of the given set of loads whieh would prov ide the maximum value of };Ph, where k stands for the ordinate to t he inOuen~o liue corresponding to the respective load P. When tho uumber o loads is not very great the problem is solved by trial, the set of Joads being shifted from one position to another. When tbe maximum value of the function is sought the loads are made Lo co incide al ternately with the maximum positive ordinates and when the minimum one is required- with the negative ones. It may happen that the loads will be simultaneously situated over the positive and negative portions of t he influence line. Such a case would arhie, for instance, if it were desired to find Sma.x for an iD O uence line represented in F ig. 22.2 due to a set of loads (say, a locomotive) whose total length would exceed the length a corre.sponding to the positive pa rt of Lhe line. F ig. 23.2 shows tbe most unfavourab le position of a twin-axle bogie with equal wheel l oads for va1ious inUuence lines. Fig. 23.2a represon t.!i the loadiug corresponding to Mrmax In this case the great.cst value of 'f.Ph is ob tained whl\O ~be left wheel coincide-s with the maximum positive ordioato. Should we bring the rigJ1t wheel over this ordinate, the left one wo11ld shift to ordi nate mn, .and as the latter is smaller than m 1n 1 the sum 'i.Ph wonld also he

60

lJcams

Ftg. 29.2

Fig. 24.2

7.2 . D etermillation Q{ tl1e. Most UnjatJourable Position of a Load

61

smallor than it\ the first case. Any other position of the set of londs ~.onsidered would equally lead to a smaller value of the bending moment. Fig-. 23.2b shows the po~ition of tho same set of loads providing
for Vrrnin Fig. 23.2c and d indicates Lhe load positions conespondiug to

tho maximum and minimum values of the shearing force. ln the ftrst case it is a:;sumed that the left-hand load stands an infmitesimal distance to the right of sel~tion I and therefore its amounL miJst be multipli.Nl by the ordinate ab (Fig. 23.2c). ln the second case il. is assumed that it is tbe right-hand load which is inlinit.oly close to ~ction J from its left and therefore the amount of this Load must bo nrnltipliod by tho ordinate ab1 (Fig. 23.2d) . Let us consider now the infiuenco line for a function S c.on~isting of ll. uumber of straight portions intersecting at points a, b, c, d, e, f, and g and n set of con centrated loads as indicated in r'ig. 24.2., the loads being in position /. As will be seen, none of these loads staud over tho vertices mentioned above. Assuming that the whole !'Ot of loads is shifted over a distance x to the right ("position II), th~ ordinate h 1 , c.orresponding to a load P 1 , will be increased by

t:.h1 = t:.x tan ex;, *

whiltl the iucremont of function S will equal
~n

,_

tlS

= )J

i-1

Pt :1h1 =

2]
i= i

Pt tlx tan Ct.i = !:.x

2]
i= t

Pt tan cx1

(Q.2)

Should we shift tho set of loads again by 6x to tho right (position III) t-he now increment of function S would still be given by Lhe expression (6.2). Assume now that position II correspond~.! to the maximum value of the function S (in other words, that this -position is th.e most unfavourable or the most dangerous one). Jn that ease the increment D.S will be positive when the set of loads is shifted from position I to position II and negat ive when the loads move from position II to position Ill. T hus, when tho :let of loads pa~.~es tluough it~ most unfavourable position, the inc.romcnt of
i "=='l'l>

the function S (and accordingly the snm

.~igo.

As will ho easily seen from expression (6.2), a change in sign of the increment t:.S may occur only whun one or more loads which

**

i~t

2J Pi tan cti} must. chnJlge

In Fig. 24.2 th<> angles a 1,a2 , a 5 und o;,, 9.1'<!. negativ~c~.

<%3 .

a~ .

and ai are positive whilst tho angles

VllhJeg

**The samo remalns true for minimum

of l.he funetion S .

(12

Btams

wcre previously situaLed over one rectilinear portion oi tho influence line have shifted to an adjacent porl.ion. 1L follows that a dangerous posttton of the set of load,~* will occur when one or more load points cotnctde with the ordinates passing through the apices of the influence line. This important remark greatlyfaci1itate.s the search for the most unfavourable position of the loads, as it reduces the number of trials to the cases when one or several load points stand over the said apices. Hereafter both the load and the apex io the influence line overwhich this load must stand to induce a maximum of tho function under consideration will be termed critical. Let us assume now that position II is the most unfnvoura'hleone and that it occurs when t he c.ritical load P 3 stands over the critical apex c of the influence line (Fig. 24.2). In that case the increment liS must be positive when the system of loads shifts towards the right from position I to position II and it must bo negative as soon as the load P 3 passes to the r ight of point c. For t he same reason.
ic. n

the sum ~ Pi tan a 1 must be posiLi ve when the loads stand to i=1 the left of the dangerous position and becomes negative as ~oon as they have shifted to the dght of t he latter [see exp. (6.2)1. We must also have P 3 tan a 2 > P 3 tan a 3 which leads to u 2 >a.3 Thus, tho slope of that portion of the influence line which is to Lhe left of tho critical apex must be greater than the slope of the portion ~ituatr cd immediately to the right of this apex. This condition is satisfied. in Fig. 25.2a only. It follows that a critical point in the influence llne will always coincide with one of its convex apice,~ or peaks, the same temaining true in the case wben the minimum value of a function is sought. This again reduces the number of trials necessal'yt o fmd a dangerous position for a given set of loads. I t should be noted that the intersection points of an influence line which form peaks when tho maximum value of a function is. sought cease being such when its minimum is required, and vic.cvorAA. Thus, in Fig. 25.2c points c, e, ang g of the influt1nce line form peaks when S m.ax is sought, while points a, b, d, and f would becomo such were the minimum of S required. I n order to asccl'taiu the 11ature of the extreme points a and g of the influence lino tho x-axis ::should be extended in both directions (as shown by dash lines in.
It may happen that having reached i\s maximum, th o function rClllains ronst.nnt during the passago of certain loads from one of the apices to the nc.xt one. ln that case a rnarirnurn will exi~;t even though AS is nil and no l011d is at. nn apex, but the rule just nontioncd still holds good, for initin\ly this maximuu. occurred when the critical load (ur loads) stoocl over an apex (or apices) of tho.

in0u()nce line.

7.2. DclP.nntnat /.on

I){

the Most Ct}ao-onralll~ Po.<il ion of a Load

r.S;

[,

(0)

(6)

--- a ~g- - -

d
(c)

Fig. 25.2
Nn./

No.2 No.J Nn.lf No..'i

No.6 Nrt7

No.8 No.

l . li

1 .6

1 .6

1 .6

J.O

1 .5

l.f./j

!.o

........

"'-,)

'I.,)

.
........

...

...,

....

'<')

c..;

...,., l":)

' Q

f'o'";

f'oj

Pig. 26.2

Fig. 27.2

Pig. 25.2c), tlwse portions being considered as part of th is influence line wi th zero ordinates.
i ..,n

'No have already stntod that when ~:>oeki ng Smax the sum

.is posiUve when the set of loa(ls is sitrLated to the left of its most Ulljuuourable position and negative when this set Jws shifted to the right of the latter. l t is clear t hat when S min is required, thu sum
f a.u

2j -I

P1 X tan a ,

t.al

hP

tan u 1 will be !Wgaltve when the loads are to tJu> left of their

dangerous position and positive whm they are to its right. This aL'>O .simplilics the determination of the nwst unfavourable loading.
b

Ftg. 2$.2

AJ3 an example, let. us fmu tho most unfavourable position of

:a system of loads $hown in Fig. 26.2 providing for S max when t he

innucnc.c line for S consists of throe rect.ilineat po1tions as shown i11 Fig. 27.2. The ta ngents of the angles formed by these throe port.ions with tho x-a.x.is are Lnn a 1 =+a;
1

tan a 2 =

0.25 1 - 4 = -w ;

tan a 3 =

1 - 8

We know that the most unfavourable position of the loading

'("a11not occur without at; least one of U1o loads coincid ing with the IJC3.k b orr. of tho inflnenco line*.
i=: n

The Joads being shifted from right to left the sum ~ P 1 tan a , ;,.. , will remain negative as long as nil the luaus are situated over porL ion8 be and cd of the inf1uence line forming negative angles with 1 ho .c-a:x:is. As stated before when the loads pass throngh a dangerous posilio u, this sum mu!<t change sign and become positive. Accordingly, we must continue to movo the loads in the same direction,

* t\ pices a and d do not form peaks anti lhcrofore the pasMge of a load ovtw
o ne of these t.wu p<Jinls is of no danger.

7.2. Determinal ion of the Most Unfal)()urable Position of a Load

65

i.ll., from right to left until this sum he(:omos positi ve. Let us consid~ cr the loading re11rescntcd in Fig. 28.2. So long as the loads remain to the right of Lhi:s position
i=n
~

~P 1 -tana.i=(:~.5+3.5) ~ -(3 .5 + 3.5+3.5)

1 16 1 17 3;,:< U

-(3+3)T= But as soon as they shift to the left this sum becomes
i=n

~P 1 -tana. 1 =~-{:-L5-f-3.5 + 3.5} ~ -(3.5+3 .5) ~~~-

i= t

T his means that the passage of the set of loads from a position sl ight ly to tht: right from tliC one indicated in Fig. 28.2 to a posi~ t.ion sligh tly to its left ca11ses a change in the sign of the increment !1S from negative to posiLive. Therefore, the position repte.sentcd i11 Fig. 28.2 i~ a dangerous one and load S is a cri Lical load. Suppose now that the loads Xos. 8 atJd 9 {soe ~'ig. 2ti.2) which arc still beyond the limits or our structure when t.he fust dangerous loading occurs are considerably greater t han all th~ other loads and total 15 tons ~ach. J n t hat ease if the train of loads is shiflccl further 1.0 the loft so t hat loads 8 :md 9 would reach portions be nnd cd of
i =n

L hc influence line the sum 2] Pi -tan a; would again become ncga~ tive, and at, the moment one of these loads passes the peak b it will change sign agai n. Accordingly there would be a i'jeco nd dangerous position o( the set of loads considered, for which the value of Sma:x should he ngain 0aleulat~l. T he larger of tho two maximums should be adopted Jor design purposes. Let us n ow consider the case when t he influence line fo rms a triangle as represented in Fig. 29.2. Let Pcr denote the critical load, :2j P -tlw S\lln of the loads situated over the left~hand portion of the influence line, and ~ .P-the sum of these loads over the rightn hand one. vVo have shown prev iously that when the set of loads is to tho
l=n. L

t-:1

left of its dangerous position, the sum

5-853

i~ l

2] P; tan ai

js positive and

when it shifts to the l'ight the sum becomes negative. In other words,

tlli

Fig. tl0.2

..
J .&m l&m f.&m J.&m

.
3.0m
Fi~t.

......
l&m
4.5m

....l
lGm

.'i 1.2

F ig. 32.2

7 .2. Dtten m Mtton. of tJu MoRt

U11{n uortrn bl~

PosiLiou of n /,owl

li7

in tho present case tnn aLCZP + P.~ ) + Lanan ZP > 0 L n

and
tanaL~P + Lanan(!.P + Pr.,.)
L

<0

SuLstitutinn- in the above t1xp ression s hm<>.x for tan aL and- 11111'~"' "' a 1 for tan an (se.e Fig. 29.2) and canying onl; some elementary

trnnsformal.iou:::, we obtain
'EP + P cr
L

> -nb
b

:EP

a.nd
J;P Pcr- I.P

-' <
/1

n
b

Adding to both s ides of the fir!:lt oxprc..ssion !.P s ides of Lhe se<:ond one. wo g ot

and t o hot h

+
cr

(!.P , p ) a 1 -b
L T ab

>
L

~P+l'cr-1-~P
L

and
'ZP ~<
L ab

IP L Pc,.., >:.P
R

Snh'5titu l.ing l (or (a + b) and denoting the s um of all tho loads by ZP, these expressions will t>asily l'educ.e to
l..P + Per > !.P .~
L

(7.2)
{8.2)

and

!.J> < 'f. p . .!:._

L l

These two inequalities show thnL !.he critical load is the one which
renders the sum ~ p
L

+ p cr greater thaJ~

~p

+,

provided that ~ p
L

is smaller than the. latter.

ln most < ;ases tl10 moving lund (say, a locomotive) may <'ntor

the structure (say, a bridge) from both sides, and to each of these
c.ases there will correspond its own mnximum value of the function S .

liS

Reams

In order to obtain the larger oi these two values the front wheels of tho locomotive, which are usually the heaviest, should be placed ovor the left-hand portion of tho influence line when a < b (sec Fig. 29.2) and over its right-hand portion when a >b.
Problem. It is tequired to fu1d the mMt dangerous position of a train of lottds sltown in Fig. 31.2 with respect to the influence line for function S representl)d iu Fig. :J0.2 and charac.terized by l = 8 m, tt = 2 m and hma"' = 1. Solution. Tho sum of lo:Lds which crtn find pluco on a span 8 metres loug Cl[tlllls R = 5 X 3.5 = 17.5 LOAS. Shifting the train of loadsfrolll dgltt to left and making use of the inequalitic~ (7.2) and (8 . ~}. we shall lind

"Zf+Pa>H.5x ~
ami
1:-P
L
Cil!l<l
llltt.l

=<'1.3i5 tons

< lt .375 tons

'!'his shows that t.ho second load is tho criticol one fot only iu that both of th e iucqualiti~s ht!COruo satisfied. EITcctivoly, let 2:: P = :1.5 t.ons

Prr=3.5 tons, t hou .EP+Per=3.!i+3.5=7.0 >4.375 tons

L

and
i:P=3.5<4.3i5 ton:>
L

Tho mo~t unfavourable pos ition of LI IC train of loads thus found is inJicntcd in fig . 82.2. ln order to find tho value of Sm.<tx con-CSJIOnding Lo this loading ld us lind Lho ordinate~ h 1 , h2 , h 3 , and h:,

It,.

h 1 =0.4 \an cr.=0.4

lj,oz=-hmax=1

=0.2

h3 =(L6x2+1.2)tan~=(1.6 x2 +L2) ~ ~=1.2x+=0.2

=O.i33

1 h1 ,=(1.G+1.2) tnn r.=(1.G+ L2)6'=0.r.67 h 5 = 1.2 t1m

wherefrom Sm<x= T.Ph=l'I.h=3.5 (0.2+1+0. 733+0.467 +0.2) = 9.1

Smax = $l.1 would ho cu:prcs!;ed in tnn-mi)Lrl!s. On the other hand, if thoso ordi-

I r the ordinates of the in(hcenco line were measured in metres, tho function
l'XJlre~sed

nates wtJru 11imcnsionluss tho rr.osult obtah1ed would be

in tons.

3. Case of a moving uniformly di-stributed load. In Art. f5.2 we havo seen that tho value of a function S induced by a uniformly di::~tribuwcl load is equal to the product of the intensity of that

7 .2. Dtttrminntion oj lh: M ost U nfavou.rablo Position of a [,oatl

(l~

load q by the area ro bounded by tho influence line and the ordinates passing through l.bo limits of the load, i.e., S = qw. '!'he intensiLy or the load q being constant, the maxi mum value or t ho fun ction will correspond to t.he maxi mum of w which in its turn will occur when the load q will occupy the whole of that portion of the structure, over which t.he influenc.l) li ne does not change sign.*

I
1
I l I I

~) r ' ----~~~----~--------~~

-----1ln{lllence line for QI

--------

Fig. !JiJ.2

In F ig, 33.2 we have represented the most unfavourable cases of loading for a beam with overhang carrying a uniform load. Case a indicates the load position for M 1 mar; case b for M 1 ,...;n; case c for QI max and case d for Qrml.n It will be noted that in all Lhe four cases these portions of the beam which correspond to the positive or negative parts of the influence line are fully loaded .
It is assume.tl that thl' loads may be distributed over a stretch of any length.

7(1

neams

8.2. DJ::TEfllVII NA.TfON OF MAXJ;\IU~r MOMENTS AND FOI:lCES

USI NG E:QUJ't.ALEN'l' U:-;JI:"Qrti\J LOADS

\Vc have setn that tho rloLerminntion of the maxirnnm value of a function by the d irect application of a train of concentrated loads to the innuence Jillll invo lves a eonsideta.ble amount of calc.ulations due to the noces~ity of finding the most unfa vourablc position of the loads. Jn Lbe c.aso of triangulal' influe.ne.e line-s, all the operations rnay he cousiderably simplified through t ho usc of so-ca llod equivalent toads, whoso v1tl n es can be tnkuu fron1 appro]lriate tables nrtd gtn plts. T he equivalent load may be defined as a uniformly cli.~tributr.d load which wUl induce in a. given member (or secUon} of the structure undrr con.~ideration the same force or moment as the corresponding system of concentrated loads in their most unfaoourable. position. Denoting by qcq Lhe intensity of the equivalent lonu and uy ~~ the area bounded by the infitwnce line, we may wriLe tho following equation

fLom wb ich it may he sccu that thcJ:o will be al WHYS onl y one dofinite va.Juo of Lhe equivalent load for t~ach pa rLieu.lar loading. lu d~od, S(ll vi ng the ahove equal;ion for qeq we obtain
q~q = --u-

!P;h1

l.n

I)Ut' e xample of Art. 7 . 2 wo have found that for tho Ltain of loud!'l c.ousidorod Lhe rnaximum value of a certain function S totalled n.1. In ~his case

IJ<q =

1X 8 =

!1.1

!J. 1

T = 2 .275 to us per metre

--r

It migllt ~-ern that this leads 11s c.X<H:.tly nowhere, fo.l' in order to tind an lquhalt)Ji t load we rnust lhst d(~ t.enuiuo tho maximum va lue of the fnll(:.t ion hy triu I. [n roaliLy this is not so. '''or a triangular i nfl uence line the intensity of an equivalent load Ior a g ivon 1:\l'.L of c:oncentrated loads is indopendont of tho a.e.tual value of the ordinates to the influcuc.o line and will alter only with a cha nge in t he length of that portio n vf the structure which carries the loads and with a varialion in the posi tion of the inLuence line apex with rospccL Lo it:> oxtremiLies. This permits computation ancl t.<~bulatlon (or re prcsontotion in lhc form of graphs} of cqu iva lont load intcnsitio!l pertaining t.o typical loacling schemes and to l:hc more CIJrumom shapes of triangular iniluonco lines.

S .2. D t:ll'rmintr.l/tlll o( 1~fn:r imum J \{omntts rmd Foret

it

L<'l us co.ll similar twl) inflnrnc:e lines when the orclinrtles of one of thl'm may bt: obtttin.ed l>y m.ultiptylng those of lhe other by a con.~taltt factor. all.(lllt ItS show that the inten.vlty of the equivalent lootl.~ for two simllar li111s rema.i ns lhR same.

( a)

{b)

Fig. 3!1.2

Fig. 3/!.::!a and b rcprtJsents two such lines; the base l~Jnglh::; of thost liJws ro the sanltl wltile their onlinatos difflt by a constant
J'lH; tor

cq,tal l;o n. Tho (1quivalont load fot the line in Fig. :33.2b is
. = l:l'i lli. with hi. =nh qeq {}' . '

and
whtlL'O

Q' -=U .5nh(a+b)=n~2

h; wtd Q atc the ordinate aud the area of the influence line rcprcsunlcd in Fig. 34.2a, respectively. Suhsliluting Q' and hi hy thtlir values expressed in terms o f Q and h we ftnd

for lino a.

B eams

We have thus proved that e quivalent loads for similar influr.twe lines are identical. The inte.nsity of tho equivalent l oad depends 0 11 three fnctors only: (i) tho distri bution ancl magnitude of the loads; (2) tJ10 length of the loaded portion; (13) tho position of tho apex of tho inl1uence line ovet the span (or over the loaded portion of t he structure). ...., ..... ....... ,., ................. ...,..., ..,..,. ..., TrauT """~ """ V') .,.~ y.~ 'ton t-ilr ""$ ~ ""'$<") '="') r->ro;Mto:i<"i

-,..,)

"'

ret ' e

TraiN
H~.

U)I'I.S j;1
"l~it 't.'

Tr'lltn ......, ........ ...... Co..,""' Co"<) ~tN:.t".lrNN Hll

~

-..,.)

.... .....
~~
t:)~
....:-....;

q.~

.........

~~~

Train
H?

t.t')'Q ""-'"">~ ...;.~.;:;.:;,:...;:: NNC'-#NN

.........

.... .........
N<N

""""
......... ~<::>
N N
"'-:00.,:

~~~~~

............

.........
NN
">~

.... ..... ,..,.

t'l IN

8 tons Pi!!..
n1etre

'-'"'-...;""....., ...,..,...,...,....,
-NC'o.f<'.~CO...C...

...,....,

...:i..:::...:i.:::i-~

TrOt II
}(

..

.........
~~

~~

..........

_........................ "'
....... 'to.,l""" ......
~

('<.,jC"oo...C'<-INN

........ .... ..., <>oOO

~-....:

<::><:::.

......... '"';)<')

.....; -.: .... ....

/' ( O".J' t>er

::Plt'(;'

........

~~

........

6'

t ,.'/'S pe!"
~!'t'f' 't!

I 2 J

4 S

G 7

8 8

tnou.1 ~r a.cle are given /'I I ons

Fig. 3ii.2

Intensities of equival ent loads co mputed for a slaHdar'!.l train H 1 (Fig. 35.2)* used in the U.S.S.R. for designing railway bridges are tab ulated here under. As wi ll be observed, the table COltl:ains (.he va lue::- of C(j1li\'<l lcul. l ond~ for various l l:'ng(:h$ of the loadt>d portion (up ttl 200 m ) and fvl' three different po!;itions of the influem~e lim aptX. nanwly when the latter is over the edge, at quarter span an d at mid-spa11. When the <1pex falls at sornc intermediate poi11t, Lhc vnhtc or Llw equivalent load may he obtained by interpolation .
.. The rlistancl!s between loads iu Fig. 35.2 urc given in

metre~.

l1.2. D('lcrmina tion. of ]tln:rfnwm

Jfon~e11 ts

and Force.>

77f.

Tabk 1.2 Equivnltmt Luuds per Running Mt~trc or Trllck fur Slandnrd FT1 Train in l 'uns
Type and s.ket ob or inCiuence line

Apex a t t ho extremity
f..CO!lt b

Apex at quarter

s p~ n

AileX in the 1111<1<1 It:

or t he
l!lm

l o<ll'tiOO

''at.IA!r1

~
7 . (.11)

L:=::::-..,.
:3. 5(1
3.01

~
7,(1(1

I 4!
;{

7.00

;j

3 .~1., ,., :-\. 15 :!. til

t. . ~l)

:-1.50

2.51
::!.'o5
:1.41

2.57
:!.1.1

(j

7 8
!I

2.ll0 2. 7 1 2.fl3 2.51

2.'i2
2.2!1

2.21\
2 . 21 ) 2.28
2.~

2.:w
2.:m
2 . 2:} 2.1li

2.:al

'10
12
11l
H)

2. iti
2.05 1.07 !.88 I. 77 1.G!J
1.61 '1. Sti

:w
'oO
I ,;)

'"

2. I!) 2.0?1 1. !1 5
1 .&8 1. 7i

I I

1.{1 8

1. 88
1. 74 t .5!l 1. 5:! 1 .<11> 1. 4/o
1. 4~

t.82

1. 7!!

50
~)

1.n 1. 70
1. 1!!i

1.55
1.52
1.46

iO
5(1
(~)

1. 61
1 .5~

70
80
f \1(1

uo

1. :-s7
1. :~t,
1. 32. 1.!!{1

L!il L46 1.41

1 .43 1.37
1.2H 1.26

1.4(\

t.a::s

1.37
1. :-i:!

1.:n
1.18 1.15 1.13 1. 1 1 1 . 10

1.27

I HI
120 J3(1
1111)

1.24 i.22 J. 20
1.18
1.16

1. 27
1.2()

ISIJ
l(i(l

LV.

'171J 1811
1!~)

1. 21 1 .20 I. HI
1.1H

t. za

l.l!i

1. (18
l. 07 1.06 1.06
1. (15

1.14 1.12 1.11

t.10

:!VI)

1. 00

1.05

7l

llcanu

Hy multipl yillg aU thl.l axle loads of tho s tandard 111 Lrniu l.1y a l'acLor lc whidt characterizes the clnss of loadin~. we shull obtain loading ~chom o.s for different c l asst~s of trains. Thus, the design ~>f 1 .rur1 k Hnes .is (.arried out for trains ol' class 7 or 8 (H 7 OI' H 6) whilst lines or local importance are designed for H 0 and II7 train!'.
l'ruhl em 1. t,j ug thr. ll!Clhod of ~>quivnleut loads llot<.wmiuo th o stress produced hy " sL:utdar<l11 7 train iu rnerubcr 1.-5 of 11 :>inglo track bridgo lrn~ n Jircscnl<.d Ill Fig. 31l.2cz . tin~ corrrSJII>IHiillg influOIIC e Jino bl'ing iliown in Fig. aH.2b. Sol lit~fl . lu onll'lr to ohtniu thn maxiirHtm volue of thn t cul'!iou iudur.f.l<l the wltctlo purt.il>u of the :!pun cornsJJOtHliug to tho posiliv<. ordilwtc:>~ of lhO influence

d =J I//

I
....
~ ~

----

._._,i __ _
s I
il '
--

I
1

In fluence l lne far !J11s

1

I
I
I

(b)

-Ia

If

~{

--Ptg. 3G.2
'l'nhlt~

Gm

----

} "''"'

-1~

"

Mit,d. the ll.'n~t\h r.J th is 111 ~ tio n t.ot.-cds 8 .0 m . l u cc > h unn 3 t> f l tue shccuhl Lt> lt> i.2 Wtl liucl lhut tho ~quivall'ftt lo~td for t r11iu H1 wcoulrl equal in th at c :;tSC 2.2k tons rn~r nrcLru. Tho maximum tensiun. produced hy au 117 trnin will then ho dcrinul frotn the fullowing (>Xprc~ssion

:W~~=kqqqU = 7X2.2SX ~ X ~ =~9.90

l<HIS"'

D, 5 =0.5 X 39.90= 19. !!5 Lons Tlo maximum com)Hcs..~ion '\ill hr. obtuinorl by loadi ng the:> wholc.> ~tretch ~1\'Cr UtQ nr~at ivc port ion of thl' inflnl.'nce li nt~ . Prom 'J'abl l.' 1 .2 we fend t hat
factor 2 in front uf tlw l"fl.-hnud term t.his ()Xpres.~ion is due tv 1 .h11 fact that t.ho oquivahmt loads in Tahle 1.2 are giv1u for onE! tra<.\k, i .u, [or hoth ll'USSI.'S Of U si uglc-t.rack brlJgc .

+ * Tho

or

$.2. D etermirlilfton of M u:r.tmu m M om et>t l artd

/lorc~s

15

for u l<!ugt.h l = 4 trt the oJC)Ilivu lout luad i~ 2. 57 tons per mot r() (sec c!!lumn 3). Th~:~ maxiunun comprc;;~ic>u will Utcll ho givt'n hy

'lfJ~=l"leJS!=1 X 2. 57 X ;~
Wh<!IlCO

/,

= 11.2' tuns

D,~ = O. 5 x 11.:!4- :i, 1 12 tons l'rtltkln 2. t'siu~ t.ho tno)tliOd <f ~quivnlt!lll loads lintl Nf r l!lltx Q 1 mllx nud 0 1 mi otri!o!iug in ;tn enrl StiJIJ"'rtod plat,() girdc hriclgo) ( l:'ig ..';7.:.!11j duriug the J;nss;o~;ro ,,[ on l'f1 train . The iuflucmc.c lino~ n1' beltdin~ lltomout and slwar

( a)

~o=zml I' I

lt\_

II
b =Rm
l "' !Om

~ ' I

F tg. ,'17.2

in ~ar..tio:m. J or vu e gmlt~r lll'OI'()Jll'Cr-<onlod in Fig. :17.2b and c. Tho l>ritlgl' is again a single track 1111o. tho raiL<> hcin!X fixed to .~tringo,s and cross oomns su"\"ottool IJy Lwo pnrallel g tt'd!!.rs . Accordingly tho OJquiv:olcntloud for one jlirilcr wi L bo hair of that givNI in 1'nble 1 .2. Solutiou. l )etclm i flll tlon of M 1 max Tltc }(ngth nf the load ing sh oulcl ho tuk<' u equ nl to th e wb olt\ ~JliiH of the gi rdor, i.o., t o 10.0 m . As the opcx of lite lnlluence line fnlll! b<"twNn the ltoartcr !;pan p<Jiut nnd tho encl of tim gil'd(\r t ho cquivnlent lon cl nutst bo fO'lm<l hy inlorpolation. For an 11, lruin
IJ"=qo -1- ('1 1 .

~-q0) l~l =2.42+ (2.16-2-.-1:!)~:~=

~ 2.L.2 -0. 2ti X

0.8 ~. 2.2t tons por mdtx

\\hen y0
'II 1

::.:

octui ~ldcnt lconcl for u L oallr.t length of Line aJIO.'< CJVI'l' LflO lr>!t oxt.remity co( the

10.0 m with tho iuflul'nc.o gird<!r tfuund in Ta hit 1.2) s nm o equivalent load hut. fur nn influence line with the) npox at qcoal'ltW!'>Jian (nl so found ia Tnhlo 1.2)
load for thr) case when tlw inrtu(>ni)Cl line upo:x i;; aL -i.J

q"

~ CI!Uinll.c~nl

of thO) ~irdcr r;pau (as in Fig. 37 .2b) a = distonco from llco inOcocuc.c linl' npt'X to the u~amst. cncl o f \ho girder l ~ lcmo;th of lontliug etoHII in this portioulnr caso to the wh ole !;pnn
ot tho gilclo,..

7G
For nn H 7 train tho equivalent load will amount to fJa X 7 =2 .2 1 X 7=1::iA7 tous por n1etre Fot oM girder it will reduce to ono holf, i.e.,q1 =- 7.n5tons pcrmetre. 't'ho atoa under \he bonding moment i11nuence lino for sl'Ction I equals

w1 =
Conseq uen LIy

X 10 X 1. .G =8 mz

M1 max=fJsWt =7. 735 X 8. 0 =-0 t.SR Lon-motres

Otterminfltion of Q1 ma>: rn order to find the maximum positive /\heAr in .o;cctlon. 1 Lho load shoul<l cover the (otit'l' posit.ive llOrtion of tho Or Influence line (1-'ig. a7.2c) . Tho longLh of this portion is equol to 8 metres 1tnd tl1e inflncuco lino npc.x is over its left extn1mity. Table 1 .2 yie lds the following vlllue for the oqttivahmt loall corresponling to tho st:mdard Ifi Lrnin q0 =2.1i3 tons per metre

For an ll 1 train this loarl will increase se\'onfold and will total 7 X 2.63 = 18.1, t tons per metre, while for ono girdN this should be halved, i.e., 92 = 9 .2 tons pc.r metre.. Tho areu hounded l!y tho positive portion of the shear inn uenco line ~~qnals
c.12 =

~ xsxo.8,.3.2 rn

ami thordoru Ormax =IJ2Ulz=9.2 x 3.2= 29.<H tons

Detennlnation of Q1 min . The greatc~t negtttivc shear in ~clion 1 will occur when that portion u[ tho gi rder where the ordinates to the !:'bear influcnc(l line art: negati ve ( Pig. 37 .2c) is loaded in its entirety. This portion is 2 metres long and ~he influe.nc~! line apex is at its right-hand cxtromity . For this caso wo ftnd in Table 1.2 an equivalent load corresponding to a starulard H 1 train equal t.o 4.2 tons per metro. For nn H7 train this must l1e increased hy 7 01 to 7 X lo.20 = 29.4 tons per met1o, anti Ior one girder it redu ce!:' to q3 = 0.:; X x 29.4 ft..7 tons 11er metre. Tho at'OII under tho ncgativo portion of the Influence line e<(Uals

Wa=-;
Hence,

X2X0 .2 = -0 .2 m

9.2. MULTlSPJ\N STATICALLY DETEHMINATE BBAMS

By multispan statically determinate cantilever beam we undorsla nd n geometri<:.a lly stable structure consisting of a series of s imply supported beams with or without overhangs connected togtJlh<r by means of hinged joints. Such beams m ight be also called nmltispan hinged beams. '1'he multispan cantilever beams also hclong to this class of beams constituting a particular caso thereof. Single beams constituting theso structures might be oitht~r of plate g irder or trussod construction or both. The theory of tho multi-

9.2. Mtltispan Statically Determ iuat

JJ~mns

77

span statically determinate beams has been developed in 1871 hy tho eminent Russian engineer G. Semikolenov. Benms of this type arc usually more econo mical than a series of di scon u ect~d simply supported beams spanning tho sa me opauing. This may be illustrated by the following example: assume that t wo equal and adjacent spans AB and BC 10 metres long each have to

,,, .puw!Il~jl:J.Illlllllll
A
(/) )

~m

q =2t/m

'i
C

''J III;!UIIII=;IIIIIIIIIIl !"

A 8
10m

(d)

~~m+mnrm~ww~mm~mnrrm~ ~
II

~
Mnm: JGtm

F tg. 38.2

be bridged over, the design load being evenly distribut~d and equal to 2 tons per metre. In the first instance let us t.ry separate simply snpporled bearns (Fig. :)8.2a). The bending moments at mids pan of ca<;h beam will amount to
Mo= -g= - 8-=2:> ton-metres
ql~

2 X 102

Tho diagrams of these bending moments arc represented in Fig. 38.2b. Now let us envisage a double-span hinged beam , and lot us use a beam wilh a two-metre overhang BD ac.ross the span BC (Fig. 38.2c),

78
tlti;; ovcdumg bei ng hiugc-conuecta<.l to the end of an 8 met1c heam AD. The maximum bending mome nts (positive and n(>gative) in tltc most clangorous cross sections of those two beams will be: aL midspan of Jleam AD

M1 =

sz - = -2x 8
2
2

tO ton-metre,<>

Ovt:r tho !iuppnrt B of baarn CD (henm AD Lrausrn i Lting a couc-uutratod load P=8 tons througl1 hinge D) tho bending moment. Mn=- (8x 2 + ~ z)

= -20

ton-metres

l u tho midd le of the span HC t t.o htndiug moment wi ll amouut te> 2 X 10~ :tl) ~ M 2 = - -- = 1:> ton -mP.Lrcs

but this is no longer a dangerous section, ror tho max.intu m momont must coitlt; ido wi th :wro s hear ami tho lat.tcr will occur at a distance :r. Jrom the l'ighL-ham.l SllpJ10rt, this distance bci11g dl'l'iv<d from the following equation

Qx = -C + qz -,.., ()
whertl (; is tho righf.-haud ahutmcnt roactioH equal to

C , =
;nd thcroftHc

- 8X2-2X:.! X 1 1 :! X 10 X 5
111

=B

to ns

- 8 + 2x = 0
Mrrm x =

.1'=- 4 mt!Lros

T he hcndiug mnmcut in this s~ L io11 wi ll bt

8 X 4 - 2 X 4 X 2 = 16 ton-111et.res

Tho handing momtml. d ingnm for Lhe doublH-Rpan hinged beam is opr('SCIIIl'd in Fig. ;~8 . 2d. 1t wi ll he obsornd thai iu ab~o luto va lun Lhe. bend ing mome.nts in Lhis hca nt am smaller t han in each o[ the sopa rat.c hoarns coiH;iderod in the f'11st place nnd therefore tht> <loublt-s ra n b eam is obviously mor(' oconomical. T he llSO conLinuous beams also leads lOa SllbJ'> taulia l rcdut:tion <1f bt\ nding m omt~ uts as c.ornpared with single l.lta.ms, hut. t.he multispan s ta tka lly de terminate beams pes ont C lrtai u ad cl i tioual Hd vantages: (a) their 1-elati vel y shorL mom bot'S aro well sui ted for proral.lrication, tranSPortation and installation, u11iug s tandard h oisting equ ipment; (b) a ll the forces i nduced tberoin al'O stat.ieally de t;cl'luinnte ancl will not bo influenced by any settle ment. of the ::f!IIJLJOrls . Tho a hovo cousidera.tions have l ed to fairly wirle 11se of muHispn11 canW ever beams in engineering sl.ruclurcs. Stnticnlly determinate multispon l1cams may always J.o obtninecl inl.roduc.ing 0. number o[ hinges inl.u n similar COJl l,ill lll.lliS henrn.

or

_ _ _ _ __

9....:..2...;;.....;;. '\..;..f' ...;'l:.:.tl_...:...i"..;..m .:......:..S....:.t....:.at....:.ic:..;.n:.:. ll ~ y_.;:D_P.:..:Ie;_;rm....:.....:.in_..n....:. t" _;.;n...; ".:;;a'....:. "_ _ _ _ __:. 7!}

/\!! will be showu lnMll' the uumber of hingms musL hH cq1m l t.o t.lw

of redundancy of the continuous beam. Fig. 3H .2a represe llt.S a ii.vc-span con Linuous beam whoso collst.ra in ts aL the supports may bo sc.hernatically replaced by seven hi ug~~ ~~ hars. 1n order to de ttnn inc Lhc forc.es acling in thesu hars we hnve oul y three independent eqni librium equations nnd therefore th<: sttes..<; computation for Ibis beam cannot be carried out with the aid or statics alone. 'fhis beam has a degree of a redunda ncy equal t o fou r .

dog1~e

~
~

;t
0

J;
(0}
(b)

J;
0

J;
0

~
~
0

J;~J;

J;C>-<)J;

~
~
0

J;

;t
;t:
-~

(cJ

\~ ~

~ o (dJo~
0

*
4
J;

J;

k
~

J;
0

k
J;

('e}
0

~
I.

.,..-~

(f)

~','0'<~

Fig. 99.2

If we tlenoto hy C t he number of <:OnsLrai ntH IlL Lhc snppnr~s, thlHI the tlegrcc of rodundanc.y n of the ho1un wt ll ho oqunl to n = C- :i. Applying tl1is formula to tho bcnm in Fig. 3!l.2a wo shnll ohtnin n = 7 - 3 = 4. Ear h hinge int.rndu<:-cd either in the span or over n suppnrL of n co ntim1011S hcnm provides for one ndd itional oquatioJl of st.ntic.s, thist~qunlion oxprossing that the sum of momcnl:s of nll t.hc oxi.OI'IIal forct~l\ appliod to L he h~um either to l hc right or t.o th~ l<.1ft of llac hiuJ!o nllOut ils r.ontre. oquals zero. Henc-e. whe11 tho numbc of hingog introducocl. into the hc:>n m t'Q IHill' it~ clOgTt'll or redundancy. lhe heurn MC.Ont05 stnlicn Jiy fiOII~r ntinaf.O for all t.Le unkuowns may ho obtuinccl in that nsc with t.ht aid of: thll cquntil)OS or statics nlonc.

The hinges mus t bo distributed along the beam in such a way that t<ach par~ of the struct.ure should become statically determinat.o and rmnain geometrically stable.* Soveral ways of transforming tho continuous bonm roprescntod in Fig. 39.2a into o. statically determinate one are illus trated in Fig. H!l.2b, c, d and e. Fig. ::!9. 2/ gives an example of an unsatisfac tory hinge !I is tdbution for al t hough their number in this c.ase o.l so equals fom and therefore corresponds to tho deg ree of redundancy of the inilinl beam, portion AB of the trnnsforrued beam slill remains s t.atit.ally indeterminate while portion .lJC has become uns table.. (The pol';sible displace men ts of th at portion of t he heHlfl u.re shown in da ~h Jines.) A contin uous beam wilh ono built-in end is represent.ed in Fig. 40.2a. I I :;lrould be. rcrucmhercd that a built-in end is equivaJ<' nt lo thr(-<e :-;u ~Jport < :onst.rairr ts as rep rosen tod schematically in Fig. 41.2. Ac<:uruingly tho total number of cons traints of the ben rn is C = 7 ;~uti its degmo of redundancy is n = C - 3 = 7 - 3 = 4 . TllltS, in order to trHnsforrn this ben rn into a s tatic.ally dete rminate ono, f<'>IH hinges should IJo introdllcod ns illustrat.cd in Fig. 40.2b. /\. 1:0 rr ti nuons boa rn with two b ui I t-in onds is represented in Fig. 42. 2a: tlrtl right-l1and end of this beam sl:ill re L~tins one dfl.g rco of freedom ns it can movo horizontally. Thc ..ofore at this end tho uumher ol' rostrainl.s is equal to two as indicated in Fig. 43.2. Thus, tho totnl uumber of cons train ts of this beam is C = 8 and its dcgl'oe of redund a rrc.y equals n = 8 - 3 = 5. I n nrdor to make t his bcarn staticaJJy le terrnirrate it would bo necessary to introduce five hinges. One way of distributing these hinges is shown in Fig. 42.2b. The lwBt way to frncl out whe~her a mu!Lispau beam or tlrnt t.ype j~ stahlc or not nnd o.Jso to get o clear picLnrc of its work under load is to rcpresen~ schcmalie.ally tho interaction of its sopurato parts. Assunw for ins tance that it is required to i nvestigate t.he s tability o f the beam roprcso nted in Fig. 44.2a. The iukraction of its clements is re present.ed schcm a ~i ca lly in F ig. 44.2 b, where alJ th ~ intcrmediaw ltingos arc roplaccd hy fixed h i nged .~ opports connecting the ~tppro printc bnarn members. This schematic. drawing show)) clnarly that tho whoJe beam is geomctricully stable, for each o [ its constituent mcmhorl' is a simple beam with OL' without overhang e.onn~cted l:u the gr.ound or to another part of the structure whose s tnbiJity is ons urcd by means of throe nonconcu rrent hnrs. E ffectively, beam ABE is (:.onnocted to the ground by means of Lhrt\C supporting hnrs and is therefore geometricall y s table.

*A rrtothod o inve$Liguting tht> geometricnl stability of a multispan hinged t,r~um w:~~; pt~:scntcd in Art. 2 .1.

9. 2. Multisprm .Stat ically Dctcrrninall!

Bl!am.~

~1

~
~
0

I;

J:(a) J:
0

:71
;t

J:

J:(~ :x;;
Fig. 40.2

Fig. 41 .2

i
~

I
Jmc

I ll OJ: Jll.o
{a )
(b)

~
c

Fig. 42.2

F ig
6-Sl\3

43.2

Seams

c A. 7/k
B

(0)

A
(b)

J7ll,

:k Jm
D

Flg. 4!1.2

Fig. 15.2

S Jm
p1 :1: ~

Ll..,._ J11. __
(a)

-___....qu
I

I
~
~

_.....,Q.jiinA..___. . .,.
(b)

Ftc. 46.2

(!J)

F'i.g. !11.2

9.2. Multisp"n S U;tt eally Determinate Beams

83

The heam ECF is supported hy two bars at its end E and rests on a vert.ic.al bar :<Landing directly on the ground at C. The supports of beam FD arc exactly similal', l:hus ensuring its stability. Tho examples presented above lead to the establishment of the following rules relative to the distribution of hinges in beams which have no built-iu ends: (1) there may be no more than :t hinges in each span; (2) there must be no hinges in the spans adjacent to the one provided with 2 hinges;

Pig. 48. 2

(3) spans containing one hinge only may .follow each o/Jwr..,:with the exception of one of tlte extreme spans where there sho1dd be no hinge at all. Tln1s far we .have eongidered case.s where all the supports but one were ftoee to move in a horit.anlal rlirection. Let us now examine caficS where twu or mote. supportfi arc fixed and will allow no hori zontal displacemeut. Tn Lhi.s cnse the introduc.tion of ordinary hinges become~ insufftcient for the LransfornHttion of: the con tinuou~S beam into a statically determinate one. This would require tho installation of mobile hinges which offer no resislanc.o to horizontal displacements. One of these hinges is represented ~:>chomatica lly in Fig. 45.2. An example of a statically clnterrnirtato beam with three fixed supports and two movable hinges is given in F ig. 46.2a, the interaction of its e lements being schematically indicaterl in Fig. 46.2b. Tho reader i!-1 invited to establish on his own the relation between the number of lixed SUJ>purts and of mobile hinges in a statically detel'lninate multispan beam. The most commonly used multispnn hinged beams arc represented in Figs. 47.2a and 48.2a.
6*

Beams

The first one is c.haracterizt~d by alternating double-hir1ged spans and spans devoid of auy hinges.* It consists thus of a series or beams with two overhang,s supporting suspended' simple beams. The second beam is characterized by the presence of a hiuge in each of its s paus with the exception of the last one; the irltetaction of ils elornonts is represented schematically in Pig. 48.217.

Ptg. 49.2

It should be noted that Ute favourable effect of the overhangs may be. taken advantage. of not only in ordinary solid web beams but ulso in trussed systems sucb as ind i<:ated in Fig. 49 .2. The rcac.tions of suc.lt a system will be found in exactly the same wny as for 1111 ordinary statically det.erminatc multispan beam.

10.2.

DETERMI NATION OF MOMENTS AND FORCES I NDUCED BY A SYSTEM OF FfXED LOADS lN MUL'l'ISPAN STAT ICA LLY DETERMINATE BEAMS

The design of statically determinate multispan bearns will b~ now illustrated using as an example the h inged beam represented in Fig. 50.2a. Fig. 50.2b conta ins the schematic drawing of the interaction of its sClparate members. The reactions R A., R n, R c, R D will be reckoned posi.ti vc whc n di'ectcd upwards. while the forces R., R 2 , and R 8 arising in the hinges from tho interaction of the dHferent elemeuls of the hoam will be considered such {see Fig. 50.2b) when the uppor element exerts a downward pressure on the lower one. F ig. 50.2c, d, e, 1 shows all the separate elements of: tho benm as woll as all the forcos acting on t hese elements. All tho reactions and forces indicatnd in these drawings are positive. We shall start with determining the reactions R 1 and R 2 of the upper most simply supported element H 1 fl 2 spauning a Jeogth of 1. m. T his element is subjected to a uniform load whose intensi ty q equals 1.2 tons per metre and also t.o the reactions at the hingos
The usual three-span cantilever bridge belongs to tbis typo of structures. Each of its outer spans is auchort~d do'lvn at the shore and overhan~s into tho contrnl span about one third of its length. Tho suspended span, resung on the "cuntilever arms", occupios t.ho l'emaining third of th(l central spnn.

10.2 . f) etermltt ation of .M omrnts and Fouu

85

Pz=Jl
(0 }

Mo ...,

JHJ

0 ; I
l~ 2m

I ~l: I
I

I :

o,r=lSml

~"

!RA
I

I
I
I I

(bJ I
I

I
I
(C}

7M I
I

~J
I
I
I I

D~ I'
I
I I

I I

Pr=zt

I
I

I I I I ~,:IJ?lt

I
l 1 2m
I I I I I

I I
I I

(d ) I I I I I I (e) I

I RA I

I
I I

I
I I

I
I
I 113

I
I I

I
I
I

I
I I

I
I I

I
I IM0
I' D~ ;; II
' I

I (f) I I
I

I
I I

I I I I I

'

I
I
I I I I

. k"
1Ro I

v
1 1
I
I 1

z
I
I

(h) I

~ 2
'

ztm

M graph
I Q.J5 tm I~ I 0

1
I

I
1

I
I I

1~. 58S tm
I
I

I. tm

0. 8*9tm~

I~

F ig. 50.2

86

/Jearn.<

(seo Fig. 50.2d) totalling

ql2 I. 2 X i O '" t R 1= I'2 =--:r-=-2 - = .u 011

Next we shall determine the reactions of the element A.BB 1 si tuated just below the element /11Jf2 and constituting a simply supported beam with two overhangs. This heam is 1mbjcctcd to the action of loads and reactions indic.atod in Fig. fi0.2c. From the ccpiilibrium of moments we obtain

~M11 = - P1a 1 + qa~ ( 11 +

whcr.efrom
- P1ad-

i )+ R (lt l-Ila) -Rnl = 0

1 1

qa2 ( l 1

+ ) + R1 (ld
lt

-az)

BR =

= ~ [ -2x 1.+1.2x1(2 + ~)+0.1->(2 + 1)]=1.4 tons

The equWbrium of the mOII'll\nts ahout point. B yields
2:.lltf'11 = -fldal+l!)+qa 2 - ~2 + H1a 2 1-RAl1=0
and Lhus
J>1
RA =

(ud- l1 ) -~-R 1 a 2
ll

- - ----o::--

2(1+2)-1.2X ~ -O.~i X l __:;___ _ _ = 2.4 tons 2

The val uos of thll two reactions just found ean be c.hecked using the cquilibl'ium equation of the vertical c()rnpont;nts
~y =

-Pl-qa'l. -R1 +RA+ UIJ=

= - 2 -t.2 X 1-0.6+2.4+ 1.4= -3.8+.3.8 -=0

Tlm:;, t.ho values of tenc.tions R A and R 13 aro correet. Consider now reactions R c and R ~ o( the simply supported beam with overhang ll 2CH~; the forc.es and the ronc.tions ac.ting 011 this beam arc shown in l 'ig. 50.2e. The equilibrium equation furnishes again whL'rl!from

10.2. Delumtnation of Moments and P orus

87

The other equilibrium equatiou gives

2:.il18 =

R2 (as+ a, + a&) -qa3

C + a4 + a5)- Ptas + Rc (a, +a~)= 0

w lu:rd!um

Rc

Hz(a3-+ a,+11l) T qa3 ( ~ +a,+a6 ) .!:- P-;!l5 = -------..:........---~--a4 -t- a5

0.() (1. 2+ I +t.5)+ 1.2 X L2 := i-1. 5

Th~'Se

(\22-i- 1+ 1.5) +3 X 1.5

= /L-)74 tum;

two r Mctions will he chechd M above

~y =

-Rz- qa3 - Pd Rc+ ~= - 0.6-1.2 X 1.2-3+ +0 .566+4 .474= -5.04+5.04=0

whicJ\ shows that all the computations were carried out correctly. Next com<:ls Lho turn of tho cantilever beam H~D loo.dod at its free end by t he vertical pressure Ra (see Fig. 50.2{) . From tho equilibrium of the moments we obtain

);MD=
leadiug tu
1 lfo

-R~l3- MD = 0
- 1.1 :~2

- R3 l3 ~-

0.5136 X 2=

ton-metres

Th~ ncgal:ivo vnhw of the moment obtained indicates that this rnomout acts in a direction opposite to th> one indicattld in Fig. 50.2/. From t:hu equilibrium cquRtion

:ZY = -R3+RD = 0
we get

RD= R3 = 0.566 ton

Having delorminod all Lhc rNtctiOJ\S at the supports and all tho pressures exerted by the lil:lparat.e olomllnts of the h!jLi fJJ on each olhcr, we may now prooeed with the de termination of ~boat'S Q and bending moments :If at.ting in ttw various cross sections of tho hoam and with Lhe conslruction o.f the corresponding diagrams. There are two wa ys oi ca r..ying out t.hesc compu t-ations. (1} The sheariug forCNl Q and tuc ht>nding moment!> ,'11 for the multi8pan stat i<:~'llly de~mninata hon n undur ronsidrra t iou (Fig. f0.2a) may be detcrnlincd in tho same way as for an ordinary statically determinate hoam taking into considtrntio n only the

88

8eam11

loads applied and the reactions at the supports hut disrogardiug the interaction pressures at the hinges.* If carried out correctly, these computation:; must show that the bend ing moments at all the binges arc nil. The values or expressions of the shearing forcos Q and the moments M may he then u~ed for tho c.onstrnc.tion or the corresponding graphs. (2) The shearing forc-es and the bending moments may be riel-ermined separately for each of the elements constituting the multispan hlla m allowing the c.onstruction of the Q and itf g raphs for each of these c llltncJlts (Fig. 50.2c, d, e and f). Putting together these grnphs will give the corresponding diagrams pertaining to the full length of the boam. The f1r!<t of t.he methods j ust dt-.scribcd may be recommended for beams with a reduced number of spans whilst the seco11d one is hettor suited for the. beam consisting of a largo number o eloments. In our case the first of the two methods will bo used for the construction of the shear diagram. Disregarding the i ntermediate hinges, the benm under consideration may be divided into five portions charactorized by different exptnssions for the shearing forces. Those portions nre denoted by corresponding ciphers in Fig. 50.2g. Lot x represent the distance from the cross section considered to the }@ft extremiLy of the beam, the following equa tions for each o[ the por tions mentioned will then be obtained. Porti<m I (O <x< 1.0m): Q1 = l:Y = -P1 = - 2 tons
b

Portion IL

(1m < x<3m) :Q =l:Y= -P1 +RA= -2+2 .4=0.4 ton

L

11

Portion I J I

(3m < x< 6.2m): Qm =~Y= -P1 +RA+Ru-q(x - 3)=

L

=Portion IV

2+2.4+1.4-1.2(x-3) =5.4-1.2x

(6.2m.;;:x<,7 .2m) :Q 1v = -l:Y = - Rn+Ps=

R

=+

0.566 + 3 = 2.434 tons

Portion V (7 .2 ~x< 10.7m) :Qv = -l:Y = - RD= -0.566 ton n

*These intoractions have been already taken care of in the determination of tho reactions nt tho supports.

10.2 Dl'term.tnation oj Moment and Forces

89

The values of the shears thus obtained for a ll the five portions of the b('am will furnish the shear diagram represenlcd in l'ig. 50.2g. Tbn hMding JllOment diagram will be obtained hy tht~ S('C ond of the two method~; described. l'he corresponding graph for lho eloment ABII1 will be derived from tho moments due to the acti<>ns of the for~ 1' 1 = 2 tons, to the reactions at the supports R A = = 2.4 tons anll R 11 = 1.4 tons, to 1-hc uniformly clistdbnWcl load q = 1.2 tons per metre, and to the int.oraction force 0 .& ton (see Fi.g. 50.2c). This grnph will he rectilinear along thl' lofthand overhang a. 1 = 1 metro and over the span l 1 = 2 motrl'S, no distrihuted load acting alo11g these parts. At the llft exlrcmity of the benm the bending moment will be nil, at the f\upport A it will total - P 1a 1 = -2 ton-metres and over tbo support n it ~:~quais - 1>1 (a1 l 1) JlAlt = -2 (1 -;- 2) 2.4 X 2 = -1.2 tou-m~:~ttes. Within the portion BI/1 (righ t-hand overhang} the bonding moment diagram will be concave, for this portion of the beam is suhject~ d to a distribt1ted load acting in a downward direction. At the l'ight-hand extremity of lho elemen t ABII 1 the bending moment will again equal 'l.Oro. The data so obtained yield the diagram represented in Fig. 50.2h. Using the same -procedure we shall obtain the bonding momont diagram H 2CH 3 (Fig. 50.2e). At both extremities of the beam (hinges Il 2 and f/ 3) the bending moments will equal zero. Under the lotto P2 the moment will equal f(,as = 0.566 X 1.5 = 0.8q9 tonmetres and over the support Cit will amount to R3 (~ + a,) - P~ = 0.566 (1.5+ 1.0) -3 X 1 = - 1.58!i ton-moLre!l

n, --

+ +

Over the left-hand overhang tlu~ graph will be curvilinear while between tho supports it wiJl be represented by a straight line . 'fllese data will be again used for the constrnction of the bending moment graph pertaining to the element H 2 CII3 (Fig. 50.2h). The bending moment diagram for the element H 1 H2 will be hounded hy a conic parabola exactly similar to the one obtained for u llniformly l oaded similarly supported beam (Fig. 50.2e}. Its maximttm 1 'll equa1 g= ql~ LZ X 1 ord . lll/t te . Wl tagmm - Z = 0 .15 ton-metre. 'l'h 0 C 8 for the clement H 3D will be bounded by a straight line pas.C(ing through zoro at point H 3 and through the top of the ordinate Jlll 0 = = - 1.132 mat the wall as showo in F ig. 50.2h for the corresponding element. All these separate graphs when placed together will furnish the bending moment diagram for the full length of the beam appearing in Fig. 50.2h. The reader is invited to check tho Q and the M diagrams using the expressions mentioned in Art. 1.2.

9:'1

Beam

Four different continuous beams are shown in Fig. 51.2. It is suggested that the reader should find seY(.ral alternative s d1emes

~ ~ ~ ~

;k J;; J;

;t J;, ?;k
J; J;
~ ~

;;; J; :;;; ;;;; ;;; ;;;

Ftg. 51.2
P1 =70t

<>f rendoring each boam statically determinate by introducing intermcdinto hinges. He is also invitod to cany out all tho computations

Jm

Jm

Sm

Fig . 52.2

load ing to the c.onst1uction of the bending moment and shear diagrams for the beam oi F ig. 52.2 and to find the length of the ovarhang

9\

Fig. 53 .2

tho Lbrcc central ~:~pons of thn hllam rGJlro~e.ntod in Fig. 53.2.

l 1 whit h would cq ua li 1.c tbe bendi ng mo ments at mid-length o f

11.2. IMlllellCe Lines j!Jr ilfultispan Statically Determinate JJeams

91

11.2. INFLUENCE LINES FOR MULTISPAN STATICALLY

DETERMINATE BEAMS

In Art. 5.2 of the present c.haptor we have shown that when the load i.s trau~mitted through secondary beams (stringers) t he influence line for the mailt end-supported beam remains rectilinear. We shall show now that in this respect influence lines for mnltispara statica ll y determinate beams are quite simila r to those just nu~n tioned. Assume that it is required to draw the inOuence lines for reactions A, JJ and C of. beam AC represented in Fig. 54.2a. The element CD of t his beam is freely supported at one end, its other end .being hinge-connected to the end D of the cantilever beam AD. When the nni t load is applied to the element CD the reac.tio ns at points D and C will be exactly the sa rue as in tbe case of a simply supported beam. bnt when the load shiJts to beam AD the reactions at puints D and C become nil. Accordingly, the influence line for r~acLion C will have the shape indicated in Fig. 54.2c. A~ l'eganls the reaction at support A its value will he the same as for an ordinary beam with ovorhaug as long as tho load unity is applied between points A an(l D . when this load is applied at point D tb.c reaction at A v.-ill be directed downwa r ds and will r.oa(:.h its maximum negative value. When the load unity moves a.l ong the clement DC the pressure exerted at hinge J) will equal 1 / , in othct' words, it will have the same value as though it wore 2 transmitted to tho same point through a stringer antl cross hcarn. Accordingly, the i.a1fluence line for reaction A of tho ldouwnt OC will he .rt\et.ilinoar wit.h a. ze.ro oa:dinat.e at poinl C. This influence line is repru:;.ontod in Fig. 54.2d while that for tho roa<".tion aL point B is shown in Fig. 54.2e. Let us consider now tho construction of the influtmce li11c for the shears in sec.tions I and 11 of Lhc structure schematically tcprosentcd in Fig-. ~!i . 2<t. Section I will be subjct.ted to tho action o( the t;ht~nring [oree only whf.n Lhc tmit load P is app\icd hetwenn abuLmcnt 1 and joint 3. Wlwn. thi); load is applied al; joint 2, it is fully lr.ansrnittcd to tho overhang of the main bearra with tho shear in :-;onion .f then bec.oming equal to - 1. When the ]oacl unity shifts to the lofL or to the right of point2 the pressure at this joint will decrease beeoming nil wlwn the load reaches point .Z or point 3, the value of the saitl pre~>snrc diminishing proportionally to tho distanc.e of lhc load from one of t.hcsc two points. Accordingly, the influen~~e line will h e triangular in shape with an Ol'diHtte at st\c.lion I = -1 (Fig. 55.2b).

!)2

Beams

Fig.

5~.2

Fig. 55.2

11.2. Influence Lines for Mu.ltispart Statically Determinate Beam.~

93

In section II the shearing force will be exactly the same as in the case of a direct application of the load as long as the latter is situated between points 2 and 5 ot 6 and 10. The corresponding portions of the influence line will therefore be represented by the tines ac1 and c2 b which cut the verticals passing through points A and Bat +1 and -1, respectively. Between points 5 and 6 the influence line must remain straight, its ordinates h 5 and h 6 hwing already been found and therefore we only havo to join point..<; c1 und c2 When the load unity is applied to the terminal hoams .Z-2 or
(a)

I
I
t

~
.

t fml,..

(h):
g
( C)

:i . ;;t:. b--L 7f7

I~

F
II

'I

.,

I I , I I Influence llne {or A

I

?
I 1

lh

lk
I

1Influence line I I {or MD

(d)'
I

aI O.S I I Ib I
I
t

I I 1 I

~
I I
I

I I I

'

~~~~ r o.asm ~
d Ftg. 56.2 Z.Om

.!J,._

10-11 tho value of the sh<~aring force in section .fJ will vary from ih 2 (or h 10) to zero, thQ latter vnluo corresponding to the case when the load reaches the abutmont. The variation of any function being
1ineat when the load shifts along a secondary beam, we may simply -connect the ordinates at points 2 and .lO with the points or zero ordinate 1 and 11 (Fig. 55.2c). Let us now consider the construction of influence lines for sLati.calLy Q.oterminate beams of more than two spans. Tn such cases 'it is always recomrneuded to begin with tracing the interaction scheme. Fig. 56.2a represents such a beam, the interaction scheme of its four clements being shown in Fig. 56.2b. Let us fttst construc.t the influence line for the reaction at support A (Fig. 56.2c). For that part of the beam from its left extremity to the hinge H 1 the .construction will bo carried out exactly in the same 'way a!l f11r

Beams

a 8im1'ly supported beam with two overhangs (~co Art. 2.2). When the load uni ty is applied !>omewhero hetwee11 points H 1 and 1!2 tho l'~llt:t.ion A will be oqual to the orclinatc ab nmltip!ied by the prossuro P 1 exerted by the dement Il/1' 2 on the beam ABH1 This prt~~UJ'O varies linearly from P, = 1 when the unit load is applied at hinge H 1 to zero when lt reat~hes hinge H 2 and thorefore the inOncnt~ line OVOJ' tht~ portion H 1H 2 of the beam may he obtained by ~;i mpl y connecting the ordinate b over hinge II 1 with a point or 1.oro ordinate at the l1ingo ll2 Once the load has shifte1l to l.he right of the hinge J/ 2 , the reac.tion aL point A will equal zero* and thoreforo the ordino.Les of tl10 in.Ouenc.e line ftom Jf 2 to D will als<> ()qlJal w rn. The similituclo of. triangles will permit us to fi1td the ordinates to lhe pertiOllllt points of Olll' influenc.e line

iii 1-l- 2 whcuce -;- 3 3 -;r=--vgh = Lk 2 = t x 2 = J

.;J

ali 1 ':'T: 1 1 ik =2 wlw!iC.Oab = L"T = 1Xy= 0.5

LLt us How c.on5lrucL tl1e infltll'llCC lim~ for thQ l1undiJllt mom<;!nt 11<:Ling ove1: SOl'tionl) of Oltr beam (Fig. !)6.2d). When tho loud travels along portion 11 ~D the c.onstruc;tion of the i11flu.cnr,e line will be exat~t ly the~>n rne as for a cantilever beam with n built-ill t>nd (~cAr t. <1.2) . P H~'iing to Jlortion H 3C we notice that the pressure R 3 vnrits propurtionnlly to tho distanc.e of tho unit load from point C L'Nlehing 1.ero when the load is o\er this poiut; therofme thu inllucnct line over this portion will be reptesontcd by a line eonne<ting point a with n point of zoro ordinate at C. Point e under hi ngo 1{2 will bo o'btnintHl by oxtent.ling this line until its i nterscc.t ion with tho vertical pa .~sing through thi.s hinge, and tho last portion of lhe lin<> llelweEm hingM 11 2 aud JJ'1 will be obtained by conuec.t.ing point e wit.h a point of zero ordinalo at the bingo H 1 The similitude of triangles pe rmits the computation of the ordinate cf as IolloM<
e/ 1.2 -==-=., .;d "' 5

whence ef = cd ;-;: = 2x0.48=0.96m 2 ..)

1.2

H. is apparent tha~ the iufl uoncc line for any function in any l'ec.tion of a mu lt.ispan statically detenninato beam may ho cmlslructcd following the procedure outli ned hereunder: (1} The ioilucnco line corresponding to that portion of tho beam whidl contains tho section unde.r cons ider-ation is c.oustruct.(JOe.xac.tly in the same way aft for a simply supported boam (wilb or without. overhangs) .
This f<Jllows froltl the eqHilibrium of ol()ml:lnt ll,H 2

12.2. B t Pldmg Mome11ts nnd Sluartng Porct:s

9~

(2) The ordinate obtained at the point where tho beam member contawing the section meets with the ndjacent one is then comtedcd with a point of zero ordi11ate under the at~cond 11upporL of this latter eltmtmt. T lw same ploccdure may be followed in orcler to oblain. tho influence line over the more llislant elements of the beam. (3) The ordinates t o tho p&rtine nt points of the inOucncc line may he dcri\ed from t ho similitude or tLio.ngles which COrlStiLu(,e it. 'l'he reader is invit~d to che~.k tho inUuouce lines re presented in Figs. 5i .2 and 58.2.
12.2. BENDfNG MOME~TS AND SHEAH I NG .t'OHCES l='IDllCI.W BY FXE:D LOADS IN STATCALLY DETfm.Mt J\ATE BENTS, K.Nl:E FHAi\JES AND BEAMS OF POLYGONAL DESLGN

Thl detoTmiunt ion of reactions aril.'ing at the ~up pori$ or s tntically delermiualo h~u l.'< nud bea ms o( polygC~nn l desigll, the computation

Q, X and .J/ diagrams are carried out in lhc same way as for ordinary

of i nternal Jorccs art.ing over their

eros~

sections and Lllo Lraciog ot

rec tilinear bl'ams. All t.he formulas, sign conventions and (lqu ilibrium equations rucnliou~d in Art. 1.2 re main valid. Whon lenlingwith knel' framer-> or other struc.tUl'm; c.ornprising verLicaJ ekmonts it i:; good practice to dedctc beforehand which extremity of such all element wiiJ be considered as the left-haod one nod to mark this extremity by so JHO convcnLional sign (for instance, an aswriljk). Thf' following examples will illustrate the construction o[ Q, N and J \1 diagrams for structucs in question.
l'rohlcm1 . nequired tho Q, N and i'r! diugrams fot a beam roprO.:!Clllod in. Pig. 5~1.21'1.

Solu.tton. Having cloc.ldcil to consi1h1r the lowur extremity of the elomont AB as the loftrhanc'l one , m url< it wilb an asU~l'i::~k. Tho bt'.am c<lnslsting of two ole tnen ts, u~c l'X.Jlres~icm s (1.~) througll (11.2) fol' t.lw determination of tho shearing ancl uormal {or~s 11nd (I( the bending moments in t>ach of the~e eilment.s. l!:ltment I. The inLornal fmceP nc.ting over 11 croPs section a dif'taneo :r1 from. tho uppt'r eu d of th o e lemt'nl AlJ will be Q 1 = -l:Y = -P N 1 = -l:X =O

M 1 =:E.'lf = - { - P:r1) = f'x 1

l/.

Klement II . Tho inturnnl fiH'Ces acting over any section a ilistnuce. ~ { r cJm. tbe lvrt end of tho element BC will oqunl
11 =l':Y=0 Q

N 11 -T.X=l>

M 0 ='f.M,... -Pa
L

Graphs obtuined with the aid of the abov~.> expressions are roproduced i11 Fig. 5!J.2b, c nnd d. lt sho11ld be not.ed that the expressions ol)taine~ tor Mr

B eams

(a}

(b)

Vntl:~enc~ lffle forJ

I

I
(C)

. " 1 : ,nI luence ltfle,or 1 i M1r I

I I

l,
I

(d)

.....,,<IQ

1/nflue!lce line fori

I

I
I

I
I

Mil

I I
I

11

I I

(e)

IIIII~ ~I ~7; I
Ftg .'i7.2

1~11

. I

: I

(Cl)

I ~ llnfluence liJJe for

(d)

Mn

rl;~l

Ilfl{luence line (or I

.~:
Fig. 58.2

J2.2. Bending ;~tomtmts lind STteartr~g F<Jrcef1

an d

'Zhmttv.~ky .

</

lo rot :;.1.t.i~Iy cX pJ'('~ion ~1 .2i of lnt.. 1.2 del'ivecl fwm t.hc theorem of
tndu<d ,

tu:,t.cad of
$ltS WHl\

Thh>.is iluc:- to the fact (haL inl;ection I of the be.lJJll positiv L Yalue~;o ,,f the ah~( i~ measured do wnward:;, iu !>l.her word::, from righ t to }C)ft, \vhilo the roltdM renwms . t J'U(\ <on 1y wl 1en l"'~itl . . ve uv:>c.t~sns . Uon Q = dX nn.! rnoasurcd froTH ltfL

t.o

ti~:lt t..

{b)

,rop. [

(c)

N 9roph

M graph

L!'l u~ now chock tla (.!qnilihrimn of join\ B. S<.>pnrat.ing it Irom t h ~ other parts of the struotnre aud a pplyiug at llH~ cuts tlw iu lernnl fcnr os compttrrl ahovc wo ohta i11 tlte f(ll lowing E Htnilibrium !lquntious (fig. 59.2e)

'iM 11 = - il-f11A...,...Jinc = -z>a+ Pu= O

~Y = O

:3X = - Qn,,+ N.JJc=- P+P=O whic.h $.h ow~ that all the illi.Onl<'ll forces wen> computed col'ec.t.Jy. lt should b(\ reml'mhor(\d that equilibrium cquat.i(lllS m11st Ill' sa tisl\~d whatevor the numher of ltar:lm~diug 11t one joint . provide() all tho (!.'dt~malloads nppliod di rer:.t.ly to t.his joint. ate duly taken cat'e of. . Pmblem 2. Ro<JI!iretl tv tmce tlw (), N nnd 1 \f d1agr<'lm'> f<u' a kneo framo r<;pl'<':S.mterl in Fig. El0.2n.

98

Beams

./1

(Q)

Hs

p
.
I)

.
(6}

grwJh

[?"
.

'1'1

, cJ

(C}

{d)

Fig. 60.2

Fig. 61.2

12.2.

B~nding

Moments and Shearin{( Ftlrce.,

99

Solution. Choosing onco again the lower ends of the vertical elements as their left-hand oxtremit.ies, mark them witlt asterisks. Subdivide the knee frame itself into four separate portions and write for each expressions (1.2) t.hrough (3.2) giving the shearing and normal forces and tho bending momcot.s. Portion I QI =:EV=qzt
L

Portion II N 11 = -l::X = -qa

H

liJ

11

qa?. = -1:.~1=--2-

Portion Til

Portion IV
QlV

= -~Y= -qa;
n

N 1V =-:EX= -P= -qa

M 1v = -T.!(l = qa

(x4- ~) -Pa+M=qa (x4- ~) -qa:!. + qa:!. =

=qa

(x4-;)

The cliagmms obtained using the above exprosl!ions are represented in Fig. 60.2b, c and d. Fig. 60 .2e represents joint B subjoctod to the internal forces ancl moments acting at the cuts. It will be easily obstrv()cl that all tho eqoilihrium equations for this joint aro satisfied; qa2 3 l:llfa = -qa'l. - qa2=0 2 2

-+

l' robhmt 3. Required to consttuct the Q, Nand 111 graphs for the sUltically dct.e1minate frame repreSQntt>d in Fig. 61.2a. , and II s shown in Fig. 61.2a utili?.ing Solution. Determine reactions TI.A, n 1 t-he well-known equilibrium expressions .EM B=RA2a+ Pa.- q2aa=0 wherefrom romemboring t hat P=qa we obtain 2qa2-qaz a RA= 2a q2
t.i'IJA= -R0 2a+q2aa -1-Pa=O

and thus
RH=

2qa2+qa2 2a

3 Tqa

.EX= P-HIJ=O

giving

tOO

Beams

Mark again tho lower ends of tile vortic.nl dements by an nstcrislr as in Fig. 61.2a consiclori1Jg them to l'orm the l llft-hand extrornitics and suhdivido the ht>am into fuur portions for cnch of whic.ll th() following cX (l ressitm~ aro reaolily obtaiM<.I. Po rtlotl I

Q' = O;

Portion If
Q" = -P = - tJ<l;

N 11 = - liA= -a ' ~ ~

giviug for

Port iOtl Ill

wlwn z 3 =0
when Z3=a

om = q
Qlfl

MTII= - qa'l

"'
lt4 11I = - qu.2
Mill= -2t]a2

or"= --q ~

wh()n zs = 2a
The shearing force

= _ 3 qa

( ; hcr.omcs nil wheu :r3= ~ anti rtc.cortJingly tho bondillg mom!!ul will p:1ss i n t.his ~<Ntion th rout::h a mnximum or a miuimum 7 M 1/I =q ( aZ -11~-T = - --g<Jl2

0 11! =q

Xs)

all)

J> ortion IV

Q1v=lln=z1Ja; N 1v = -R8 = - ~ q11.;

when x4 = 0 when
.~:, = 2a

111IV=n 11 :r.,

..= qar~

.MIV -= V MIV = 2Qa 2

The c.orrespomling diagrams ftw Q, N :mu .M a rt representcd in r:'ig. li1.2b, c nnd d. P roblem 4. Btntuind to con~>truc.t tho Q, .V and J,f diugrilm~ for u hoallll'l"!)n'~enwl in Fig. 62.2a. Soluttor~. Hoplrtco tho inc line<l load P by its vertical nntl horizontal components P 11 rutd P" P:r: ~ P 11 - PCos45"' =0.7(l7P and determine reaction RA wl1ich will suffico in lbe Cil~ under consid(lration t.llf~,~= R,..2l + P 111.7071 Pxll.70il ~ 0

.72.2. fil'ntUug Mumruts and Shearing Forr.ts

whereftolll RA = -(1 .707 Py ~0.707 PxJ t

-1 .707;0.707 XO 707 P = -0.853 p

The negativo va lue of this reaction indica tes that it is directe1l downwmc\s. For each uf the thrco portion~ o{ the loeam the following equatious giving the vnhJCs of the slH!I~ring and normal force):' nnll of the heolling mouw nts may be now written as

(a)

Q graph
(b)

rnijlllllllllmllllllllllllll
0.853P

F*lll lll'
X

~ 0. 707 P

N graph
(c)

ti!!!!!!ffi!l!!!!~
Pl

0. 707P

(d )

Ftg. 62.2
P ortion 1 Q 1= liA=-0.853P; N 1=0; M 1 ..:RA~t = -0.&:~1f>xt when x =0 M 1 = 0 whon XJ=2l M 1 =-1.70t\Pl
1

Portion I I
QII = Py=0.707P; Nil = - Px= -0.707P

Mil = - Px0.701l - Pu (1,7071 - .r2)= - 0.707P (0.7071 + 1.707l-,..2)=

= - P (1,7071-0.707.r2)

wht>nz2 ::0
Portion J'!l

111

11

=-1.707Jll

whenx2 = !

M 11 =-l'l

t02

Beams

(0 )

f]
..,
p

a
(C)
>;)~

~
F ig. 63.2

''
"' '

.(:

"

'

''

p
Li'

''

''

(6}

'

a
p
~
/

(e)

Fig. M.2

12.2. Bending llfoments and Shearing Forces

103

The corresponding diagrams are represented in Fig. 62.2b, c and d. The reader is invited to (1) check the sign of the shear diagram represented in Figs. 59.2 through 62.2 using the rule mentioned in Art. 1.2 which stipulates that the shear is positive when the axis of the beam must be turned clockwise in order to superimpose it with the tangent to the bending momont diagram, (2) check the Q, N and M graphs represented in Fig. 63.2, (3) trace the Q, N and .11 diagrams !or the frames represented in Fig. G4.2.

3.

THREE-HINGED ARCHES AND FRAMES

1.3. THIUJE-H I NGED SYSTEMS

A ihreo-hingP.cl system consists of two plntcs (T nnd II), conn(t;.t<:l! together hy moans of a hing~ (hinge C in Fig. 1.3), wiLh two-hiuged supports A and B resting on the ground . .i\.s the latter can itself be regarded as another rigid plate, it may he said that a three-.hi.nged system consists of three plates connecl;ed together hy mea ns of three ldnges. these hinges not lyiz1g on one ~traight line. We have seen proviously (see Art. 2.1 and Fig. 'H.U) that connections of this type are eharac tcti~tic of geo mcLrically stable structures. When the plates I and II consist of curved bars the system is called a threehinged arch (F ig. 2.3a); in the eve nt Fig. 1..1 these bars are ~traight or L-shapcd , the system will he called a three-hinged bent or frame (Fig. 2.3b and c); finally, when these plates are through strncturcs, the system becomes a three-hingt.d truss or spandrel arch (Fig. 2.3d). The distnncn l between the centr<~S of th11 hinges at the supports is c.nl!cd the span of the arch while the distance f from tho c.ent.re of the erown hinge to the straight line passing through tho forrner two is c.allcd its rise (Fig. 2.3a). A three-hinged system may or may not have a vertical axis of symmetry. In the first case (Pig. 4.3) the central hin~e C wiJI lie on this llXis of symmetry and the hinges at the supports A and 8 will bo at one and the same level. Nonsymmetrical systems may have tlloir suppo1'ts at different level1> (Fig. 3.3). Jn three-hinged systems the reactions at the supports A and B will bo characterized by two parameters each-its magnitude and direction or by any two components of the&l reactions, sa-y, the vortical V and the horizontal H. (These two components

,_ _ _ _ __:J_:..:.S.:... . ..:.T_:h::..:re~-H inged Sll_.ste!"..:.t._<- - - - - -

ure

frequently

rt~ferrcd

to

as the

vcr.t.kal

and

horizontal

rNH~tions.)

F ig. 2.3

Accordingly, the reactions of a three-hinged arch will hl [ully determined by four parame ters , for in~;tance., the amounts of lhe reactions I!A, H'rr, VA and V 11 (Fig. 4.3).

Fig. 8.3

These may be obtained from Lhe throe equilibrium oquatiou,._ of external forces (including the reactions) acting upon the sysLem and from a fourth equation, expressing that t he moment of all the e:n~rnal forces ac.ting to the left or to the right of the ctown hinge about i ts centre mus t be nil.* Thu~. a t hree-hinged system is always statically determinal~ . \Vhen a system of vertical loads acts on a three-hinged system tho horizontal components H A and Fl 8 of the reactions at the supports
*This is due to the fuct that in any hinged systcnt in equilibrium tbt> momen t, about any hinge must be eq11nl to zero.

-106

ThreAIllnged Arches and Pr<1.mes

will not r!lduce to zero. Accordingly, the three-hinged systems usually develop a thrust which must be absorbed either by tho supports or by some other arrangement. Jt will be shown later that tho bending moments and shoars acting -ovo1 cross sections of three-hinged arches are considerably smaller t han Lhe corresponding stresses in a simple beam covering the same

.A~~
(Q)

Q
(C)

Fig. 5.$

span and carrying the same load . Therefore, three-hinged arches

are more economical than ordinary beams, particularly for largespan structures.* However. when the spans are small, three-hinged arches become less desirable than ordinary beams, as their construction is rnore complicatod and the provision of hinges both at the supports and at the crown requires the use of more intricate arrangements. In the three-hinged systems considered thus far both supports wc.re c:.apable of absorbing a horizontal thrust. In practice it is not unusual to encounter similar systems in which one of the hinges is movable. In this case the geometrical stability of the system
'l'h: first arched systom for a large span was fii'Oposcd in 1776 ~i.e., some hundred years before the creation of the science of structural mcchnmcs) by the 1lminent Russian engineer I. Kulibin. On tho basis of general principles of theoretical mechanics, ho designed an arched wooden bridge 300 m long spanning the whole of the river Neva at St. Petersburg. He was tho fi,~t to determine the interaction of oxternal forces and stresses in a three-hingod arched system and to use a funicular polygon for tho determination of the shape of his arch rnany years before this mothod became widely known. A huge 30 m model of Kulibin's bridgo was tested by a load of approximately Sf> tons and approved by the Russian Academy oi Science. The great mathematician and lllcmber of tho Acadomy L. Euler checked all the computations and drawings of Kulibin's hridge and found Lhem perfectly correct.

2.3.

S1~pport

Reaction$ oj

11

TltrceH ingl'd Arch

107

is ensured by tie~ established either at the level of tho supports or ~omewhat higher (Fig. 5.3a represents a th ree-hingou tied or bowstring arch; Fig. 5.3b-a three-hinged arch with an elevated tie; Fig. !J.3c-a throe-hinged tied bent, and Fig. 5.3d-n similar b('nt with an e levated lie).

2.3.

SUPP011T REACTIONS OF A THREE-HINGED AHCH

i. ANALYTICAL METROO

As has a lready been stated, when a system of vertical loads is applied to a three-hinged arch (Fig. 6.3a) a vertical and a horhonta l roac.ti<llt will arise at oach of the two supports making [out rllnctions

I ll L----..:...

tV a Hs

--~-

(a) Fig. 6.3

(bl

to be dct,erminecl in all . Let us designate the vertical rcactious by V A and VB and tho horizontal ones by If A and If u. respectively (Fig. 6.3b) . In addition to the three equilibrium aquations supplied by tho statics for coplanar syste rns, a fourth equation can be used in the case of a three-hinged arch, this equation expressing that the bending moment at th{l hinge C equals zero, or in other words, that the !lum of the momonts of a ll the external forces acting to the right or to the left of this hinge about its centre is nil

"ZMc=O or
L

~Mc = O

Theso four equations of stntics will determine compl~tel y the four reactions at the s upports. It is recommended to avoid as much as possible H imultaneous solutions of several equations with several unknowns. For instance, in tho case of an ordinary arch ropresonted in Fig. 6.Sa we may fust write the equilibrium1]equation for the moments of all forces about hinge B which will coutairt only one 11nknown vertical reac-

1(\8

T/u"l'c-ll iltged Archc.<

a11d

Frames

tion T!A. When this is known we may solve the equation~ Mc=O
e~pres~ing that th~ sum of mon1ents

M a ll forc.es ac:ting OJl tho Lett pal't of the arch ai.Jou t hinge C is nil. this equation containing the roocLion l'A which has just bNm determined and tlae unknown reaction HA. \Ye may then proceed with the solution of an equation o.x.prossing that tho moucnt of aH externa l forc-es abouL hinge A is

!v.t

(0}

F ig. 7.,Y

wro which will giVt.\ 1as the valtm of roaction V R itnd thou obl.ain the tna!{nitude of H Jr equating Lo ~eo tlw projc~~tion of all the externa l forcA>s on tho horizontal. The co mpulalions just doscribefl may hl' chncked using tho equations

LY =0 and "f.Mc=O
R

equaLion LJ }II{ u = 0 would c.outain two unknowns VA a11d IJ.,b thus r~qui~ing the r-olution of a system of two equntions with twouulcnowus. This can b e easily a voided if hoth reactions wcro rosol ved inlo componcnl.s ono of which would follow the lino connecting the two l'uppOI't,o; A aud B (Fig. 7.3b). Whl'n. tltese components v:~. v;~. H'1 and Hi; nro dllt<>rmined, the verLital and hori1.onlal compononts wil l be easily found using the oxpre!;SiOnf:l

U the t;wo s upports wore at diiTocn t levels as in Fig: i.3tt, the

VA= v;.. +HA.sin et;

11,~

= HA cos a;

V 11 = V.is-Il'nsill et lJ 11 = ITjj cos a

2. vRANIICJ\L METIJOD

'l'ho graphical determination of the reactions requires that tho resultants R 1 and R 2 of all tho forces applied to tLe lefL and to the right of the central hinge should be found in t he firs t place. '11e reactions induced by ench of these resultants R 1 and R 2 will then

2 . .'1.

s,~ppllrl

RctutlOII$ of

Tltrt~-Hlnged

Ard.

be dl.'termincd, their summation giving the fmal value o[ tho reaction required. We may start with determining tho roaction.s ot. tho sup(>Ort causud lly the application of tho force R 1 In this cas~ the reaction al the right-hand support B 1 mnsl puss throug-h l.ho hinge at this supJ>Or.t and the hinge at the crown (f'ig. 8.:~a.) as otherwise the ri~ht-hand portion of t.hc arch whit~h is subjected solely to tho reaction at B 1 and th~ intetaction of hinge C could not remain in equilib-rium. With reaction A 1 arisi ng at the left-hand su pport, the arch as a whole wi ll ho in equilibrium under the action of three fc>t'c(.s .1 1 B,, n,.

Fig. 3.9

Theoretical mechani c~ .states that. three coplanar Iotcos acting on a body in equilibrium must ncc~:~ssarily concur at one ancl the samll point. The uf;e of this theorem cnnblos us to fmd immodiatoly tho d irt,ction of reaction .,:1 1 whereaftor t.h~ force pol ygon (!fig. 8.3b) will give us tl:te magnitude o r both support reactions A 1 and /3 1 Tho support rcactionR A z auu H 2 due t,o tho application of tho L'ight-lumtl restJll<\nt ll 2 will be found i1t exactly the same way (see Pig. 8.3a). The method o[ superpoR i~ion will enable us to obtain the rl.lsul~nt reactions A and Bat both supports. for this purpose a line parallel to the line of action of the reaction A 2 will be traced through point 3 ()f H forc.c polygon (Fig. 13.3b) and the magnitude of reAction A 2 will be. laid off along this line. 'Jhe point 0 so obtaiuod will then be conneetcd with point J, thus giving t he magnitude of the full reaction A at the lefl-hand suppor t, the full reaction B at tho righ thand support being obtained by the sarne method. Tho vertical nnd horizontal component.-; VA, //A, V 0 and H 11 can he obtain\'d tllt>rPa[ter in lhe usual way. 'l'lw graphical method of d()tcrmining lhe reactions at L hc supports of a three-hinged arc.h cal'!'ying a number of vertical londs is iJlu-

HO

Three-Hinged 'Arches and Frames

stratcd in .F'ig. 9.3. At the outset resultants 1? 1 and R 2 are found using tho method of force and funicular polygons whereafter the procedure followed does not diller from the one just described.
Problem 1. Using both methods described above determine the support. rcnctions of a three-hinged arch supporting two vertical loads as indicaw<i in Fig. 10.3a. Soluti011. 1. Analytical method. Replace the support reactions by their components l'A JIA and Vn , ll 11 (Fig. 10.3b).lll order io detei'DliM the magnitude. of VA equa te to zero the sum of all the forcos acting on the arch ahout point B whence
(13)'
ll~L't1 M 11 is the moment o[ nll tho external loads about tho hinge aL the righthand SU]lpOI't. '!'he magnitude of llA will he obtainod from tho equilibrium of the moments nf all cxtomal forc.es acting on the Jeft hal( of the arch about the crown hinge C ~Me= V Al-1-[{Af - Pl (lt- D J)=O

whonr.c

(2.3}

Horo M~ is the moment of all the loads (oxc.ept of H A) aoting ou the !elLhand portion of the arch about point C. '! 'he V()rtical roaction V 8 will be obtained by summing up and equating to r.P.ro the moments of all tho external forces about hingo A whence
!.M ..... = - Vnl-j.. Pza2+P,al=O

l'.a

(3 3)'

Here MA is the moment of all the loads about tho left-band suwort. The last unknown roaction IIR will be found by projecting all tho forces on the .x-axis 'J:.X=HA-liR=O whence
(4 ::i)

The lttst Iormula shows that the thrusts arising at both supports of three-htngerl symmetrical arches subjected to vertical loads are equal in size and oppostte in tlirectton. S ubstitut.ing in equations (1.8) through (4.3) the numorical values of all the paramotors we obtain V __ 4 (10- 3)+3(10 -6) =~= 4 tons A 10 10 4x3+3x6 V8 - - =3 tons 10 NA. = H 8 =H= 4 x 5 -I,(S- 3) 3 tons 4

:t.H. Support

Nencl.ious ()/ n 1'hret::lf iiLg~d A rrh

11 t

8
( b)

Fig. 9.9

I ~ = 4t 1

8 r---,
H11 -=Jt
I 1

(e;

~:Jt

I I I 7I ...._ _ _ _
H8 =Jt

Scule
I

Jt J

F tg.10.8

H2

J'hrct-Hlll#etl

Ar~hr.&

and Frames

Frorn the expressions (1.3) aml (3 .3) it wtll be observed that the v~rtiral suppurt rl'ac.ticms of three-hinged arclu:li rarrytng verttcal load$ al011e have the same valu(:$ oiS lhe reactiMs of simply supported bcau~11 oflht ame span ami loaded in the ~;au~ IJ' O!J (Fig. 10.3c). Tile bending momout n"t midspan of this boam heing t:>quul to the thrust (It the arch supports may be obtained by dividing th is bcmltng moment by the ri6e of the arch (SilO t>quations (2.3) and (4.3}]. 2. Craphtr.a l method. Using the schomntic drawing of th() arch (Fig. 10.3d) ll't us connect hinges A n111l [) with the c.-owu hinge extending these lines IJiues I a nd II) to their intersection ,,.ith the d irect.ion of forr..e~> Pz antl P 1 , r(>'>P< r..tivcly, 11t point.s K 2 and [( 1 'l'heso points al'e then connected ll ircc.tly tu ~oin ls A (line H l and 11 d in<l ITT).

Md

c.

pmrrurn:nmlJ7ITLI1J:f q

II:~~ ~ ..- .
~fL

-~vB

Ftg. 11.3

1.-E>t us now lny oli'\.o sc:1le forces 1' 1 and P 2 (voctors l-2 and 2-3) along a v< rticnl a!l in ..ig. t0.3e. f'orc11 P 1 is then resolved int.Q two eomponcnt 8 .;1 1 , B 1 parallol tu the Jino~ ill and I! lseo Fig. f0 .3d) for which purpol!t! rays 2-!i and 1-5 are tructld through its en <Is. Forco P 2 i~J rcsnlvcd in l-lw stmo way thus obtaining a ray 2-4 oqunl in amount to A 2 anrl parollcl to the 1ino I and a ra-y lJ-# ('qunl in amount to B ?.. and pnrnll el t.o l ine 1 Jl, Tluweaftcl' rays 4-(} and 5-(J :~ro tracod parallul to lines 2~'i und 2-4, rct'pectivoly. Hay tJ-1 will 1>< ) l'lfuaJ to tho reaction at A :md ray 3-G to the l'ea<:tion at IJ. The vertical onrl lwl'izoutal componcntll of those reactions l-'A, V 8 and l/A, HB a rC) easily found. Pro blem 2. Ootormine aun lyticnlly the thnu!t of au nr<: h ro pre~t>nl.ed in Fig. H .3 uniform!~ loaded o\'t:>r the en tiro ~pan w!LI1 :w inwnsity q. Solr~tio11. Start wi t.h dcumnining the nmct1ons at. the suJ>J>Orl.~ usi11g tl <1 following IIIJili I ibriurn oquntions 'i.lld a=O a nd .EM.... =0 In tho
ens~

unJilr consideration these equa-tions hocome

!:.U 11 =V..-.l-ql

= 0

~Mo~~...., whooc.o

l'11 l+ql

~=0

i VA = Vn =7ql

l n tho caso of vertical loads alone tho thrust. FIA=Nn-= H may bt> determined hy !'qna ting to ZQro tho moments of all ().Xtlrnnl forc.e.s &cling

2.H.

Supz,orl Reflcl iolts of ct

<~rch

T/in~l- 11 ingrd

Arch

on lin ldt hal[ or the

~:ii<:"'=' V A -;z-llf-'l2'7;=0

ahouL tht crown laingo C l l l

wlwnru

Probl em ~. l'lr!quirod to dr!lonni rw hoLh graphicallv rtud unnlyticall y the rnactirm~ induc.ocl at tho ;;uppMt,s of tho Lhno-ltingt;d lll'clt rtpt'<'S<'rlll'll in Fig. f 2.:~a hy llll inclined furct P = 5 LOllS for cos a - ().(i aud !!in ex ~ ().~.
/(

H;;"-om
~=f'lm

ScaLe

0
(0)

r'ig . .z2.H

Solution. I. A nnlytlrrt l method.. Let us r{;;olve tho force P int.cl its V<:J'lkol allll IHuizrrr\l.nJ c.ornponents Py=f>X0.8.-=4 tons; P,-=:ix(l.fi=3 ton~ The vertical rt~action V_ot may the"' bt~ dotutmincd frrm1 tht> oquilibrium l!'! u:1lion of tlw mOnltlnls a bout poi11t. JJ 2:MR=12VA -9Pv+31'x = 0
Whl'llCI'

afi-\1 27 -a-= i = 2.25 tons 2

Til<! ; rencLi rm alcuut p11inL A

vJJ wm

[ho oht-llinod from tho equilibrium or mmn:nts

!.MA

= -i2V1!+3Pu + 3Px=0
1.75 tons

wl1cncr

V - ltxS+Sx 3 II12

\\c tnny now detcrmim Ll11! h~~rizf>ntul reaction lT A t>IJilllting to 7.(;ro lit' morrwnts of all furcr-s acting on Lhn left lwlf >f the arch about tlw Ctowll hinge C

1'14
H

Thre.i>-Hinl!ed Arches and

Fram~.<

A-

_ 2.25x6-3 x 1-4X3

. ton 0 375

'rhn n()gativo sign ohlainod indic.'\Lcs that tho ruactinn ll A 'is dirtcLod towards the ldt. T o dot\)l'ffiiiU! t!10 reactiorl H n l(lt us eqU<\tc t<J zeo the su111 or horizontal projections of all tho forces;

whenco

'2-X=IIA-t-Px-flo=O
lfn=-0.375+3=2.ti2a
tun~

2. Graphical method. TracQ line TI t.hrough hinge,s Band C until it~ inltr~c tion with the dircc.tion of forr,c P nt point K ( Fig. 12.3a). Point/( willllwn IJo 1 >on noct-ed by line I with the hinge A. Thon lay to !;Calc fol'cc P plll'allel to its direct.ion as shown in J<'ig. i2.3b and through it.r; end.s trace rays 1 -H and 2-3 pnrallel to lim1:> 1 and II of Fig. 12.3a, respcc.tivt~ly . Tlte~o t.wo rays will l'eptnSE:nt. to scnlo ttw re.1ction s at tbe supports A and JJ; thoir horimntalnn1l verticAL components aro If A and H n, VA and l' n

3.3.

DE'l'.BifMIXI\TfON AHCTl8S
METHOD

OF STHESSES

18

THIH!:E-HI NCED

t. ANAT.Y'l' ICAL

The int&rual forces or stresses ac.ting over tho cross sccLions of a throe-hinged arch consisl. of bendiug moments -'11, shears Q an1l normal forr.cs N. They may be (~om puted on the basis M loads and reactious acLing t.o lb.e loft or to the riglrt of the section con~idercd. Wo shall use the same sign conventions for lhll throe-hinged ;whe.s as aclopted in Art . 1.2 (axprossions (1.2) through (3.2)1 for oruinary beams, with tho exception of the sign ol' the normnl foree whic.h in this case will h<J rcdwned posiLive when producing a cornprcs:;ion. In the computation of slrt\Sses auxiliary <:oordinate axis will be n:::ed f(,)r each eros!' section considered, the axis of abse.i.'!:::as n coinciding with the tangent and tho axis of ord.inatt>s v with the normal to lhc c.e nt.r:~ lin~ of the arch at t his &:lc.tion , Tht. projol'tions of l'orecs on these axes will be d()signated by U aod V. 'vVith the~;e e.orlV\:lTitions cxprcssions (1.2) through (:-~.2) b<Jcomc Q=2:V = -:EV
L
Tt

lVf=:EM= -L.M
f.
It

N='i:.U= - 'ZU
f,

Fl.

('1.3)

Jn these cxpres.'lions the moments will be recl<oned po.siti ve when they tend to turn the section clockwise, the compon-=>nts V w lHHI they

3..'1.

Detl'rmi!lat io11 of

Stres~t-~

in J'hrP.t-H inged A rchtu

1111

are directed upwards and the compon~ut::. U when they are d irected from left; to right. Using expre~sions 1.3 let us determine the internal forces acling over a c.ross section [( of an arch represented in Fig. 13.3 Q = ~V = V A cos cp - JJ A sin cp -~P 11 cos cp -~P.,sin cp
L L L

Iv/ = "]11 = l' Ax-H Ay-'I.Py (x - x 1 ,) -'ZPx (y- yp)

L L L

N = "i.C ,... l/_..1 s in (f'

L

J- If,1 cos <f' - }'.;P 11 sin

I.

cp + 'ZP.x cos q
L

(2.3)

where x and

y =
q,

coonliuaL~s

of point K on the contre line of the

angle between Lhe tangent to the centro line of the arch at point K and a horizontal P il and P x = vertical antl horizontal components of force P, re~pecti vcly x 1, and Yp = coord inates of the point of application of forco P. In the expre$$ions for Q, Jl! and N tho summation must co mpr.ise the componen ts P~,, a nd Px of all Lhe external loads and forCtlS applied
jjl

arch

---.
HA
FlJ!. 18.3

to the ar~h to the loft of section K. ln the case of the arch represented in F ig. 13.3 only one component of forc.e P 1 (P 111 or P 1 x} will enter into each of t hese equations. It should be noted that the stresses Q, M aud N could be expressed with equal success using the forces to the right of ~ction K. Tf vertical loads alone are applied to the arch (Fig. 14.3a) all tho horizontal components P" are equal to 1-ero, the vertical componen t.s P /1 equal P an( tho thrust 1f A = H n = H . In this case ex-

1'111
prossion~ (2.::1)

Thr<'P-I{tl!{!P.d Archn and Frames

beeo rrw

Q= (11"1- L:.P) ros q:- If si11 q:

L

'VA.t:-ZfJ (x-xj))- lly

L

N = WA-l:.P) sin rp + H cos (p

L

The t~.X[ll'tssio n (V,1

.~po udiug

'2P) roprest\nts Lito shonr Q" in Lhe co l'leL

section of au und-snppor ted "rderc ncc" beam subjcelod

raJ

(b)

t8= Vs
to lhc S:lllll:! loa<ls as !:>hown in Fig. 1 4.:~b a nd the cxp ro.~il ion

LV Ax- 'i.P (:r. -

x,,l'l-thn bending momenl Jl10 in the same sec.tio n

nf t.ho same hou m .* W ith those rlesi15na t.io n~ the above e.qlnssions hN:omc

Q ... Qoc.osrp-/lsi r~ 11
111 --- lvJO-lfy

*Q11 might b( callod lht

lliOmlnt.

N .. ~ Qo sin 1p +H cos <p

IJB1tn

(3.3)

l:\heMing foc~. and

M''

tho htmm bonding

.1~.

TJ~terminatiott

Of Stresses in Thrrl'-lfingcd Archrs

11 7

Ome L he magnitudes of Q, M and N havo been de~cr mineu for a sufli cionl uumber of cross sections, tho graphs of those fun c tions will ho easily cons tructed . Whe n vcrlicul forces alone act o n tlw nrch, any of Lhe three sols of eq uations (1.3), (2.3) Ol' (3. 3) ma y h l' used, in othor cases use should be made of expressions (1 .3) or (2.:1). Jt will lw Jl Oted that i n t he evunt of a vurtic.ul loading oli Ch gl'aph may be o.btaiued by the summation of twu othel' graphs. For ins bHH:.o, the bondi ng moment diag rnm may be ohtt~inerl by su mmin ~ up

,_

_ _ .o!.,_

Hs

Pfg. 1.1 9

t he bonding moment diagram Jlf0 for roforcnce bo:un with tlw grn ph
of the a rc h onlinutos y multipli+Jtl by (-H ), t.his illustrating \Cry

clearl y the cx t.ent to which the bending moruonts the nrcllos.

ar~

redncod in

Problem 1. HcrjuirNI w detenn ilw tilt' ~nct ims <~l tue suppol'tS o ~ \ II II o.~ tho houdiug momont, sh~::u Hnd nurmu l ((H'CtiS uct.rng 1>vco suction K of A tlortr~ h ingrd AI'Ch oopl'tlscntNI in Fig. 15.:1. Tlw corrLnJ lirm o! t.hG ard follow.~ n Cllfoic;

pumhol11 give11 hy t.ltc cquat.wn

y

,_!!..!._ [ _
l~ (
X) J

'=

4;(4(12 - .r).T =(12-.r.);r; i :!X 1:.! !:1

Tho abscbAA :r1, o f )JOint K is 3 metre:~. Solut. on. l<'i rl!l determine the ordinllte <'I p<lint K
( 1:.! - 3)3
Yl=

3 mutrc.s

Tht~ lungt' nt of the angl e forml'll hy Ute tangent to the C<'li lro lino tlf lhl" nrch und tho axis of ;tbscissas will ill! given by t he ftrst dori vati vo < ll111 pnralrol11 1 12 -2l'

ta n

cp~'"' !l

=-o-

H8

Three- Hinged

Arch~s

and Prnn~s

For point K (x = 3 metres) this tangent will be given by tan q;,.

12-2xs

S
2

2
from
th<~

Tho cor responding sine and cosi no will bn

Sill

d(l.riv~d

foru1ulus

<Jll<

tan 'flit -:;"/'f"=;:5;:=~ 1/1 -r- ~an::q:lt

sJ/

0.555

i +g1
=.o: 0.832

1 cos <ilk = -::-7==:::::::::==Vt , tau2 cjl;

(1+{

The froactions at the supports will be dctermiMd using tho following equations IMn= V A12-q6X9- Pcos a3-P sina3 =0

v ;~._ 2x6 x 9+8 (0.S+0.866J S _ and ac-cordingly

11 , 73 ons 12 1:Y=VA- q6-Psina -f-Vn=O

V 11 = 2x,6;- 8x 0.866-11.7iJ .,., 7.20 tvns

l:Mc= v .-~.6 -q{i x 3- H Ali=O

tbeu

leading to

34.38

-=8.60 tons 4

ZX = ITA - Iln= - P

co~a=O

Hn =8.60-8x0.5 = 4.60 tons

The bending moment in so:ction K will amount to
Mx= V ....s-H A3-q3X{ = 0.39 ton-metre

whilo thl' sheAr in the. sumt' se-c.tivn will total QK= VA cos<n,-HA s in (jlf<-<73 CDS q:h=O und finally
th~

normal force N IC will ll<;

N11 =VA s in !Jilt +H.-~. cos {j)k.-q3 sin !I'll =10.34 tons

Probl em 2. Required to construct tho diagrams of bonding mrHm: nt~ M, she11r.s Q and normal forces N for :~n nrch rtpres(nt<.> d in Fig. 1!l.3a and following a conic parabola whose equation is

Y=

~~

(l-x) x

*Their values could also b<' found directly using apjlropriat.o tables.

.'1.-'J. DetJ?rmin ation of Stresses in Three-H t ns:rd Arche.~

1H)

(d l

M 0 graph, tr,

(fl)

Q graph, t

(h)
0

Mgraph, tm

,Fig 16.9

1:!0
Sol~ttwn. I~\

1'/lr u -U wced

Arch~"

and Futmes

us ch:wrmint' fisrL the r:nctiuns at. tht\ sup)ln rt.s VA a1111 v,

.EJI1n=V.~tl - T X~;t - flb =O

ql

;;

...

,. \' ,~. vA T. ,. l - p= 11-IJT

VA _. 8 ql

I)

wlwnc<

7- y

P - IU tuu s

l V n =IJ -:x t- P - V 4 ~ li w us

l'hc lh rusL .If will

t.c~

dLrrHd from Llu. ~quatiou

' l '1ifo .., VA 7

- -:f" X 7;' - lf/ = 0

ql

wlu.HICL'

Fig. fli .3b rQ llrm;Qui.S 11 sirnply .;-;nppvrt.u<l ref<w!.'lH'n h(.>~lrl )u;rdLd in l.lrt. ~111110 wuy a,. tiH arc.h und Fig. w.: {t ullll d repos<,nLs Lho l iugram;;; .. r lire ~hc:~trl" ()' ancl hr.nding llllllllt:rots .MO. All ful'l.lrer' crunpulnti ous uro enttrud in TuhJ c) 1 . :~ . ccltu11n I e~w~airli ng tlw ahsc:i~:~~JIS:t of the point~ along tho uch Cl'ulH.l l<nr) LalkLu at. llt<C mc.ot.rt' rttC.f'trnout.;., ~ ucl colum n Z C Onlninillg the corn>:<ptouding OJ<liucrt~' culr ulatNI ll l<liiJ:c thO CXfii'\'S~lOII ~/ 12 - r u= ll(l-z) r ..- - - z 11 Column 3 c-ont.ains t.hl vu l ut~~ of tan Cj1 cmnputod from 41 ll -:c t.Ml rp ..- y' .= 1i" (l-2:r.) = :1 ., - -

I 1'1<<1 (lr.h C ;lrry iug \'CrLic.al !!lad:; alone, t>XJll'to~si ous (:$.3) nHI) lw con~l.r'IH'I.inn <If t.he (J , M aud Jli gntplr ~ l'lllllil'<d.

v l 1[12 lly- ~ fl = - ---,--- -.. 11

tons

lt ~Ld lor

L lu

whilo Uw. foll vwing thmt: coltrton!'. m ntaJu t,lrl' v aluls <1f q:, .\'in 'I' mrrl cc" rr. Thc. value~ nf QU nud l\1 0 tuhnlatell in chlrunn!! 7 and 1il are takl' ll rlm:LI.\' fr 11m tho co nm;ponrfi11g dia~ra rn.~ C\produccd in Fig. 1!i.:\, aud d. Cvhuw rl'- IS tlll'lnrgh 12 Ctlllla in th o v mduc l~ of the: ~:~heRr (JO untl t he thru :<~ 1/ hy siu c r , cc1" 'I' " " ' ' t h<> urdi natcs <f llw C.t!liii'C line of tho arch. Tho lust tJucc crolumu ~ of Tallltl 1.3 (c ulumn ~ 14 ,15 and IOl n111 tui n t hl' va luos ,,r Q, ,~t and N acting over lhl' corrl'.~pcllld ing cross I'(>C.t i(ll" ,[ t.lrc rtrr h. Thl'Y lra v bee n c.omr!Ulcd u~ing fonnulas (3.;J) , whiclr llll'llll.i.' that tlr11 rnagult.o Hi o of Q wn.s o hLaiucd hy snnuning up ciplror:l app<'ari.ug in r.olumns li owl 1(r, t.hL '' al 111\ o( M - hy Stllllllliug 11(1 dpllllni or < :<llumns 12 lmd 1il, anrl t.lro vu lor r l.of N-l.hose Clf colurnnl! ~ und 1 t. Tho l'hc:ar , hcntlin,q mmuont uud normul fMco dingrruu ~ n ii J'It~ar ing in Fig. t(j .3e, f and g have bc~n <~onstruc.terl using thE. data cont:rinoc in tlH !a..-~ thr~o e<>lu mns of Tahlo 1.:i. lu those th l'()C diugrarnll lh~> (!rdiuott\~ lott Vt~ hoon htirl colT frrttu a (I(H'iwnta l axis; in udrlitlot< tho h~ndi ng llllllliL 'Ilt cliagr~rn rotu cscnt.l'd in l?ig. IH.3h lras b~ll cu nxtruc lcd hy layiug r; lf Lh l<p ordiuat.tS fmrn t ht\ c urvttl r~utrl' linl of tiro arch .
" Fm C<HIVonic~ncc, tlifTc)rcnt. ~c-alm> ha ve hr:t~fl adnpterl for difTmc~nt. cliugrams .

Table 1.9

=I
~

E :::

ol o t 11.2221

I ; I 1.333 1
~

= ;;
o.743

UH

:>3~'-w I M~) I o.ti\XI

1Ro1'
J

"

"'

I
J

fl<' [8.001
8

~ I s ~!! o. Ig
5.!141
u 3.98

..

0~

em "' 0~

..

~i
fl.3s

-:: I~

_ . ..
<::

g.

:!>

== ~

s~

- ~ -: .:,

t "'

1.:. :

::;E
J

o<>

.5~

=.,.,

. ..
0

" :z
"' ...

'

I - 4.1({)

0.669

I -\.4\i

13.6uJ o JLotJ - 7.::!3

I Lznj
J

-.:

"'

o JrL60
J.li1j9.Ht

[ n

0.8~

zj2.222j

o.ssnJ 41":~w 1 o.tJtY. I o.717J

aJa.oooJ 0.11671 33"42' I 0.555 r 0.8321 4J2.221 4J:-~.5snl o.4J 23"56' J o.4osJ (1.9141 2Jo.stJ 5J 3.8891 o.222j 1231' o.2t1 j 0.!)761 u Jo

o l:l.onoJ

I
J

4.4S I -3.9~ J "...:sj - n.:;~:~ J H) J o.fit~ 2.o1j ~.till 3.331 -U3 14.!191 - 18.(10 J2t 1 0 3.00,7.21 1.83 J -2.44 J5.t.Bj-2J.33J24 J-0.611 2.G7Jli.2!J o J -1.30 jr,.snJ -23. 33 125 J -1.3oJ Lo7J5.8G

o
0

JL atiO J-2Jo
J- 2

7Ja.ss91 - n.2221- 123t' 1-0.2111 o.tl761

-zJ 0.431

-2.00
- l.!l5

I
1

I o
Ul}

Jll.OOI-24.1JO l z.sJ-2.ouj o I t;.ov 15.81)1 -23.331221-o.R:il- 1.3316.29

sJ3.550J - o.t~H J-2:-l fiB'I-o.406 I o.!ll'o

o.srj-1.s.~

2.44 J5..'osJ - 2 1.3:-lJ2oJ o.6tJ- 1.3316.:w

0

913.00)1-0.667 1-3342' 1-0.555 10.8321 --~ 11.111-1.~i61 3.33 4.91)1 -1 8.()0 11 81 -1.~~1 1 .'1.33 - 4 .!19 -1.61,
10 11

16-~0 8 '12

J:!.222~~f~ss'J-o.6(ir.Jo. wi 1-tlja.t>Bf -4.([81

a.!'J~ J ~usJ- 13 33 JnJ-o.501 - 1 .3ll lU.ts

-UiJ 1-U t\
4 .80

lunl - 1.111 J-4S<OI'I-<,_ H3\ o.il>! 1-G J4.4u \

-4

't

12!0

I - 1.333J-5308'1- o.801) I <).(;00 1- fi luol -3. iti I

ls.wj

- 7.331 o I

IJ

JJ.4;,j-r.3318.47 ol 1.20j o 18-"t'

122

Three-Hinged Arches and Frame&

2. (H!.APIIICAL METHOD

Tho graphical determination of internal forces Q, M and ilf acting <1vor the cross sections of three-hinged arches is carried out by con .slructing the so-called funicular polygon or polygon of pressure. Fig. t 7 3a represonts a three-hingod arch loaded by forces P 1 and P 2 Only one force acts to the right and one to the left of the ~entral hinge C and therefore we need not bother about the determination of any resultants. T he reactions at the supports ;1 and B .arc determined graphically using the force polygon in Fig. 17.3b. *

Fig. 17.8

Lot us proceed now with the construction of the funicular polygon

(fig. :17.3c} corresponding to the force polygon already mentioned.

For this purpose we shall extend the direction of reaction A (Fig. 17.3c) until its intersection at m with the dir(3Ction of force P 1 Through the point of intersection we shall trace the string II' parallel to ray II o the force polygon, this ray representing the resnll:ant of the reaction A and the load P 1 J~e t point rt be the inLers~ction of the string II' with the line of action of the load P 2 Through this point we shall trace the string III' paralle1 to ray ll 1, the latter being the resultant of reaction A aud loads P 1 and P 2

*Sc() Fig. 8.3 of Arl. 2.3 for explanation.

.L'/. Determination o.f Stresses in Thrce-1/inged. .lirrhts

1:1;{

Jf all the operations were carried out correctly, the string II' repre..enting the rcsul tant of force.<~ .A and P 1 wilt pass through the centre of hinge C whilst the string III' whoso direction must coincide with the dirr.ction of the reaction at B will pass through the pin of this support. Th~ funicular polygon I' -II' -Ill' (Fig. 17 .3c) is frequently termerl pol.IJgon or line of pressure as each string c.oincldes with the direc.tion of the prossure exerted by one portion of tho arch on the other. Hence these strings will coincide in direction wiLh the -resultant of n L1 the forces acting on the arch to the left or to the right of lhc seetion considered. This may be illustrnted by Fig. 17.3c where to t.ho left o[ section k 1-k 1 there is only the maction at the support A allll thus string I' of the funicu.lar. polygon will coincido with the direction of force A which is the resultant of all the forces to the left of tho c.ross section c.onsidered. Passing to section l 2 -k 2 we note that thoro arc already two forces A and P 1 to its left. At thB same time string ll' ropresen ts the resultant of these two forces . In the case of section k 3 -k 3 du~ rc will be already three iorces A. P 1 and P 2 to its left. their resttltant passing through the point of interscctiort of stri ng 11' with force P 2 as string II' is itself the resullnnt of forces A aud P 1 Therefore, this resultant coincides with string .li'I'. Accordingly, any line in the pre.~sure polygon A mnB represmt.~ the direction of the res!tltant of all forces applied to tJw left (or to the right) of the section under consideration. The magnitude of this resultant may be determined with the aid of t he polygon of forces. 'l'hus. in Fig. 17.3b tho resultant of forces A and P 1 will be g ivon by tho length of ray II measured to scale. Thus, the polygon of foroes and the pressure polygon permit the determination of all the stresses in any cross section of the arch . For instance, the bending moment may be obtained by multiplying the resultant by its distance to the centroid of the section undc:r <:onsidcra t.ion. In section lc 1-k 1 {Fig. 17 .3c) the bending moment M will thus equal.Ae where e is the distance to the line of action of force A measured along a perpendicular droppod on this line fr.om the centre of gravity of the cross sect ion . .In oroer to determine tho shear and the normal force acting over sectiou kclc 1 the resultant of all the forces to the left o this section {ray I or reaction A) must be resolved into two components, one parallel to the tangent to the arch centre lino at this section (ray 6-1) and the other (ray 0-6) normal to the same line. lt is clear that ray 0-6 will represent the shear Q and ray 6-.l the normal force N in our se.c.Lion .

1'/tr~~ /ftnged

ArchP.: nnd Frames

T ltc li ne of prC.':!!;mo providos n Yt~ry c:lear picture o f t he wo,k o[ nn nrc.h. Thus, Fi~. 17.i:lc shows that tho forces acting on t.hc nnh t.<.> ud to inaeaso the curvature of its r ight-hand portion where Lho res ultant is boJow t ho centre line, while the curvaluro of th ~:> lc ftllluul portion will dcc n.!agc, When a :sysl<'m of ve rtical Joad~-: P 1 , 1'2 , P 3 , etc., act!' on n thrt~ h i n~ed arc.h, tho co nstruction of the pr!'~uro line wil l bo carried ou L in tltc following soq uonc~: (1) llrst. ftnd th~ resull.ant R 1 or all tho oxt.crnallonds applied tu tho left of l;ht\ crown hinge; (2) nex t iintl J ,hc J'(;'HUl tant ii 2 of aH tho ex terna l loads a [lp li od to I.he rig-ht ol: 1.\tt' same hi 11g<.1; (3) llltlrt dolcnnino tho reaclious ...l on1l B indnc.od hy the I'O!;u ltnu Ls R 1 a nd .l/ 2 ju ~l determined; (It) liua lly cons lntcl the Coree pol ygn r1 and L he Hue of pro~snre laking iulo r.on:sidcruL ion all tho ~ 1mra te ,ortic~tl loads P. Thoro i ~ a lwnys onl y onu polygon or li n~ of pr~ssuro < ' OI'l'tspomlirtg to a n y sn.t oi luatls applied to a tJm."(.'-hingcd arch. Whr,n theseloads are di.~lribu.ted tlu line of prl'!l.~ure bl'com~s a .wnooth cu.rvl', Jr t.he et~ ll trn I i ll(l of ~be areh Wt'rC to w ind de wil.h l.hn fii'()SS HI'() line purtairring l.o a ny Jlartkula r sot: of loltds. t hcso lvads will induce noi Llu~ r lu}udi ng rno mcnt.s nor 1-)hetuing for~~es in tho ao~:~s scnit)n 1f t hll arch which wi II then be subjoc:;ted to nmma l hJJ'CtlS :durtl'. 'J'Ir is prnvid<.'.s s ub~lltnLial advautngo11 llSpcciaUy for 111asonry or r'OIIcfnl.tl arches. H ereunder we sha ll <lcsil,rnatc by thf' lorm rational ~u c h a eourrgu rotion of Lho CNlLrc li ne of an arc h whith will cnincidn with tlte li11o o f pre~sure eorrospo nding t.o tho cl uo d load . It :-;hould ho noted l.hat t lw lino of pressum can Hlsu ho (thtnincd a11al ytir:ally. F'or J ;his purpose it would Jw nec-(.l/'Snry to lind t.he tHag r~ilnde uf tho Lending moment; A!f and th1l norrmd Ior<:e N in u nurni.Jer of (.ross soctions and then dct.errniuc the ~'l'tl'rttl'ic itr e. tl10 rornt u 1 u<;rng a e - .If N . I laving laid off t.hese ecccutrkitie:-; along the nor m a l~ t o t.lte Crln lrt} lino of t ho a ~e h , t.ho line of JH-essnr-e will be obLa ined by simply r,o ruleeting Logc.lh<..r the points obtairw.d. The c.OJI!il.nrc.t.ion uf 11 li ne ol: prcs!';urc f11r an arch wft oso roactious wr!l'e doletrninod in l.'ig. 9.3 is illusLral.od ill Fig. 18 .:1. Fig. 1.0.3 rQprescn l...\1 the detonnillatiou of intorr111l [orccs ac-ting ovel' scution k of lhi!'; arch. When vertical lo11ds a lone aro a pplied to tho arch, tho Jtorizont.'ll cornponont or any resultan t of fr)rccs to t.he righ t or to the left of n l';(}clion wi ll a lways equal the thrust JJ. *

+
Eoeh ray or tlw Jlltlygun of rurces (}'ig. t0.3b) has tho ~>nmo blll'iw nta! cumporumt 1!-IJU \l l to l.hi ~ th ru ~t.

il.8. Dl'lcrmin.ation <).f Str ~ssts n. Th rec-Hiiii!Pd

A rch~ .

12!)

Fi;t.

} .~.8

(]

(b)

(c)
Fig. 19.8

/li g. 20.3

12G

Tltrcr--Hingcd Arches and Frames

Thetofore, if tho resultant of a ll tba .forces acting to tho left or any cross sect ion wB re resolved i nto its vertical and h orizont-al c.omponou ts S nml II (Fig. 20.3) the benrling moment in t his section wouhl be equal to the tltrust 1l multiplied by t he distance measured vertieaJly fr om the centroid of this section to tho line of pressure (tho vortical component iuduc.ing no mornent in this section). Accordingly, when vertical loads alone. are applied, t/11: vertical tli.vtan.ces fro"~ the centre line to the line of pres.mre represent at a certain scale tlw bmding moments acting over the corresponding

Flg. 21.3
section.~ of tlw arch. ln other words, those di~<laut'.lls co ns~itut.o a diagram of Lht> lHmding moments wiLh tho s>le differenct) Lhat i n this 1;aso tho diagram will l1e situated or\ the side of the cQmprcsscd fibres. Fig. 21.~1 rl'prcscnls ~nrh a diagram portainiug to Lh~ arch shown in F ig. 1.\Uia.

Probl<:m 3. H is r~qnircd t o con!!t.ruct graphically the pr11SSUI'E! lin e of lh& o rch a unl y:c.cll in P1ohlcm 2 (see Fig. 16 .~~ aml to clct.crruioc the ~otrc&!l'<- in ~ec tinn k iuclie.alcll in !1ig. 22.3a. Solution. L<:t n:< replace t-ho u niFormly distri buted load applied to the left h a lf of tltl\ a rch Ly li concl'u trated forc('s nmou nting to Z lous ouch and nc~itlg n t t.he centres 11f l.lt>I)Uil l portions cnc.h 1 motre long. AfU>l' t.llat le t us cou:;tJuct th& fo1c.o pol ygcu1 u!>ing the valuos of tb l.'l l'l':lc.ti ons c.om p11t.ed in Problem 2 an1l t.he Inoels actually appliod and let us tra ce tho rays I Llm11Jgh VI Il nR in Fig. 22.31;. Drnwin~ot (a.s in fig. 22.3a) a series of strmgs parallel to thoso rays \\l' ~h a ll oh tnin n JI01ygou of prussurc. The aroa between the cent~ li n<' of tho arch :tnd the line of pn!:>.~uro s hatled vor~icnlly Ju the figm(l jus t ment ionNl repre!'t>nts ~ho d iagram of lwuding moments !If. In many rcspec.t~ it is analogous to th(! diagram ohtnimul a rHilyticull y in Problom 2 a nd repr!lSent.ud in Fig. 11U lh, lout di!Tor~t hy th~t fuel th at in tho 1atll11' case the tlistancos h a d ~o be JUel\sured norm ally to tl)() 1 :cnt J 'e line of the ntclt and uol vertir,aHy (Uds was reflected hy a h atching uormolto Lito centre Hue). Moreover, the diagrau1 is located next t<1 ~h(> compressed lilorc.s in!;tead o f the uxt.c.nrled On!.'!> as was the case. in Fig. 1.(\.3h. T ogether with tlto sra le o f lengths and fol'ce:i 1tn addi~ionnl sc.a le to whic.h tht> bonding

P~ 4t

Zt 2t

Jm

.....

~
Loads
LfJ;<gths

{. = tZm

I
St
Jm

::.."'1

':I
I

,
Ho

o :;
0
!

ScaLe 4

~ ----

I , I , I ' 1 Noments 0 g 12 18 tm (a)

Fig. 22.,1

(b)

12$!

Thru-11 ing~d Aroflc~ and Fr<11nes

.ncuno:rtt nrdinaL~~ should bo muasured in tho ~raph is indicut..cl iu fig. :n.il. Thi~ );cHur scalo is ohtained by multiplying the :!(.tell' (of lengtlt h)' tire magniLvdo cf tlu.1 thrust e.qual in this caso t11 6 tons. Al pnint k thl1 honcling moment will he ob talu ed loy rneasuring lh ll ucuro~pnnd ittl{ urrli ual.l! l ro the gr'llj)h which furrrisll()~ a value elf th ree ' t()nmotrc~. The sllt'ar in llri~ sccliun wi ll be uil as t.he t~ngt>nL to tho cenh'e line of the a rch is JIMallol Lo lhc polygun of prt>ssure, whilo tho norncal force N1, is equal to the ny IV ( ~'ig. 22.3b), i.e., t.u 7.2 tons.

4.3 . MAXlMUM

ECOXO~fY

ARCHES

As stuteo almvLI, we shall ctrrr.side r that a lhrce-hingoo ardJ ]JI'Ovidos for maximum oc.onomy iE its e(mtre line coin(:idos with Llw liuo of prc~sure o l' nll tlw dead loads ncling 011 this ;ut:h. In I.IHtl

rnse tltcsc loads wi ll produce 110 bL nding in tho struc ln rt\. l,ol ll and 1'} he Lhe orcl i nnws of Lhc nrc.h c;ontre lin e and of tlw lino prur;<~ urc, rcspccL ivoly. The.~e ordiualcs aro a c.ertai n fun rtion o[ x

or

y= f (x) aud

1'} =

cp {x)
fCOil-

lr the centre liuc or Lh~ llrc h were to provide for ma:timurn omy as deflued nhovc, wo should have

Y = 'l Let us ~xami rlll tho case of an ardr s ubjected Lo vcrti('a l loads
o nl y Wig. 23.3). The equilibrium ectn ntion of tho mumonls of a ll rorc c~s l ying LO tho left of lillY p oint k on the line of Pt'CSSUJ'C will I ~
whouce

TJ =

VA1:-"J:.P (.r -a)

}[

lt will bo noted tltat the numern~oJ' iu the last expression is equal to the bonding moment in the corresponding socLiou of the rofenmcc he!\m, i.o., to M~, and th&llfore

TJ =u
SubstituUng this expr~J..~ion in tho equation y = 'TJ we obtaiu the following oxprassion for Uw cant.re line of an arch of maximum
t~.c .onomy

/11 ~

Y=u
of a simply sztpported beam.
Consequently, in the cast.< o.f vc,.tical loads ma:tirmun cco~tomy will be achieved if the arch cmt1e line follows the be.ndtng moment diagram

M~

P roblem. Assume tlt:a a three-hinged ar<>b carries a verticaJ Load of iii tensity q unlformly distributed over tho whole of i~s length, ~he span of the arch being l. its rise f and the central hinge being siluated al the crown. H i~< roquirea to (hllllt'miuc tllQ conligura\ion for the cl\ntre lino of such an 11rch, which would
fltOviclo for m11Ximnm <:conom y . Solution. 'l'o ~o lv o lhis pto))lem we shull use tho cxpre!>.~ion

M" y=--.::.
N
I n ll11:
Jlrc'S('n~ l'RS<

whcucc

T
!J .

qr-

(1- z)S/
ql2

ltf

= 7(L-.r}x

i .o. , lbo centre lino of tho

Rt~b ruusL

follow

11 ~ouic

Jl.1 mLola.
TO

5.3. DESIGN OF THH~E-H I NGED llfOVJ NG LOADS

i\TICHES SUOJ~CTEO

t. INFLUBXCE LIN.BS I'OU AllU'rMENT REAC'J'IONS :

Lot us assume tha.t a thren-hingr.d arch carries n unit load P applied a distance x from the left-hand abutment (Fig. 24.3a), and let. us write the equilibrium equation of the momenls of all the forces about the :support pins
~M8 =V,tl-1

(l -x)=O; T.MA=-VBl+ 'lx =O

o-s &;;

1'hree-1{tnr.ed A rchc. aml Frames

Solving

th c.~o

equations for VA and V 11 we obtain

V A =-~-; V.li=T
Jt will be observed that the oxpressions for VA and V 8 aro the samQ as those for the reactions of a simple beam obt.ui!l(~d in
X

l-x

P=l

c
(0)

Inf luence

l line for

lb)((~i
I I I

1
(C}

/r;fluence

Line for 1

v8

I
1

I
I

i~l'
1
1

ldJf{~}~
~I lLt
F f.g. 21.3

J\rt. 2.2. Thi~; mem1s lhat tho influtmce liuos for VA a11d V JJ do not differ from the infiuence Jines for t he support reactions of a si mJllc l1cam; thrso influene~ lines are represented in Fig. 24.3b n nd c.

Since the thrust ll is determined by the equation Jl -"-- .1~;- , the corresponding influence line will have tho same shape as ihat for the beam moment 111~ differing from it only by a constant factor ~ . Thi$ influence line is shown in Fig. 2-4.3d. In case l 1 = Z 2 ~ ~ tho urdillate of this influence. line at a se,~tiou passing through thH
Cl'uwn equals
2.
1. 7J .

INl'LUENCE LINES FOit iNTERNAL FOltCES

As a preliminary step, we shall examine tho methods of dotermining the so-called neutral points, i.e., the position of the points of application of a load which will render the internal force (bending moment, shear or normal fo rce) nil at the section k un,ler consideration . Denoting the stresses acting over this cross .s~:.~ctiou
P: i

Ftc. 25.3

l)y MR., Qh and N" we shall say that tho load is applied at the neu-

tral point whoa the value of the corresponding stress and therefore the ordinate to the corresponding influence li ne become nil. H i$ obvious that when the line or action of a force passes through ouo of the abutment hinges, all the stresses ul any section of the a ..ch will be nil. In addition, there are other nent.ral points on the arch which are of great interest for us. Thus, if a load P is applied ut point F m of the arch represented in Fig. 25.3 the bending morncnt in section !c will reduc-e to zero for the resultant of all Lhc forcos to the left of this section (i.e., reaction A) passes through its centroid. Accordingly, point Fm will be a neutral point in relation to the bending moment acting over section k. Point F m will lie on the vertical passing through tho intersection point F of line::s Ak and BC. H we consider the arch shown in Fig. 26.:~, the bending moment in section k would reduc-e to zero only if the, load P were applied 9

132

Thrte-Hinged Arc/les tmd J:lro.,us

at point Fm to a special bracket fixed to the arch between seclion k and the crown hinge, for irl this case the direction of reaction A would again pas..~ through section k. However, if no such brackeL existed. tbero would be no real neutral point in re lation to the bending moment acting over section k. In effect if the point of
P=1

Ftg. 26.9

applic.ation of tho load were transferred u pwards, so tha t t he load would act directly ott lho right-hand portion of t,ho arch tho dirt:ot'tion of reaction A would alter, Lhis reaction passiug throngh tlte hinges A and C, and therefore the bonding moment in sectio n k would no Iongor equal zero.

Ftg. 27.9

Denoting by u,n the absei~sa of the neutral point pertaining to the bending moment in section k (seo Fig. 27.3) and using t he simili tude of tho triangles AFF, and BFF1 we obtairl
.

Ff7 1 =

Um

Ylt tan a.= Um;J:k

( l - u111 ) 12

FF 1 = (l-um) t.nn ~=

5.3. Desiga ()j Three-Hinged Arclttr Subjected to Moving Lolld1

i 33

Therefore whenc.e
Um

lfxh I Ylt 2 +:~:ltf

(4.3)

This expression permits the analytical determination of the abscissa u.,, of the neutral point or, in other words, of the point where the influence line forM h will pass through zero. In order to determine the neutral point corresponding to Q,. (Fig. 28.3} a line AF must be drawn th rough the r..cntre of t.hc hinge a t the support A (this line being parallel to the tangent S-S at point lc to the centre line of the arch} and the intersection of this line at point F with line BC most be found. If a load P were now applied at a point F q lying on the same vertical as point F, the shearing force Q~r. in section k would reduce to z.ero, for there would be only one force acting to the left of section k and this force would paraHel to the langent t h rough t.his section. At cross sect ion /c 1 of the same arc.h (Fig. 29.3} the shear would reduc.e to zero only if t he load P were applied to ~t bracket fixed t o the nrch between this section and the crown hinge, for the point of applicatic)O of this load falls on the vertical pas..'ling through the intersection of the lines AF and BC. From F ig. 30.3 it is clearly seen that

oc

F F 1 = uq t.an 'Pit /t'F 1 = (l- Uq) tnn ~

Thorerore
Uq

tan Cfh = (l -uq) Lan

l tnn ~ Uq = -=t-a-n.,~...,.+_,.\..:.ciD-!J'It -

wheuce (5.3)

This exwession pormits the computation of t he position of t he neutral point for the shearing force io section '' T he normal force N in section k will become nil when load P is applied nt point Fn (Pig. 31.3) lying on the same vertical as point F , this p oin t being determined by the intersection of line BC with a line A F parallel to t he normal to tho arch centre line at section lc and passing through the binge A. r~rom Fig. 31.3 we nolo that FFt = -u,. cot 'PI! and
F F 1 = (l-un) lao~

134

TlireeHinged

Archr..~

and Frames

Fig. 29 .~

Fig. ;10.:1

~fV.---!1
Pl

r, .

t 1'-----

Ft~;.

91.9

5.8. Design of Thur-lfinged Arehe.

Su.bjecl~d

to Moving Load.s

t35

whence
- u,. col <p,

= (l -

u,.) tan jl
( .,.

a nd accordingly
u _

"-

l tan ~ tan ~ - cot IJlh

6 .:.}

This last formula permits the determinat.ion of lhe neutral p oint related to the normal fo rce N in section k. \Vhcn tlle value of the ncutt-al point. abscissa obtained from formulas (4.3), (5 .3) or (6.3) is n egnti ve it means that this point lies t o tlw left of hinge A. Let us now exam ine difiercnt muthods of constructing influence lines fot l'vfh, Qk n.nd .f.h. As will be seen from expression (3.n), the bending moment ac.ti ng over section lc of the arch rapresenLcd in Fi).(. 32 .3ct will nmolm t for any po.<sition of a vertical unit load t.o
M~<=M2 -Hy"

This means that the infiuerwe line for iWIt may be ob lai ucu by summing the influence line for tho bending moment MJ: at the eoncspo nding section (If the reference bea m (Fig. :32.3b) a nd thl\t fot the thl'ust H, all the ordinates of which have been multiplied by n constant factor equal to (-y,.). These two influence lines aro shown in Fig. 32.3c and d while the influence line for th e bonding moment in the arch obtained by t heir summation is I'Oprosented in Fig. 32.3e. It is clear that tho point of intersection d of lines a. 1b and ab1 must lio on the same vertical as t he neutral point F m this provid'ing n mpid eheck on t h o accuracy of the influence line obtained. Fig. 32.3/ represents t he same influence line, with the onl y difference that its ordinat;e.s have been laid off directly from the x-axis. It may be shown that the area under the influence line [or M,. will reduce to zero for any section k of a uniformly load ed t hreehinged a rch whose centre line follows a conic parabola. I ndeed, the hending moment in any section of s uch nn arch will amount t.o zero (see Problem in Art. 4.3). If we ware to deter mine t.he magnitude of this bending moment using t he influence li110 we would 11so t he equality M11. = qQ, hut as 1'4h is always zero, tho area under t he influence 1ine Q must also reduce Lo zero. For the c.onstruction of the influence line for t.he slwar Q1, (Fig. 33.3a.) we may use the first formula of the set of e:xprc1:sioJJs (3.3}, viz., Qlt = Q~ cos <p,.-11 sin IP1t where Q~ is the shear in the conesponding section of au end-supported beam of the same span l (Fig. 33.3b).

13G

Thrt.e.-lltnged Arches a11d Frames

(a]

Fig. 32.3

5JJ. Design of Thru-Hlnged Arches Subjtctr.d to Moving Loacls

137

This expression sllows that the influence line Q,. may also be obtained by tho summation of two influence lines, the litost for Qr. all the ordinate.~ of which arc multiplied by a constant factor cos (f/k and the second fot tho thrust H the ordinaLes of which are multiplied by (-sin 'Ph) The influence line for Q,. obtained in this way

1- __ '!'J - _J
Fig 33.3

is represented in Fig. 33.3c where abk 1k 2a is the influence Hne for Q~ cos IP~< aod the triangle acb is the influence lino for H sin q>,.. Point d in Fig. 33.3c must fall on the same vertical as the neutral point F q The same influence line is shown in Fig. 33.3d with the only difference that its ordinates have been laid off directly from the x-axis.

138

Three-Hinged Arches and Frames

Tn order to construct the influence line for the normal force N 1, for cross section k of the arch we shall use tho last fol'lnula of ex-

pmssions (3 .3)
N~~. = Q~ Sill ())II+ fl cos (Jih l:inmming up graphically tho two components (Q~ sin <P~t and H C .(lS q>1,) we obtain the influence line for N 11 represented in

(.:7/ ;
I I

,
I
I

I I

I I
I

!
c

Influence line for Nk

I I
I

Fig. 91.3

Pig . 34 .3b. Here ublc 1k 1a is the i!lfLucnce line for QX sin <p 11 nod the l.l'iangle abc represents the influence Jine for H cos <P~t Lines a 1b

.5.3 Design of Three-Hinted Anhes Subjected to lvfot.>irtf( Loatls

13!1

:and ab 2 must intersect at din tho vertical passing thtough lhe neutral point F,.. The positive ordinates to llne da 1 represent the values of Q?. sin cp 11 when the unit load P is applied to a bracket shown in Fig. %.3a while tho negative ordinates to line da (plotted also .above ab) repre~ent the values of ]{ C{)S !J'J, for the same position -of lhc loRd. In t.his case the normal force N acting ov~r section k will be obtained by subLrae.ting the ordinate y 2 from y 1 and will be equal to m 1m 2 A corresponding influence line wilh ils ordinalcs laid off directly from the axis of abscissas is presented in Fig. 34.3c. Prelimina-ry determination of tho neutral points would allow dircc.t constr.ucLion of the influence lines Mh, Q, and Nh. This method has rcc.eived the ruune o t.ho neutra.l point method. The procedure to he followed may be easily derived from t he examination of thP. influence lines shown irl Figs. 32.3f, 33.3d and 34.3c. For instance, if it were required to use this method for L he constuction of the influence line for 114" proceed as follows (~ee Fig. 32.3f). (t) Lay off along the vertical pa$Sing through the left-hand support (provided the section rmder consideration is in the left half of the arch) the abscissa of section k, i.e., the distance xk. (2) }f1arlc the neu,tral point Fm on the :t-axis. (:5) Connect the ordinate xk over the left-hand support (point a 1) with the projection of neutral point (point d) on the x-axis (line a 1d). (~) Find the point of intersection of this line with the vertical passing throU-gh section k (point k 1). (5) Connect k 1 with the potnt of zero ordinate at the left-hand support (point a). {(:)) Find tlu.1 point of intersection of the line a.,d with the vertical pa.~sing throu.gh the crown hinge (point Ct) (7) Connect point c1 with the point of zero ordinate OL.>er the righthand suppol't (line c 1 b).
L'rohlcm. It is rt'quircd to construct the infiuonco lint~s for Mk. Q4 unJ N11. a<:[.ing over ~ection k of a three-hinged parabolic an:h dt'alt with in Prohlmn 2 of Art. 3 .i!, and to determine with th0 nid of these inlluence lines the ~ll'esscs iocluced in this sc.ction by the syst,rm of loads indicated in Fig.35.3a. '!'he paramet:trs of point k nfe :z:~<.=Yh=3 motros: tan sin <p,,=0.555; cos<p,~=0.832

(Jik=; ;

Svluti on . Dotermine graphically t;h<! posit ion of neutral pohrts I'm.. F'l and F n as well as their ab~cissas um , uq und u" and check the VI< lues of t1wso? ahsciO'sas using formula~ (t..3), ~5.3) und (6.3).

t2x4 x3 um= 3 x 6+3x4

1\.8 m<ltrcs

12 X4iU "I = 4/6 + 2/3

u,.=

12X4/6
4/6-3{2

-tt.6 metres

140

Tltree.-Jlilged A relies 11.11d r.rrunes

P=4f.

'

(a)
X

(C)

Influence Ur>e fo r

Q"
; Righ(-hand ; ortwn II

( d)

Fig. 35.3

5.3 Design of Threc- ft illg,ul

Arcl1~s

Snbj ected Lo Mouing {,cads

141

follow~: sc.nlo off on t he vertical passing lhrouqoh the left-hand support tho IHngths XJ<, co~ (,, and sin ff,, a!> i ndicate1l i n Fig. 35.~~b. c And d and connt:ct the ordinat.e$

The c.onstru~:.tion of the infl uence lines required may now be carried out us

<~btaincd witlL tlo p tojec.ti ou of tho~ neutral point on the .r-axis. AftN that fincl j u~ t: oh Laine1L Conn~ct this point of interl;ecl.ion with the poin t. of zero ordinnlc

t.he intersection of the vert.ical pu so: ing thtmgh the c.rown hing~ C wi t h lito line~

at tlw l'ight-ll and support. Jlinl ab;o the p1dnt of intcrsect.i<>n of tho :~hove line with th e vorticul passing throttgh sc.ction k . On thtl bending moment. infiu<mcc 1ino this point is con M eted rlin:-ct.ly with the zero point at tllo left-hund s upport., whilo in lho!:'o iol' tho slten Qh a nd for tho noma1 forr..o N.~ parAlle l to the line dlLern ino<l in t.he fn-st plllCO ~{IU ) d be traced through tho lnft-bnnd support uut.i l theil iutor!lOction wi th t.l:lo vcr lical mcnLionnd abovr.. Appl y ing lht> laws of si~t~i l i tHlr. to the trianglM i nvolved, wo may no\v detenninc t.lll' o rll innl's to tho pt~rtinont points o[ the inOncnc.e lintls, the arc11s un<l1r t.lte~r. lines and the intOJ 'nal forc.o.~ ind nc:wd in ~~ Lion k oi the arc;h by the given ~;yl'!tl'JYl of JQa tls.
(a)

I nflu.u tcl! linr for

M~

lrt /;2 =
Xk

u,n. - :rl,
Um

w hl' uC e

3(4 .8 - 3) 4.8

1. 125 m t>tl'l!l

WhtfiC(I

Tho arou und"r the inD uonce linl) corresponding to the d ist rihuted load <-qnals
M
(J)q

1.125x4.8 2

0.75 (6-4.8)
2

2.25 square metlos

Accurdinl);ly, tht'l honding moment Mk will amount to

1).111 = gro~l

+ Py~

= 2x2.25 - 4 x 0.375 = 3.0 ton-ml\trcs

tb) I n{lmmu li11e for Qh.

k3k4 COS 'f'k ---=--whoncc ll ,-:rk l\

''~lc4 = - l- 1

l1-X11.

cos 'Pii = - , - x0.832 =

v

6- 3

0 t.

1G

k4 k5 =cfls ():It - k3 k 4 = 0.832 - 0.1,16= O.lti6

IJp = 0;
Q

r~
(<lq

= -

o.t.1.6X3 , o.416x3 2 T 2

Q,,=qro~+Py~ =2XO+<'LX0 =0

llr2
(C) flt/llmlc~

Thrl'e-fflll~ed

Arcltr..~

and Fram-es

li ne for N11
Wl~nc

k;;i(; .~Ht\fk :r,,-u,. =-=u,;-

IT z,, -n,.. . 3+9.6 x o;,~ - 07211 es=-=u;;- S>ll<Jlh=9T' . ,);)= .

k7 k8 =l,~k8 - ~in <f.h =0.728-0.555

= 0.1i3
X 0.55!>=0.~10:!

a,b, sinq:,, z,-,,,1 . - - - - - wltcnc.o a. 1b 1 = - - sm

li-Ltn - -u,. -u,.
:'1 Ctdl = Yp atilt

!J>h

=--,.ll.u
-

ll+9.li

= -- = -z-- ' ' 0.4;,1

2

0.!102

,\'
(!)q

o.t7sx;i+0.728+05l02 ., ., =-z X v"-=4. 70<> 2

ilih =

qro~ +Pu : =2X2.705 +~ X OA5i = 7.21 tous

conlpul.t~cr.

in Problem 2 o Art,.

Tho nwgnit-udos of Jl1k, Q" and N k just. folmd coinC-ide with those a.::l (Tablo 1.3 and .1-'ig. 16.3)

6 .3. CORE MOMENTS AND NORMAL STRESSES IN THBEEHlNGED AT\CRES

ln nny eccentrically loaded bar Lhe normal unit str('SSe.s roaclt their rnaximum and their minimum in t.he outer fibres of the r.to~s sections and, provided Lhe materia) follows Hooke's law, thc'ir magnitudes may be obtained from tho equation
IJ=y

NM w

where P = area of t-he cross section W = its rellisting moment N nnu 111 = normnl force and bending moment 1tc.ting over the scrLion, respectively. It is assumed that both N and Jlt' ac.t in a plano passing through one of tho prindpal axes of inerlia of the section and nonnal to it:. When a moving.. load is applied t.o the arch, the usc of the (lbovc (orlllula would require that both the influence lines for N and .lf should be used simullancously, these influence Jines having au entir-ely difft"rent configuration and one of them possessing holll positivo and negative portions. It is therefore expedient to Lransform the above- mentioned formula so that it should c.onsist of one term only. This may be obtained by the following procedure. Let u~ Hrst. frnd tho c.on1poucnts N and Q of the resultant R of all forces actin~ to the left of the section involved and passing through a point s thereof (Fig. 36.3). Lot us then apply at the extreme upper point of: the c.ore of this section (say, point k 1) two normal forces N equal

6.3. Cor/! M oments antl Normal

Str(R!rl

tn Thru H illt:ed A rtht'

l 'o3

in size e~nd opposite in direction which will balanco M<'h oLher. As a tesult we shall have three forces N acting over this section which may be replaced by a moment equnl to N (e ~ c1) aud hy a normal force N a<',ting at the upper cclge of the core. J n this 1;M& the unit st~:ess llt th<! bottom ftbre of the section will be ~iven by the formula
<Jm=

N(<'+<'tl Wm

Nor mal forces uppliod at the upper limit of tho c.orc produce no stresses i u tho lowe1 ft hres of the sec.tion. The Jlrod uct N (e Ct) represents the

{C)~

F ig. !UI 3

Fig. 37,,1

morut'nt of the uormal force applied at. points of the .st~cLiun about the upper point. of the core k 1 and will be hcrc.after c.allod the core moment. The core moment differs from the ordinary hcnding moment hy tht> fact that its c.omputation requires t.hat the distance of the forces (to the left or to the right of Ute section) should be measured not to tho centroid of the section but to t he uppor 0 1' the lowllr point of its core. TJHl normal fltre~s a t point n may be determined in a similat way, Ol!ly in this cnse the moment of external forces should be taken abouL tho lower core point n nnd tho appropriate resisting moment W,. should be llSOd in lieu of W m
N(e -c2)
<Jn=

f.Vn

14/o

'J'hree-Jiinged Arche. an.d Frames

Thus

where .M~,

moment of external forces (to the right or 'to the left of the seclion) about the upper core point k 1 Jlrlft, = moment of the same forces about the lower core point !. 2 The above two formulas are monomial and therefore they lead to a quickor and simpler determination of the maximum normal unit stresses in the cross sections of an arch carrying a moving load. As for the influence lines of core moments they aro conslructed in oxacLly tho sa me way as those for tho bonding moments. The influence lines for the core moment:; and for the bending momcnL in.scction k of n t hreehinged arch are represented in Fig. 37.~. these m influenco lines having been c.onstnH:.ted using the neutral poinL method. The small triangles F i g. 3S..1 shaded black on Lhe influence lines for tho core mom.onts just next to the centroid arc due to a vcrLical rise in the influence line for the normal force at this poiu~ (see Fig. 34.8). In practice these areas arc usually ignored due to their insigniflcance. V~ing ttie core moment influence li nos, let us now solve the rollowing proble.rn: which part of the three-hinged arch represenLcd in Fig. 37.Sa should be loaded (unifor.mly or by a tT'Hin of conc.en Lratcd loads) in order to obtain tl1e maximum tensile stresses at the oxLrados of section k. It is obvious that tho extrados will be extended only when the resultant of niL external forces (the ri~ht-hand or the lefthand ones) passes below the core (Fig. 38.3). In that case t:he moment o t.he resultMJt about the core point k 2 will he negaLive. Consl~ quen t.ly, tho load or loads should be placed over the neg aLi vc portion of tho in11ucnco line for the core moment M~. Tho loading of the positive porlion of this line would cause the compression of th~ exLtados of tho arch at section k .

7.3.

ANALYSIS OF THHEl:IHINGED TIED ARCHES AND

.Bli:N'l'S

In tho preceding articles (2.3 to 6.3) we have passed in. review the methods of stress computation applicable to ordinary threehinged arches without ties. Let us no>v envisage the tied t;hl'cchinged systems and in particular three-hinged nrchos and benLs.

Certaiu pocnliarilios of the.!!e r;tructures

j ntrod liCO It lllllll b t\J' changes iu the stre."-'! c~omputation methods tluscri bcd nbove .

or

Fig. 39.3a represen ts a bowstl'ing arch free ly suppoJ'~cd at H, the tia precluding tile horizoJJt.nl m oveme nt of t.he. abutment bingt' and Lllorc fvr~ re1llad ng the h orizon tal c.on:strain~ nl this point. i\c.cord.ingl y, c.ompn li< lliun mclhod~ pcl'taining to ordinary t hruobingcd a n: hcs (Fig. ~9.3/J) will pel'lnit tbo dt't.ermiualiou of u ll

Fig. 89.3

tlw st rNiSCS in this purticular cac;c.1. Stl'OSS<JS in tho cross st!CLion::!> u[ both a rd lHS will be oxa1;1.ly tht> same arrrl Llle intcrual. forcu in tho Lio will bu t' Qllal to t.hH horizontal t.hrust 11 1.1 The vtrtirrd n md .ion.s 'V<l and V 11 will al!>o rt1main exac.tly the ~ante. 'l.'hus, the iufl trt'llt'U lines for l.lro 11butmcnt rt,actions n.nd t he stros">Cs

(0)

Ftc. 40.3

acting over the I'Orrcsponding cross ~c<:tions or a bowstring arc.h will not rliffcr in lillY respect from those of a11 or<lin.Hy thtoching~d

arl' h.

Let us now rvrrsidnr a thn1e-hingcd arc h with a n otevntod tio D.E a~ s hown in Fig. L t0.3a. vVl may tcplaco the 1io by two horizontnl forces Ntl,, applied at p oints D and E and equal to l.ho tension in the tie (Fig . tl0.3b). Tho three ahutm1!fll rco.c.tinns v ,\o V 0 :md IT 11 may then bo determined as us ual with tho aiu of threo equilibrium c.quatiorr~ of all external forces applied to Lhe nrch . These cquatious do not contain the above men tioned forecs N 11 c whic.lt lJnlo.nc.c each other; thei r magnitude may be obtainod by

146

Three-Hinged Arches and

Fram~s

equating to ~uro lhe sum of all the lllOHIOnls of the ox tcrnal forces applied to the left (or to the righl) half of the a rch about the crown hinge C. The stresses in all the cross sections of the arch as wel1 as the methods of constructing the corrcspoJld ing inll ucnce lines may he derived from Lhe expressions (1.3).

Y !
irl/llli!II<Y! { (,ne
az,~

tor Qk
0.4!6

{a)

(gi

~~
0.6'!4

(b;

!f11TH!!Hll~

q:2t/m

t.nfli:P-ttce li.'1e for M,

(i)

(;:) 1-~
tnfluanr,e line for v0
({f.J

-1
ln{lvem. e line for v,.

-......'::_flvG17r:e lifle for t\'t;e

..............,

r&-:- 'i.i,,;7x;st;--;-'
/nj'lver~e /.i.<?e

!n(laellciJ Line

for N;,

(/()
~'fi:0.8:JZ tn[li!efJt:e line ' ... Ntle stn'Pk

for

Fig. 41.9

Problem t. Gi ven the arch with supcrelevated tte (Fig. 41.3a) following a c.ouie parabola dofmed hy tho equation
Y=fi' (l-z)

4!

Required to determino tl1c rcnctions VA, VB and HB, tho tcm>ion in tho tie forco~ Mk, Q11. and Nk and to construct the influenc-e liuos for nil thc~c force> ltnd strosscs.

N ti c the int.ernal

7.3. A ttalysu of Thrte-Tf inged 1'tcd A rches a11d /Jtn /6

S~>l ut ion. Th~

147

all t.hll

oxt~:rnal fnrc~>s

rcact.ious are olct.ennined from the l'quilihriuU1 OIJUntions o acting on thu ard1

~Mn-=YAl-q ~

t - fJIJ= O

ql l !MA =T ;.+ f> (l -b) -V nl =O l l = -11 11 =0

'Titcsc cquatioM yield

VA=* ql +
ql + p J.' 11 =g

~~~

={-x2X 12 +

~ 3 =10

tons
=h tm~

(i ~

b) = 2X 12 , (i 3 ) y 8-+ --nr

H u='.l Th' tension in t h" tic is determined from

!Mc= V.

f,

~Nt, 2

-~~=0 2 :\
l 2 tiln~

whcnc"

w1Jcte M2::

i~

the hcn<ling moment arling over F.ection C Clf a simp\o hcnm .-;hown

in Fig. 41.3b. Th o ang le q; 4 furmod by Lhe t angent to lhl.' centro liuc of the nnh at 11oint Jc. 1111<1 the XI\Xi:; and thO oramat.e !/II O( point. k 31'0 d c lllmliUl'd llS fn iJ UW"

tan lf'"""'t;= dr

dlt

d [ 4{

l!" (l - :r) :r = lT(l - 2:r)

4/

(<n x=x~<=3 m

lancp = tnn<{'"=3

whurofrom

lfll = 3342'; s in <['It= O.:'>fi5; cos 'Pit= 0.832

and

1Jit =l2 (t-.c,.}.ck= 122 (12-3)3=3 metrNJ

Substitu,iug these vn luc:; in expressions (L3) wo nbl.ni.u th e acting ov(lr :;t:cLion k or th ll orch Q" = ~v = v A cos q>~; -N ti o siu !f'h - qx,. cos qh = - 3.33 t<ns
L

4/

'oX4

~trusses

Mk=~M=V A:t.I1-Ntre (!iR. I,

' qxzlt f T d ) - --=!J.O ton nll'trcs 2

N h = 'f.U =V A si n c:p,.
]..

+ N li<' cos IfII- qxt, sinljl~; = 12.20 ltIIS

Tlw influence linN! for the al>ut.ment. reuc ti on5 l ' ,1 nntl ~' n shown in Fig. 4 1.3c and d wi ll ho the samtl us for nn ordinl!ry th rt>e-hingcd urcl..l 1'he 10

Tho cons trlll'l ion o[ influence liMs for Q1., M,. antl Nk will ba> hi\.. !d on the following rcl nll uns similar i n e vtry respec t W Uwse of (:'1.:.:1)

inntu. mc.c line ftll' lhe (S(.'o Fig. 41.3")

~ie

tcnsitm will ht>. dorivud frum tho (l(jiH ilivn N ti-:''-'- T

M (!

Q ;: cos qJt-N IIc sin 'Ph. llf~t :2 Mk -Nt;c (/ll, - f-1-rl) N 11 = Q~ sin <f'I+ N 11 , cos q r:
Qh ~

'fltoso Jn nnucc littcs t ogether with tho iutoamediate ganphicnl r>pttratiou.~ arc roprr S<II LNI in Pig. lJ1.3f, g , h, i, j and k. As n d1ock lt:t- us fand the ~t.rosso.s in $0C tiun k using the iul'lucnc.e. !inc;; ju ~L
obtai nod

Q,.= 2 ( - 4xO.ii24 !-{.x 0.208-: x 0.41li)

A1~t=2x

- 4X ~ xO.Io1 6 - - 3.33
t on-me trns

tun s

N~t =2 [ ~ x O. ti85

L i

2 x u> x 6 - 9.11

(OAS!'i-_l. O.!if>!:i+ L::i2G )]-H .X

~x

1.52(>= 12.20 tms

ThtSI! va la t>.~ !'t inc.ide. .xac ll ~ with tJoSO fo1u1d JH'e.\'iously. AH thl! t:omputn1itJnS mur b: f!nf~'ly regarded as r orrecL

Lot us consider now the thrce- hiugod bt!nl:s. Tbeir abuLrnc uJ. SaJHtl way 11.~ for lhe thte.(!.-hing'(ld arr.he.s, tlw same applying to lhc dol.(. rmiuation tho i uLel'aHll fun:.cs and to tho c:onstrtlc:llon of i nrJunJtcc > lin~;~~ iwhc t.hc t by ~raphical or aoalylical liletho us). Exception must. b~ mad ~ ro r v~ tka l m ~mbcr.; ( pnw idcd th{'SO a rc prcsont.) fo,. the ne utra l poiul method cannot ho a pf'liorl to tha constrJJctiou or the bonding mornC llll. and s h~ar inlltwnc:e. liuns for the~ latt:e.r. l:fiJwOvc r, thi.s lllot.h(H! rnmnins quite suitnl.>le for horizontal and i11cliu('d menahc1~
readions wil'l he d~tcrrnineu in uxac tly t.ho

nr

of Uw hcnt. J'roblc111 2. Dotcrmine lhe uhu t.rnent reac~ions and th o SLr(l~es ;n cro.ss scctiuus m and n Jlac;..;;W through tht> uprights of the b~.>nt in Pig. 42 .3~t and draw tiro cOri'OSJllll<lillg inOuenco lines for Sl'Clion m. Sol~<tton.. Tho ulm Lrnenl: reac.tion8 will l1e ohtnill<!<l u.~ iug t.lac~ NfHilibrium
o<tual.ious

:EM A = /P1 +3P2 - 4V0 = 0

"f.M Jr = l tPl-P2-r1tV ,. =0
~Mc=2 F"' -4TI A L

= 0

l:X = f>r -1 f/1\ - !fR = (I

7.3 . hwlysts of Thru-Hinged 7'ild Ar<lrs arul 11cnts

t4!l

from which
V 11 - +('.P 1 +ilP 2) -

p(.

j, C2 X4 .-3X 3)=1t.25
,

I'A=..!._(-.'JP1 f- 1'2) """ ti

.
li\11$

= -i(-2><1+:~) ~-1.2:1 I
f!A _ .. Tv_.\~

= - -T X 1.2fl - - 0.625 ton

I

'J

= :! 0 - 0.1\:!.:i - 1.3'i5 1n ns 1tcgardi1 1g t.ht' lowr l'Xlr<mity of thu upright s a~ t.hoir \dt-hand omt, wo mny ni)W llnd Lfl., Mlr~s..~es act1ng over
stcl itlll~

lfn=P 1

+ Tl ... =

~t

m a nd

It

Q,,. ~ - Tl A " ' 0.6~5 ton

Mm= -2fl,. =2X0.625 = = 1. 2 ,') ton- metres N,. ~ V..., - -1.2.'i tous
and.

(b)

~:
I .
I

I Tm I l ~~ I 1 L=i!m 1 1 1---f---4 I . I I

JJ

'

tve
I

Vn!luence ~lne for Val

I I
I

(C)

I~ I~'
llnft.uenceville for H I
~

Q,= - VJJ .~.o~ II'~~,+ UIJ sin (1-'n = = --l. ~5 x 0.2'.2 -I- 1.375 xO. !lliH=
=O.:JIV. ton M,. - li.5Vn-2H 11 = =0.:; x "-2;> - :! .0x L375 =

(d)

h:l (~ : tz ~ 1
ilnft.uence Ilin~ for q~
I

(e)

= -tl.li25 ton-111ctrC' N 1,=- l: n sin cr,. , /111 < X>'' <J,. a. = U!r. 0. !1<\8 i 1.375 X (l.;Yo2 -,:.1\.45

f(J
hl!l.'l

~'Influence ~: line {IJr Hm 1

I
I~ I - 1 lm 1 1 !9 I Jnft.uence liro for Nm 1

I~

FiR. 't~ 31. r. nutl tl l'!'prt~M~ tho iufl ntncr fin~~ fm lh(l ahutmrnt ell<' which du uot <li IT1r in any re.spec.t fn'ln t.hose < lf an ordinary arch (~oo
Uous l'"' I' 11
1Ul t1 1{,1 --

(g)

J/ 11 = 11

Thl inOIIlmCe lin<) fol' N'.,. migbt elso bt ohlilinod using Lht' n(lu t.rnl !'Oint rn;)t.lwd (sec rJg. 3't ..~c). In lhis case the nout.ral point will coincid<' wil.l1 t.ho cMt-u or hingt' n, :wd t.h<'fcfore h~tving laid off n lengt.lt cormspon<liug to sin q,. -.. I onr poiuL A w<.> should con n()('t the ordinate a"'' ohtaine1l \'< ilh tb(! ll<'Utral point, i.e. , with the point of 7.('rll ordinato OV()f bing~: fl (Fig. t.2.3g) .

1-'ig. 2'..:i) Fig. ~2 .3e, f anl g cnul11ins t!Jo Pig. 12.3 in01enc.(' lines for O m M,. and 1'lm derive< t [rom lh~ nx:pri'!'-~IOIIS Qm = -If,,, .M,. = -2HA llllll Nm . V..t-

ahn,__ : ; .. : 1 1 1!~ ! 11~ 'b G'

4.

THE TRUSSES

l k OEFfNlTJONS AND CLASSfFJC.A.TlON OF TflUSSE.S

Tho truss i~; a framed sLJ'Il<~turo whkh will conti.uuc to form an unyicld ing com bi unlion cvt:'n whon nil its rigid joints arc eon vonlion ally rephiCt.'d by pcrfec.t ltinglS. As a rule, trusst's are used for the ~>ante- purpo:~es liS h<ln ms and g inlt>rs, OX-<:.t'.pt that the spans lht'.y

Fig . .!.~
<~over

Pig. 2.1.

arc usuall y rnuch l arger. l n tlwse case!$ solid wob beams become uneconomicnl duo to tbo fact that the strength of the web can never be utiJi~ed to the full t~xten t (unit stresses in th<' web being lower than in the flanges as will be St>.<'D from Fig. 1.4) and also due to the danger of web buc.kling which ~comes more and 111orc ac ute with tho increase in t.be height of the bot~ms. In framed st1ucturos such as trusses (provided Lhe loads net at tho join ts) all t ho mombers arc subjt1cted oither to direct cxt.<Hlsi on or compl'o.s.sion whif:.h (~n~ures a far better utili~ation of lht> maleriots, the slress diag1nm for each o~ these mnmb~rs boing practically rer.tant{llla,., Therofon~ t.he tru!!SCs arc alwayl{ much lighter than solid wob beams of the samo span ancl the same height. A typica l example of a truss is shown in Fig. 2.4. Apart from two-dimensional trusses in which all tho bats are situa tod in ono a11cl lhe same plane, thoro exist, throe-di monsional

l . fl.. De(witions and Classtficatlun.

()I

Tru s.<~s

151

or spac-e franwd s truct ures in which the clements a ro situated in scvcJ'Ill planes (Fig. 3.4). However, in a grea~ number of cases the design ol' throlHiinwnsional framed structures may be reduced to tho cal'~:~ of severa l plane systems. Thu span of a truss (Fig. 4.4a) is the di stance between its support.s. Th~ lower arul upper long itudinal members form the upper and lo wer chords of the ttuss, while the members which connect

Fig. 3.4

the two ch<Jrcls are c.allod the web rnemiJas. T he latter may !Je subdividNl into vertt.ca.ls and diagonals or into strztt.~ and tics, the sttuts IJeing always co mpressed and the ties exte.nded. A countabrace is a ruclllbcr de.~igned to resist bo th tensile and compru:;sive stmsscs. The onrl posts a lso called batter braces cou nect tho upper chord to thu lowHr one and may Le regarded as belonging both to the uppor choru and to the web membor.s. Tho distauce beLween lwo adjaCl!nt joi nls measured along the horizontal is usually called a pa1LRl, lhc jo iuls thomsclves being frequonLly rcfeiTCd to as panel

points.

152

TI!P J'ruurs

Tho Iullowirtg li vt~ crilol'ions mny ~llfVl' as n ba!<i~ ror th~ e.lll.'ii!:'lf raL ion of l russcs: (a) the ~hapo of tho upper aud lower chord s; (b) tho typl~ or t.he. woh; (c) the contli lious at t he sup ports; (d) L ho do~ t. inalion of the sttu rturc; (c) the level or the nuor. ln ac.co nlancc with the fir.~t c riterion, tlw trussos may bn l"llbtl ividod into Lru~;scs with parall el dwrds (Fig. 4./w.) nr11l in!'o poly-

Fig. 5.4

goun l and l.ri angu lnr Lru!\Sc~s (Ji'ig. 4.41b ant! c). Tru!;&)li witll n .1'<11'11 bolic npp(lr dwrcl (Fig. 4..4b) bclo rlg to t.he l'r~t of Lhc l ast t;wo ki rtd s.
The sueond c-ritc rion permits t~o s ubdivi de thH tnssc.\1 iuto tlw/ie will a Lriungulnr pattern of tht\ web* W ig. 5.4a), those wi 1h I\ quad-

rnngulnr pattern J'ormcd by

In Lhc English iipoaking cm utrics. whcr< tbc great m 11jor il~ uf LrllM LYP~'-" lll'Ctnlll'tl afltr tbc names or engiurers who tJrs~ intr<duc.ed llo('DI onn large scale<. th is truss is k nown 11~ tho ~i-'a rr<'ll tr11ss (1'r. TtOil'l .. Tho mon \\oldely used of ~lo()S() are the l'ralt and tho 1/0ii't truS-'1t:s. th~ fm;t bl'ing c1Hiruc.tori7.otl by oxtend~Jol llitJgona ll! 11ntl corn pr(~'>8<'CI Vttic.nls, uno! t ht second -hy <xtt>ndl'll verticals and corflJlrt:'.~sod ningon nl.~ (?'r. note)

v~rt.i<:ll l~

and cOagnnals"'* (Fig 5.4{>),

(the sn-calle.d webs of whieh are l'orrnod by Lhc s uperposition of two or more sirnpll g-rilL'! illnstratNI in Fig. f,.4cl, e and j. HSHnlly referred to a~ thll <loltblc, or

those in whi<:h the we.h

K-truss shown in Fig. 5.4c},

muJtipll~

mcmb~rs form 11 lel.t:<.~r K ~tntl fina1ly trusses, Lhl?.

trusses*. Tlw thir(l c.ritcrion permits to disLinguish between L.he ordinar-y encl -snpporLcd tru:-;scs (fig. 6Aa.), the c.an li lcv<.r tu~se~ wi tli a huilt-i n c.nd (Fig. ti.4b), Lho tr:nsscs e .an t.i Ltvc.rin~ ovor Orll:l or but.h
supports (Pig. 6.-;'tc a nd d, ro~pnctivoly}. aud llnally Lhe 1;ro~ce.n t. and arched trus~I'S ill Fig. (i.4e and/. As rcgatfls tlwir 1l estination the l.ru!-;SOS may hl' suhdividud iuLo mo f trusses (Figs. 7 A a. and 4. 4c}, bridge trusses (Figs. -1:/ia a nrl 8.4) aud. llliscel lancous tru~es 11sed in crane co usL.ruetion <Fig. lAb) aucl in L.hc e.onstruction or various towers. b~?.nts, ell'. (F i~. 7.4c) . .I n IJridl{O con~truclion the lrllSSf!S an> frequently gululi v id,cl into Uuough-bl'idgo t rus::.cs, in which the railway (or road ) is tarried directly by the bottom churd joint!; (Fig. 8.4a}, tho doc.ld.Jridgc tru:ssr.$ where lite Hpper chotds or t he ir joinls t~arry the ronclway (f'ig. ~.4b), Hull finally t.ho lrusseR wht'r'e Lh~ clecJ, i~:~ ;arriod al: so me intermed in le Jovo I (Fig. 8 .4r).

2.4. DlHECT :\-IETHODS OF STHESS DETEHMINATIO.I\

.MEsiBERS OF SJSIPLE TRUSSES

l~

Wt) have. already seen (Art. 2.1 and 3.1) L.hat framed st.ruel.urtS forme d hy adding 1~()();\()<,' Hl.i V()Jy arr y 1111111})(~1' or j<Jillf:~ [:(1 (\ hirrgCC.()Jl lltele<l. Lriaug:lu (each joinl, heiu~r <:o nn<.wlt~ll by nwaus o[ two coneurrcnt l1ars) arc slatir:a lly d<.rl:ennirraLI.. a11d form ar1 l rnyielding cornbinalion. Two-dimensional framed stntclurf'.S form ed in this way are usually ca lied sim.ple lrusse.s. In Artido :~:1 it hag he-en shown f,hnt 2K equulions o f ~l.atie:; can he writ.tcn for any ~ta. tkul'ly dutenninal.e tru~s (I( bui11g the number oi its joints), with t he aitl <>I wltid1 both the abutm1~ nt t'lHlcLions and ~tresses (internal fore(}!>) in all the rnornbcrs can be dt>.Lerminoct. His usunl Lo starL with the dctcrm i ual.iou or l,he ahHtment reactions for: whkh purpo.se threl:l equiJibrium Ot{UaLiorrs art~

written for LhH

tru~s

as a whol e .

The stresses iu tlu~ separal.l' mornhers of the truss 1 :an be determined hy c.ons ide.ring t.lw equililn:ium of ~ parat.c parts or joints

..

ttus.~ in Fig. ::i.1d is 11 '<\lll ll y ca llt'rl t.leo d<wble 1 '1-'arrcn tmss for il-" weh lli<IY h~ Obl-1\i!Wd by lht> :mperpo~itiOU OJ' t WII ::;imp)e ll'illnguJnr Wl'h!> W hile tl!o Lruss in l~ig . 5.ft, mny he mgurrh><l as a mo.Jilicatim1 of t he Post o n[ th o Wh ipple trll!:l.~ ( T r. O te I .

*The

(b)

(cJ F i g. 6.4

Fig. 7.4

(b)

~
Fig. 8.4

2.4. Dilect ;"vlethods of SlresR LletenninntiMI

155

Qf the struc-ture, theso parts or joints being acted upon both by the external f:or<.:es and the stresses in the !'.ectioned bars. The total number or inMpcndent equilibrium equations amounts to 2K-:1. lt is very important; t.o find such imaginary sections wJ1ich will allow direct determination of stresses in the separate bars, without w:k-ossitating the simultaneous solution of several equations with several unknowns. This simplifies ver:y considerably aU ~he computations and at the same time enhances t heir accuracy. Tho following two methods will usually permit the determination of the stresses iu all tho members of a simple ttuss hy ~:~o lving in each caso one equation with a single unknown.
'rilE 111E'l'HOD OJ1 JI10MEl\TS

Thb method is used mainly when a section can be passed th rough the truss in such a way as to cut throo nom.oucurren t members, as for r :!Xarnple section I-I in Fig. 9.4a.*
Jntersectionpoi.nt of
t;ars 1-J and 'L- .1
1, 3 ...--t

lnl(JrSP.t:tiOn point of P
bors T -J and 2- 4

I~

"v

lnterM!ctioll pol.nt of

bors 2-J

11(}(/

2-4

Fig. 9.4

The axes of such members will intersect by pairs at three different points not lying on one and the same straight line Wig. 9.4b). The eqltilibrium equations of the moments of all forces , both inte ..nal and external, acting ou the cut-off portion of the truss taken about each of these intersection points will rcduc.e to one oquation with one unknown, this unknown being the int-ernal iorco acting in the bar not passing through the moment point . Thus, in order to determine the stress acting in any member of the truss, a section should be t;akon across this truss cutting throe nonconcurrent bars, one of these bars consti tuting the member in which it is desired to fmd the stress. In s uch a case the equation

+
complic.ated cases.
*Tt will be shov.'ll later t.hat t.his method can bo (lppliorl also in certain more

1f.i{)

. The . Trusses

of all the Hlomonls ahout the point of intersection of tl1e two other bars will yiold immediately tho stress in the member under con~id orat:ion. The point of inta.wctwn of two munbers aoMtt which the moments

are taken is usually called the flrigin of mome.nt11.

bar.~

When wri l.i ng thn equilibrium cquat.ions all the stresses in the are eonventitmally rodwned positive whic.h , with the GOnvenl.ion of the sigus adopted, means that the bars arc in tension Hnd

(0)

Pig. lOA

!.he str-esst\S oro diro<:Lod away from the joints. T.horefore, wheu u ~lrel:!S is ohtained this indic.ntes thal the 111ernhcl' is com preRsNI, the ~lro,s.<; a<;ting towards the joint. We :;ha ll now ill llstratt the method of rnomenls just cleseibcd hy s~vera'l examples. !11 l.hl,~e ('Sample~ wo shaH denote by tho Jolter U the si,I'CSSI>.S in t.lw uppor ehord, by Lhe loLI.er: L t.he stws~os i.n tho lowt!t' 0111:', lUifl .by tho lolf:l! l'~ [) and 'V the st:re~>st~s in tlw diagonals nnd vott.icH L'i, res pective ly . Thest' lottor~ will be acl'ompanied by c :.ip1Wr11 ]ndiraling in c.>ach Ga::;e l,hc numlter<; of tho joints to whic.h tlw bar
u\!g:ttti1~

in qlwsl.ion is ('.onuctlnd.
L(~ l; ll!'l How clettH'miue the stress in the member ::J-5 of. the tt'I.ISS in Fig. 10.4a. For Lhi:-; purpose wo s hall pass seetion T- f c~utting the mLmbot under eon.siriMation a nd two other m~::~mbers, one bt!)onging l.o the~ npper and the other to t.ho lowe1 rhorcls. IL ]s always moro tonvenicnt to consider that part of tb(' truss ac.t.ccl npon by

a ~;:ma ll.er nnrnbor of l'utcos, and t.het'(~foro we shall di~cu::;s l1ore t.ht) left-hand porlion of o ur l:rn~::; whieh must he in oquililniurn 11nder tho action of tlw ext:Lwna l forcc~s A and P 1 and of tho int.etnal st1esses (1 2 ,,. D 3 ,. und L 35 , t]l(,)::;e ~;twsscs replacing the right-hancl p!JrLion or tlw tnrils Wig. W.lt.b). f11 ordt'r to detormine the uuknown slrcs,.q L 'Js 1rsin~ n ~ingle ~~qllntion we shnll plac;.e t1ie origin of mnmont$ al; JlOi nt 4 where nwrnb<'I'S .:!.-4 and 3-4 (~onc.ur .

2.1. D incl ]1-{c.lhods of Strrss Ortataiuatior>

1!'>7

The s um of JnOmcnt..'l of all the forces acLing- 0 11 t.h~ lcft-llllnd pMtio n of tho trus~ ahoul. point 4 is
~1v1,

...:. Aa4 ~ P 1p1 -

L~h ~=

whcrofrom

Ht,re h is the lover arm of stress 3 ~ abo ut the ortgut ul: mouH~ nl.s (in t.hig parliculur 1:.a~> iL 1s equal to the height of t.he trw;s), anti M~ is the 1110 rtHmt o f all tho external for..c.s (inclncling the reaction) applio.d I.C1 tlH! left-hand portion of the t trss aho nl; joinl 4,

P,

Pz

~
6

x=fd
Fig. 11.4

this momouL being equal to the bending moment aeling over a ~tw l.ion o[ a simple heatH situated at the same distance from t he s upport aio; L ho origin of momen ts i n t ho tmss. If indeed t he tru~~ were l'eplaced by a s i mp le htH\rn having t.lw sa me span aud subjcctod t o the same loads (Fig. t1. 4). the henfling momt,nt ac.ting over a section of t his beam s ituated at lhc sa me distauc.c fro m Lho left-hand support a~ t.ho o ri~i n of moments would he exa~:tly t1q ui valo nt Lo t he moment o( all forro1-:1 apr>licd to t lw ldt-hand portion of the truss about thi:; origin of rnomenl.<>.
Thu~. the stress in any member of the lower chord oj a truss may be .fou.nd as a quotient of the beam bending moment by the lever ann of lfw stress lLbout Ote origin of moments. The bending moment in a si mple beam remaining nlways positive \ UtdN' any sy~torn of vet'tical loads, the ~trO~$ L 3 & will also remain always posiLive, whk.h means that tho elenwnts of IJte lower chorrl

will hn cxlcndod as long as the loads nc.t downward~; . Let us now determine the stress in momher 2-4 of the upper c.hord. In this case the origin of moments shoul!l be taken at join t 3 a nd the moments of: all forces acting on the left-hand portion oC

15R

Th t Trussu

the ttuss RhouL this point sho\lld be equated to zero (se4o! Fig. 10.4b)
~ Jl-13 =

Ad-P12

+ U2~r.,- 0
=_
M~
r

from w h ich

U . =
-

Ad-P1d!Z r

Tho nurnerntot o f t he frac tion which we have denoted by is agnin r~qual t<J tho boam bending nwrnont acting over a suctio n tho absci~~~~ of whic.h i~ equal to d. As the beam rno ment Jl.l~ is alway~ positiv~ undc1 the given sy~Lem of loads n11d as the fraction

M:

A~~ is proecdcd by a nogativ<.' s ign, tho stress U 2 , is nega tive , whic h m oa ns t.hat mernL~r 2-4 is co mpro::;&~d . II, m11y bC' oasily shown, us ing the sa me reasoning, tlaat all th~

m cmbl r~ of the upper c.hord as wt>ll as the tud po>;t.s of n truss wi ll always re main com{>rcssecl unde r any system of verlic.al load!'. ln order lo dctcrmi rro the stress Ds~ iud.uced in tho dial!nnal ::1-d-, let ltll tquaw to zero t.b ~:~ surn of rnomenLs of a lt the forns ncting on tho left-hnnd part of the truss a bout point lc nt whic:.h !.ht' d i t'C('.tion of bars 2-tJ. and 3-5 in terse<;t we.II beyond th~ )llri me1.~ 1' (lf tho truss (see P ig. 10.4b). ~11-'l,. =

'

ri') -03 ~rk -Aa. + P J (a + 7

P 1 (a+ ~ ) - Aa = - - -TJt - - -

= (J

whcrcrro m

D3'

M~
rk

It '"ill ho thufl ob::t<rvcd lhat in the method of monwnts the ma;mit.uiu< of the stress is always e!Xpressed by the quotient of the m onwnt of e:tJlernal forces acting on tlw left-hand portion oj the truss M by

fliP U'vtr arm of the stress r abottt the smne point

N=~ r

(1.-!t)

Si mple trusses defined abovo may have a more i ntricate pattnrrt as rtproscntcd in r'igs. 12lt and '14./r.. Ncvcrtheles::s, tho me tbnd of moments rom11ins appl icable foe the determinatio n of sLrc~scs in th l1i r members. l11deotl, if lha truss in Fig. 12.4 is ~c tiomcl a long line J-I. tiro odgin of moments may be take n at point 6 when' t hree of tho four sectiont>d members converge (Fig. 1:-tlt) , and the nfoo wo Mill\ again obtain oJIC equation with ono unl<nown which will yield the. stress in l.ho upper chord mmnher 1-7
~M6 = Ad+ U, 7 h=0

2.4. Diret:t Ml'thorl.l of StrNI

D ~t~rmination

15!}

whererrom

u.,=-~ = -.1\f~ h h

If i t is desired to find tho iutorual force acting in member fJ-9 of the lower chord t.he otigin of moments shOllld ho s hifted to point 4, then

'2M, = Ad- Lnnh=O

wllenct'

Lr,o= -r= -f"

in~Fig.

/ld

M"

Stresses in the upper and the lowor chords of tho truss shown 11t.4 can also be ddorminod by the method of mom1H1t..-;.
P,

1
Fig.J2.4

A
Fig. J3. 4

Thus, in order to find the stress in bar 7-9 , section I-I should he pa&;cd, cutting in addition to thP mcmbor considered frvc moro
l

Ftg. U.l

bars, all converging at point .10. 1f this point is taken as tlac origirr of moments {Fig. 15.4), the equilibrium equation becomes LM10 =A4d-4P X 2.5+U 70 h=0

1Hfl
f i'OIIl

whic.h
tiAd- HPcl h

Let us uo w con:;iuer nn even more co mplicntt\d tru~s !)l'oposod hy the e minent Hll~s i nn engineer V . Sl1ukltov for orw of the l:n-gespan buildings in IVlost~ow (l"ig. H1 .4) .* Th i ~ trn~>s < '<Hl!lli lutcs an un y ioldiug syste m hoiu~ composed of two basic tL'iang lcs .l -4-5 and 2-3-{i ennnoeLed by thl'ee IIOll<:-oncuncnt: bars 1-2, 3-4 o.n<l 5-6 . The t.ru s8 is statkally (itttermin;ltc as the number of bars S ~atis !'tts t he condition S = 2[( - :3 .-. 2 X U-:i ~ 0. 1t is not possible to lind a section t hrvugh the Shukhov lrus:-; cutting any numbe r o[ hnrs convcrging at; n single poillt with tho exception o( one .
p p
p

Fig. ltiA

Fig. lfi . .t

H owovcn, th!~ sc H:.tion r-s-t which eu L~ llltrs .l-2, 3-4 and 5-t: on eo and bars .l-4 aud .l-5 twic.e pennit.s t.he de ll1rmination of s tresses uc.t.ing in hars 1-2, 3-4 and 5-{;, As wi ll be seen frorn Fig. 17.4, t he SLl'osses i n har.s l-d- and .l-5 wi ll balarH;t,, the~<e foitresses en te ring- the equilibr iu m equatio n twice wi t h an oppusitc sign. Therefore in t hi~ section only th'((l rwknown ~;~tres.<;os w ill remaiu U 2 1 , U 3 4 nnd U 0 ;, \Vhich may lu~ t\t\~ily dot.Ol'millcd by the method o.f momeuts. T hus, i n order to lind the sLrcss in hal' 1-2 wt sha ll plac.e t'lu~ origin of moments at the point of inLctseetiou of bars 3-4 and 5-6 (point /, 1 in F it,:. 17.4). Thon
wlrerefrom

}:M" 1 = - U~ 1 r11 - Pp - Bb 1, =0
(j 21 '--" -

l.lb,_

+p p
T){

+
*Th is truss c:tnnot he cun!!idtlt'L><i ns hdunging to the sim]Jico tw os hut nevertheless nil tlw st.re.' N'" in its llHlUlbers may llO <l ett-l'm ined lty tho method of
lllOUIOJII.S.

2.1. Direct Methods of Stress Deterrninalf.cn

HH

Similarly, point k 2 whore the bars 1-2 and 5-6 intersect will be taken as the origin of moments for the determination of the stress U 3 ~ and point k3 will form the origin of moments for stress U65 (Fig. 18.4). Thus, stre1;ses U u. Us; and U 65 are determined independently using three oquations, eac.h containing only one unknown. The stres~es in all the other member:; will now be easily obtained by passing straight sections ac.ro~s any number of bars, pw-

Fig. 17.1

vidc~d that the stresses remain unknown in not more tban three of them. The examples just consid!=!red lead to the following conclusions: 1'he method of moments ts very expedient when a section may be tctken ct~tttng any nuntber of bars converging at a single point, provided this point does not fa./.l on the direction of the member investigated. This mdhod can also be used in cases when a section cut.~ more thu.n three nonconcurrent bars, proz_ided the stresses fn all the bars except three are already known. The same method may be l~tilized when the section crosses any nurnber oj bars, provided each bar wilh the exception of three is sectioned twice. The 11\ethod of moments is frequently considered as forming a partir..nlar case of the more general method of seetions. Indeed when two Ol ~he sectioned members arc parallel it becomes impossibJH to take the origin of mo1nents at the point of their intersection and therefore the method of moments can no longer be applied. But pas:;ing a section thtough the truss will still pormit the detcrminnt)on of the stresses required as we may in that case use tbu equilibri.um equation of the vertical components of the internal nnrl exlernal forces (it i s assumed that the chords a re horizontal). As an example, let us consider the truss represented in Fig. 19A. Sections I-I and II-II will permit t he computation of stres&s
ll-853

1(11)

fr0111

which

l/1v=

LL't us now cousider an oven more complicated t russ proposed by t.hfl eminent Russian engineer V. Shuklrov Ior on11 of the largespan bnildings in Moscow (Fig. 1ti.4).* This truss constiLutes an
uuyicldiug system boing eomposl!u of two ba!'<i1: triangles .l-4-5

and :J-3-8 conncctc<l by three nunconcun'OnL bar.s 1-2. 3-4 anti 5-6. The trugs is Rlatica.lly dcLorrniuato as the number u[ bars S satislics the <~ondiLion S = 2K- 3 = 2 X u-:-l = 9. It is not po:ss ihlo Lo lind n scr;.tion through t he Sbukhov trus~ <:.utting any number of ])ars eonv<)J:giug at n. single point with t he oxc.option oi one.
p

t~~
Flp.
j(j,{

H owLwcr , the section r -s-l which c.uts bars l-2, 3-4 unrl 5-a onco and ba1s 1-4 and 1-5 twiec pennits tlw determirllll;il)ll of stresses ucting in hill'S .l-2, 8-4 and 5-{i, As will ho !1-eL'n fro rn l''ig. 17.4.. tht> strosRcs in bnrs 1-4 and 1-i) will hnla uco, thcso stresses entering l.he equilibrium nquatiou t\\'ico with an oppo~ite s ign. Therdorc i n tlds section only three nnknowu l!Lrai'~l(\5 will 1'(.\IDllill U2r. [/34 and u&~ which ma y bo CU$ily determined by Lbe method of monronl$. Tlms. in Ot'der to find the ~Lrcss in bar 1-i we sha ll pl.ac.e the origin of monwnts nt the point u[ intersection of b:n!'< .'1-4 anll 5-6

(point k 1 in Fig. 17.4). Then

~M,<~ =

wheroftom

-U 21 r~<- P p- Bb~t = 0

'"This truss caruw~ b!l C{)nsidlrol ~~~ JJdorrging to the slrnplc one~ hut nevcrthc.>less :II lho :!li'OSSt'' in i ll> nu'rrthtu~; may ho <lettermin<.'d lty tho me>thod tf momonl.s.

2.4. Direct Metlwds of Stress Determination

Hi1

Similarly, point k 2 whore the bars 1-2 and 5-6 inter!)()ct will be t.akcu as the origin of moments for the determination of the stre~s U 34 and point ka will form the origin of moments for stress U 6 ~ (Fig. 18.4). Thus, sLresses Uzt. U 34 and U 65 are detorminod independently using three oquatioos, car.h containing on ly one unknown. Tho stresses in all the other membci's will now be easily obtained by passing straight sections ac.rO~iS any number of bars, pro-

B
Fig. 17.J

P tg. .18.1

vided thaL the stresses remain unknown in not more than three of them. The examples just considered lead to the following conclusions: :the method of moments ts tHn-y expedient when a section may be talcen ClLtting any number oj bars converging at a single point, provided this point drws not fall M the direction of the member investigated. This method can also be used in ca.~rs when a section cuts more than three nonconcurrent bars, provided the stresses in all the bars except three are already known. The same method may be utili.zed when the section crosses any number vf bars, provided each bar u;llh the exception of three is .<;ectioned twice. The method of moments is frequently considered as forming a parlknlar case of the more geueral method of sections. Indeed when two of the sectioned members are parallel it becomes impossible to take .the origin of momonts at the point of their interscc.tion and therefore the method of moments can no longer be applied. But passing a section through the truss will still permit tho determination of tho stresses required as we may in that case use tho equilibrium equation of the vertical components of the interual and external forces (it is assumed that the chords are horizontal). As an example, let us consider t he truss represented in Fig. 19.4. Sections I-I and II-II will permit the computation of stress..ls
1 i-853

1(i2

in bars .5-6 and 6-7, tespcctively. In effect projecting on Lhe vortic.al all t.he forces {both external and interna l) acting on t.he
I

II

Fig. 19.4

loll-hand portion of: tho tm::;s (F ig. 20.4) wE: obtain

~y

= A-P+ l'.,0

1)

wh erefrom

whol'<.\ Q i.s t he sht\ar iu Lhe c.orrespondiug so<: tion of a simple bNHn of the snme spnn .
p p

Vs<l'

z
Ls7

A
lltg. 20.4

L57

'Pig. 2.1.4

The cquilihriurn of that portion of t he truss to the left ofsr.ctio11 .ll-ll (Fig. 21.4) wi ll again furn islt
~y

=A-P-P- D6; siua = 0

2A.

Direct llfelhods of

Str~u

IJP.IP.rlllillalfcn

from which

_ A - 2P _ _ Q_
87 -

s in o:

~Ill

o:

wht,re Q is again lhc shcnr in Lbo corn-sponrliug iiec-Liou of a simple hcant, t his slu~~~ l1cing equal to (A - 2P).
Tilt: MB'l'tlOl) OF WI NTS

I11 Lhi!' method tlu~ l'C[lJil.ihritHII of onch joint is (Oil~;iclerecl soparntely, lho joint: being separated fro rn the rc~t of lh<' trns~ which is rt>plam<l hy Lht~ strcs:,w::; ncling in tlw sccLio nccl hilr". In the case

-J
/'

Ftg, 22.4

Fig. 23.1

of simple trusses the methotl of joints permits the successive det.crminatio n of st resses acting in a ll tho members starting with a joint formed by the meeting of two bars only. As an illusttation of the above. let u..~ determine the s tresses in the bars 1-2, 1-3, 2-3 and 3-5 of lhe truss rcptosentcd in Fig. 22.4. We shoJI begin with considoring the equilibrium of. joint 1 llt tho left-band support. (Fig. 23.4.). The projection of all the forcos a ppliell to this joint on the normal to bar 1-3 (in this case a vertical) gives ~y = A + V 12 sin a. = 0 from whicl1 ..

Uu. = -~ 1!10 a.

lu tbo prl:'sent case A is equal to ~ and t.hetefore

U~=-P1 2sin a.
The magnitude of the stress in the hnr .1-3 will be obtained i>y projecting all the forces on a direction perpendicular to bar 1-2, i.e., on the axis y 1 ~Y 1 =A co~a-Lj 3 sin a.=O

164

The Trusses

wherefrom L 1s= - . - - ="cot a

.~:o

A co~ a s1n a

I!

The same result could also Le obtained hy p rojcc.ting all the forces ou the x-axis leading to 1:X = wherefrom L 13 = -V 12 cosa
,3 +U 12

cos a= 0

Substituting in this expression obtain once again

p

u,2

by its value found ()iHlior

p

W'()

. - a c.os a= - cot a L 13 = -2-stn 2

In order Lo dct el'lnine the stresses in members 3-2 and 3-5 we shllll separate lho joint 3 (Fig. 24.4). Equating to Z(!ro thl ~urn or

I
I

IY

_. L.;; '' ;.._--6----L _.3 .s~

Fig. 24. 4

__

all the h<Jrizontul components we fiud

:EX = -

L3t

+ La5 = 0
p

Hememhering that L 13 and L 81 denotu the same stress in bar 1-3 we obtain
~ 5 = 13 =

cota:

T he vertical projuction of all forces acting on joiut 3 gives

1:Y =Vs2=0 The stress in bar 3-2 would remain ni I if this bar were not at right<Jaogles with the lower chor d. Hence, when two out of three bars meeting at a. joint lie on a straight line, the stresses in these two bars wil-l be equal in amount and

2.4. Direc t "tethods of S tres.~ Determinaticm

165

in sign and the third bar will remain idle as long a.s no external force

is applied to this joint.

The eq11ilibrium of joint 2 will now permit the determination of t.ho stresses in bars 2-4 and 2-5 which will be expressed in terms of t.b.o strnsscs U 21 and v 23 alrearly known. ft should be noted however that in tho method of joints the strcssc~; in a ll the members arc determined consecutively, thoso found at a latN stagP. being expressed in terms of t hose found at a previous one. Therefore, any accidental orror c.ommitled in determining any particular stress will he c.arried along ancl will render

~""
I

:r

~~ ;u____ -"'Ftg. 26.4

Fig. 25.4

inaccurate a number of ::mbsequent computations. Another setback of the method of joints resides in the fact that trigonometrical functions enter the equilibrium equations, ihus complicating the calcuh1!;. In certain ca.-;es the computations will be simplified if we remember that if only two bars meet at a jotnt where no external force is applied the stresses in both these bars will be nil. This will be readily confirmed by c.onsidet:ing the equilibrium of joint 1 of the truss repre.-;ented in Fig. 25.4. I ndeed tho projection of all the forces acting on this joint on a vertical and on a horizontal (see Fig. 26 .4) gives l:Y =U12 sina =0 l:X =U12 cosa + 13 = 0 whence Utz = Lt3 = 0 In the actual design of trusses all the threo Illethods described above arc frequent ly used together, preference being given in each particular case t o the one leading more ~.irectly to .he result required.

Pig. 27.!1
P: /Ot P=IOl !'=lOt

~r----.
~

"

. ,'"
' '!. ..

fJ.?,:;~

1:. ,ll'l

?,

I)(/[

,a :;J.'.JO!!!...__

P: J(lt

P '0l

P /(/i

P t;f. 29.1 IV !II I

f 'tg.. 10.4

']'able 1.1.
Mngni ludl'
J,~ I

!I f &t-rc=s

Bar Nu.

Sec

tlon No.

Sketcll of p ot'll(ln cou sldAr,.d

Equll! br lunt

equa tions

S(l)u tlvn

~
.J-6

~-

"
0

Q';i

6<' oo

a.-

N llt.CS

I -I

t
-': I

u;

/ -!

1... I ~
p

v
l
()

T.M 3 ~:..

- Pd-f-

+U ~ 61t - o

f.!,6= ~ h =

! p
4

54_,(\

Fig.
111 ,

27 "'
.Z =

u~

v [}JG
L:;,;

- --r
p
JJ:J<l =sino:-

1.5/

(" =2
4

-=d-1.5'=

- I .ll 111, tan r.L= h 2

!'= -P+ +D3e s ina=O

.E._p
4

=T

5P

=-3 ; sina=

- !~) 5
.! '
&>.~

7-R

1 r-11

0 , " I I
q
_
~c'l

~Y=

-P- V1s =

V;8 = - 1'

Fig. 27 A

=0

L:,?

p
------ ---

Tnble 2 rJ
Magnitude ol
stresse5

Dar

No.

section or jolrt No.

Skolel1 fl f p{'t tion

cousl d~rcd

Bqu lllbrlam

equations

Solution

eton ren-~ <+>

Comprcastoo (-)

Notes

J-6

~M7=A3d-

- 2PXL5d- 2P 1 x t .5d+ -l-lf4&r 1 ::.0

u1,6- - rt .113<1 +
+ +3Pd+3Ptd
r1

182 r 1=(a+3d) s in a 1 tan a = (Rec

Fig. 30.4): at
t he same tiu1e
~~~ ~~

8 a. =gX

-4-7
1-1

(o+2d) whe.rcfrom a=6d sin a-~ tan ?. ""< Vt + tan2t;t 0

x --d-

/ >-.. . . ..
/._

.kL<-:r-~----~J

o~, ~ P lOt '.. ~-- _ a___ ____ .- - -~ rK """'

,p,,ot
3J 5

l:M~c =

-Au+

+2P<a+ L5d!+ +2P1 (a+

+1.5d)+ +D41r2=0

~i7T
--

+ + -2P

r2 -2P (a 1 -1.5d) I
r2
1 (a+ 1.5d)

nt 7 =Aa -T

r2=(a+3d) X
xsio~

8 ta.n ~ =iT l5eO Fig. 30.4)

f1I{I(Jt p,-.J{!I. P,-.?i}l

-----

r2

I
5-7

I
!llf4= 112d-

I
L;,7 =(.12cl - Pd -

I
180

r
I

See Fig. 30.1

-Pd - J>td-

7-G
Il-l/

- L&1 gd=0

9 - Ptd)lfd

o.," ;rif'o
v7G

~Y=Y78-

V1a=P1

30

-Pt = O

D41=Du, =O (seu Fig. 30A)

P,' JOt

2-4

:M5=A2d- Pd - Ptd + +U21r3=0

Jl I -111

U2 -.. = -,.3

A2d

Pd+ J>1d

r3

190 ra ""' (a1 +2d) X x siu et. 3

tana 1 =-g-

- 5-4

z~~llz~ r<;y ~\lj~+

k,

P!Ot

a,

1 3
I

SfLs7

~M,11 =- Aas +

V _ P (a 1 + d) f-

A=JOOt

P.JOt P 1 '30t

+P(at+d) /+ 21-' t (!.5d+a 1) +Wt (1.5d+ :!11-f-al +a.) - v~4(2d-fAa1 -f- a t)=O - 2cl +~

$ ,-

2d -f- at .

;{()

To fmd a 1 use equat ion :; tl ~ (at+"l ~ 3 = tan et1 - \)

..

..
Bnr
,i\' (1

'f';rbf<'
~t,l:~nltude

2,./ tCollclllri? l l

stresses

or
;:.;otc~

or Joint 1'\o.

SK'liOTl

Skolrh of porliM cons! rlMI<l

l!rJuill brlom P< JIID. tlons

Sol ut ion

T~ll-~ ston
( 1->
ll

Com-

pre(~;

2--5

-iJ-5
1-.~

11'- 1 v

Ld'

~'t- k

P=JOt

:M11 1=- Aat +

;>"~,.

Uu

: /'(d+a tl+ +P1 (d j a 1)+

+ D25r~ ""0

D2!,= Aa 1 - P(d;-a 1)
r~

r , =(a 1 + 2d) X

X sin a2

Ptt.d+atl
r4

ta n a 2 ,...:
(~~'>

fi

J LJI- S
! Mz = A d5 - 3~-u-d = O EX =- - f,3t + +La5=0
~Y= Va2-

Fig. 30.4>

A=IO Ot P ,JOt

Ad L,qs -=Sd9

180

- 3-2

V-~

~
,<J ot

LJt = L:s;,

18(1

l-2

Vl-V/

, 6"
LTJ

-P 1= 0
EY= A +Ut2 >'. Xsin a2= ll

I
~

1'32= Pt

I
2

I ~)

I
205

&-e Fig.

~u

L't = - ~ sm cx

See Fig. 30.4

A=IOOt

-----

--

- -

L_ _

--

---

2.J. Direct Methods oj Stress Determination

P:!Qt P=iQt P=!Ot
P~!Ot

17 1

P=/01

P,=JOt A =TOOt 1

P1=JOt.

f1 =J0t

P1=J0t

P 1 JOt 8=!00t

Fig. 31.4

Fig. 32.4

Fig.

8.~.4

Fig. 34.1

Fig . %.4

t72

The Trusses

1'roble.m 1. Computo the stresses in mombers 4-6, 3-6 and 7 8 of the tr.u~s shown in Fig. 27.4. Solut ton. Pass two sections as indicated in Fig. 27.4 and consider the equi1ibrivm of the loft-hand portions oi the t russ. All the calculations are given in 'l'ablo 1.4; column 3 contains sketches of the portion of the truss under coi1 sideration, tho other columns containing the corresponding equilibrium equations and thtJir solution. Problem 2. Compute the stresses in all t ho mom bers of the trusses rewesented in Figs. 2~A . 29.1t , 30.4 and 31.4 and draw the corresponding diagrams. All tho four tntsws catTY the same loads and have identical spans. S olut lon . The tosulcs of all the calculation:; ar~ represented in the f orm of graphs in Figs. ::12.4, 33.4, 34.4 and 35.4, the width of the hand along each truss
P /Ot P =!Ot PIOt

P= /Of.

P= !Ot

P, =JOt A =F OOl

!~=SOl

P,~JOt

0 JOt

P, JOt

r aJ

m~:
(b)

1J = lOOt

Fif! ..16. 1,

rncmber locing in direct prop~1rtion t.o the magnitude of the StJess. Compressions (rt>ckoncd negaLivc) arc hatched while tetiSions (r~ckoned positive) are. left llll:>l'taded . (The values of al l the stresses are given m tons.) Computations pertaining to the truss in }'ig. 30.4 are entered into T<thle 2.4 from which the Sc<!u~nco of all the operations is quito clear. Tlw comp11rison of stress diagrams fot three trusses of equal span, carrying tho samo loads and having the same wob pattern shows (see Figs. 32.11, 33.4 110d 34 .4) that ~he triangular truss in Fig. 29.4 is less economical as the combined area of the graphs is the largest and therefore this truss will be the llenviest of the thme. Probl em a. Determine tho stresses in the K-truss with parallel chord$ re-pro senterl in Fig. 36.4a. Solution. Examining any one of t.he joints at midheight of the truss wheto t.wo iodinod bars meet with the vertical, we find from the projection of all forccs on tho horizontal that !X =D cos a.+ D' cos ex' ~ 0 wherefrom Dcos a. = - D' cos a.'

2.4. Dirt Mellzods of Stress Dtterminatton

173

FiJt. ,17.1
p

( C)

t eJ
(d)

Fig. 38 ~

The Tru&su

D=-D'
wh ich JIIC!I'Ill~ LhaL the slcesses in the inc-llucd h~~rs of one an d the same r>aucl 4r~ e<Juul in magnitul!o but opposite in sign. Tho drtcrmination of the stres.sBS ill all the mcrnl1crs of the truss i.o; om itted. T ho gr;ophs of Lhoso stressos are shown in Fig. 37.4

T ho rMdcr if; invited to provo on his own that the stros~)S in a iJ ~russ llltl mbOI'S marked with a dash in Fig. 38.4 aro nil .

3.1i. GRANHCAL METHOD OF STRESS ANALYSIS IN S l t. IPLE.

T RUSSES

Jt hns boon shown in L ho ptecedin~ arLic.le that all s tro:;~s in a s impl ~ 1 .ru11s may be determined analytic.ally by tJ1c method of jo in l~ . E vury truss of this type will con tain at. least one joint whorl' on ly lWO bars moot and tniS jOin l shon[d be the s tarting p 0i11t O( the O[JCratiOII. V\Tc shall now exam ine the gr11phicnl method of stress nrHtl ysis, this mothocl .b eing hascd on t he resolu tio n of forces along Lwo gi..-tm. ditect.i< >Hs. The foUowitlg sequence should he adoptod. A joint w horo only two bars m oo l; lltH.St be selec.~ecl and tlw ox tet- nal forco (roact:ion) applied to this joint must. thcll he resolved al<>ng tho diwctions of the two borF; , using either tho parallclogntnr nwthod or IJ1e triangle of forces rnet.hod. Th'. triangll' mw;t Jlt\COSSIIJ'ily dose. for tho joint is in l!qnilibriHm. Having tlw.s nblainr.cl the s l.rcs..c:cs in two members WP may Jlrocood to tile ucxt joint, whorl.' Lho resultant of tlw .stress previous ly found and of t he extcl'llal force a ppliod to the joint (if any) must Le again resolved nlongtho directions of tho next couple of bars. Continuing in Lhc some way W(l sha ll complete t.he dc!lmmination of all tho stresses in all t h(l me mbers of the truss . .1\s nn illustration of the abov~. lot us analyze Lho truss repr6sentcd in Fig. a9.4 acted upon a t thA upper chord joints by th ree tqual rc)l'(;(\.<;. Fig. 40.4a shows the same truss. it.~ two Stl'pports having btllln. r.cplncc d hy the appropriate reactio.ns, found either graphically or analytically. C()mnrencing with joint.}, where t.wo b~tr.; 1-.'J a nd 1-iJ nwot , let us dt-aw the corresponding force pol ygo n (Fig. 4.0.4b and c). T he joint being in equil ibr ium and acted upon by rt>action 31' .-1 = T nnd by tho s tresses U 12 nnd 13 , wo must (1} l:ty orr at some seale the reaction A whose magnitude a nct di roc.tion are bot.h known; (2) through both ends of this line trac.c parallels t.o the directions of bars J-2 and 1-3 \rntil their i nt.crsoc.tion, thus co mple tirlg the rorc.e polygon (which in this particul1n ca& reduces t.o a !.dangle).

Plg. 89. :1

u.'t
b

A
(b)
Q

QSP

Scale of lood3 !P lSP 2P Z.SP

(C)

Fig. 40.4

(a }

Fig. 4.1.4

176

The Trusses

The sides be and ca o this triangle measured to the same seale as reaction A will give the magnitude of the stresses in bars 1-2 and 1-9, respectively. The direction (sign) of these stresses will he determined remembering that in a closed force polygon all the forces follow one another. Thus, the teaction A being directed upwards, we shall lind that the stress U 12 acts towards tho joint which means that bar 1-2 is compressed while stress 13 acts away from the joint an<l therefore bar 1-3 is extonded. \~'e may now mark the direction of the stresses found on the <(<~hc mat.ic drawing of t.he truss (Fig. 40.4a) where arrows pointing

(a)

o'SJ~"
(b)
Ftg. 42.4

lowards lhc joint; will indicate cowpression and those pointing away from the joint-tension. Arrows should be also shown at the other extremities of bars 1-2 and 1-3, as the stresses in these bars will have to be accounted for in considering the equilibrium of joints 2 and 3. At joint 2 ac.ted upon by the load P three bars, namely bars 2-1. :2-4 and 2-3, meet together. The stresses U 12 and L 13 being known as well as the load P (Fig. 41.4a), the construction of tho force polygon (Fig. -41.4b) will be carried out as follows: lay off stress U12 acting towards the joint and the load P and then through tilL free <lJ'ldS of these line~; draw two parallels to the direc tions of bal':> :3-4 and 2-3 until their intersection, thus forming a closed polygon . Fig. 41.4b shows that both stresses U 24 and D 23 are compr:essivt. Stresses in !Jars /J-4 and 3-5 may now be obtained by considering t he equilibrium of joint 3 (sec l<~ig. 40.4a). Four bars meet at this joint, namely bars 3-1, 3-2, 3-4 and 3-5, but the stresses are unknown only i u tht~ last two. Hence they may be found by constructiug a force .Polygon as shown in Fig. 42.4. It will be readily ohsotvcd that .b oth these stresses are tensile. The determination of the stresses in the right-hand half o[ the trnss is noL required due to the symmelry o the structure. The proc;)d ure just described permits the determination of thu stresses in all the members of a truss by constructing successivel y force polygons t'l'lated to each joint. Each stress will appear twke ill ~hese polygons, at first as an u_ uknown to be found and later as

.9.4. Graphical Method of Stress Analvsis

ilL

Simple

Tm~ses

1i7

a given force applied to the adjacent joint where two oLhor unknown stresses are sought. All of these polygons may be merged together t.o form a single diagram called the Maxwell-Cremona or stress diagram in which each stress will be met with only once. Such a merger is represented in Fig. 43.4. This operation is made possible by the fact that in the force polygons the forces appear in the sequence they are met with when each joint is passed around in the clockwise direction. (The opposite direction could be adopted as well, but following tbe tradition we shall always use the one mentioned first.) Thus, in joint 1 in Fig. 40.4a we meet f1rst the

Ftg. 13.4

reaction A followed by stress U 12 and then by 13 Iu joint 2 first comes stress Uj 2 , then the load P and stresses U 24 and D 28 'rbis sequence is maintained in the force polygons in Figs. 40.4.c and 41.4b. I n practice the stress diagram for the whole truss is generally obtained directly, omitt ing lhe force polygons of individual joints. This method will be explained using as an example the truss shown in Fig. 44.4. The notations to be used are as follows: letters and cipheis will denote areas bounded by the truss members (areas a, b, and c) or by the lines of action of the loads and reactions (areas I, II, and III) . Each stress, load or reaction will be designated by two indices c.orrespooding to the two areas it separates. Hence, the left-hand abutment reaction forming the boundary between areas I aod III will be indicated by III-I (but not I-III, the clockwise direction being followed), tbe load P by I-II and t he righthand reaction by II-III. Similarly, the stress in bar 1-2 will he denoted by I-a when joint 1 is considered and by a-I for joinL 2. With these notations the numbering of joints may be completely omitted. The construction of t he stress diagram will start at joint 1 over the left-hand abutment where only two bars meet. Having laid off tbe magnitude of reaction. III-I along the vertical to the scale
12-R&3

178

The Trusses

selected we shall obtain the stresses in bars 1-2 and 1-3 by tracing through points f and III parallels to the directions of these two bars whose intersection at point a will permit scaling off of stresses in the upper and lower chords /-a and a-III. In order to determine the directions (signs) of these stresses it will suffice to remember that in a closed polygon all the forces follow each other in one and the same direction. Thus, knowing the direction of the reaction III-I in the triangle /II-I-a-III of the diagram we shall readily determine the directions of the stresses 1-a ancl
p

'
/

A
II!
r '

ExternaL III

area~

61
~,

Fig. 44.4

Pig. d5 . .J

a-Uf, the first being directed from I towards a, and the second from a towards III. Marking these directions on the sketch of the truss (Roe Fig. 44.4) we find immediately that the stress 1-a is directed towards joint 1 and is therefore compressive, while the stress a-III ac.ts away from this joint and accordingly bar 1-3 is extended. We may now pas15 to joint 3 of the lower chord acted upon by the stress Ili-a just found and by two unknown stresses a-b and b-JJJ. These stresses will be obtained by tracing through points I II and a two linos parallel to the bars b-1II and a-b, th.e point of int.ersec.tion of which shall be marked b. The sign of these stresses will be derived as heretofore from the direction of the stress III-a previously found (seo Rig. 45.4) . Marking these dimctions on the sketch of t he truss {see :r~ig. 44.4) we note that all Lht> bars mceLing at joint 3 are extended . The next joint to be considered is joint 2 acted upon by the load !-If, two stresses already founcl b-a and a-l, and two unknown

3.1. Gr11phiral Mctltod of Slre8s 11 n~~lvsb

i tl

S imple Trusus

179

st.resses II-c and c-b. Heturning to Fig. 45.4 we :find that lhe diagram contains the two stresses b-a and a-.1'. Adding to these the load I-II {line I -II) we may readily find the resultant b-Il of these three forces marked in dash line in Fig. 45.4. Hcsolving this force along two directions parallol to the hars 2-5 and 2-4 we shall find the stresses in these bars given by tho length of segments li-e and c-b. Tho forco polygon b-a-1-II-c-b indic.ates that bar III-c is cornpressed while bar c-b is extended. P assing to the last join t. 4 wo fmd lhat out oi the three bars meeting at this joint the stress in one bar only remains unknown. If the diagram has been constructed accurately, lino c-JIJ giving this stress must be parallel to har 4-5 and must pass through point II I, in other words, the diagram should be closed . The force polygon for poiut 5 will bo represented by II-JII-c-ll. In the stress diagram the external forces were laid off in the same order as they were encountered when passing aro1tnd t he perimeter of the truss in a clockwise di rection. The force polygon of exter nal lo11.ds ancl rtactions must a lso be closed, the whole trus~ being in equilibrium. The closure of the external force polygon and of the stress diagram constitutes a ready c.hcck o rt the accuracy of all the operations. The construction of tl1e Rtrcss diagram is usually commenced Ly Lracing the closed polygon of loads and reactions which must be laid off ir1 the same order as t hey are met when passing around the truss in a clockwise direction. This being done, the stresses in the bars i ntersecting at each joint. a1-c determined graphically c.o mmencing with the joint where only two bars meet. These stresses will a lso be laid off in the sequence they are encountered when passing around each joint in a clockwise direction. The construction of the forco polygon for each joint should be carried out in such a way that the two unknown stresses should come last. Thus in the exam}llo given in F ig. 46.4a force P 1 should come first in order that the unkno wn stressc.s Y and X should come last (Fig . 46.4b). ln the stress diagram each L ine denoting au internal fone belongs to two force polygons correspon ding to two adjac.ent joints, and t herefore it is not recommended to show the directions of t.be stresses in t he diagram , t hese directions being different i n the two cases just mentioned . Moreover, it is easy to det~rmine the direction (sign) of each stress without going around tho whole of the force polygon corresponding to the joint u nder c.onsideration. Indeed, each stress in the diagram is denoted by two indices following ~ach other in the sequence they were met when passing around the joint in a clockwise direction. This sequcnco will therefore be different for Lwo adjacent joiut.s, for instance, t he stress in bar 2-3 (sec
12

180

The Truues

Fig. 44.4) should be denoted by a-b if referred to the lower chord joint 3 and by b-a when referred to the upper chord joint 2.

(b)

(a)
Pig. 1.fi.!l

As point a. of Lhe force polygon roprei'ented in Fig. 45.4 lies below point b L.ho stress a-b will be directed away from the lower joint and tberoforl' the corresponding bar will be extended.
Probl em . Hequired to <;oostruct a stress diagram for the truss rop1 eseoted in Fig. 47.4a and to det.eJ mine the stresses in all the member:> of lbls tru ss. So1,.tton. Using tho notations described abovl' indicaLo by letters a, b. ,., etc., the areas bounded by the memb ers of the Lruss and by I, IT, . . . , I X the areas ~ieparaLod bf tho dircctioM of the loads and reactions as the truss is pas..oed around it.s porunl'wr in a clockwise direction. A force JIOlygon I-II- , . . . . -TX-1 ( Fig. 47.4b) may bo then constructed eoromencin~ wilh the load acti1~g over the left.-hand abutwont, reaction A (force l X-i) bemg Jn id off last. 'J'he fo1ce polygon must close as tho system of external forces (loads and I'Mctions) is IHdnncod * The construction or the dingrnm starts at tlte joint ilirectly al)ovo tho !efLhaml ahutmon t . by tracing 11 closed forc.e polygon of all the forces acting at this ,;oint.. Fooc.cs IX-I and I-II are alrondy set out, thoil rc~u.l tont IX-II boing clinc;t.Nl npwnrds. This force must now be r(:soJvoll a long the directions of Lh< luw<r nnil tlw upper chords, for which purpose n line parallel to bar ll-11 i~ t<nccu through point II nnd u horizontal para11ul lobar a-1X through point JX, tho intersection h<ing marked by the l ett~r a. The sign of tho str()SSCS will be determined l>y tho application of the rulE> that in a closed force pol ygon all ttl<' forct>.-. folJo,..,' on<' anothl.'l' in thE> same dlnction. Accordingly tho .:otrc~' 11-tt must c li rcct<"l from right to Jeft and clownwards and stress a-IX frnm )('ft to right. In otlcor words, tlie stross in bar l 1-a will be diroctod towards the joint which meAns tltat this ba.r is compressed and the stress in bar aIX away fi'Om the joult indicating that tnis momber is extendl'd .

oo

In tho force polygon forcos Vllf-.fX (reactiou R) and TX-T (reuct.lnn A) aro slll,{htly offsc:>t towards tho right in order to Wilid confusion w(t.h thl' exl.ornal londs.

3.4. Graphical MPthod of Stre.s Analysis i r1 Simple 1'ru ~src.~

181

Poin ts b, c, d , etc., of the stress diagram will be found as follow~: point b by tracing through point a a parallel to tho vertical a.b and Lhrouglt point 1./ a parallel to tho bar JJ lb ; poini c hy drawing through point b a parallel to the diagonal b-e nud a horiwnt< ll through point IX; point tl wi ll he formod by ~ho
p

"" "

-1:: ~~~~~--~~--4---~~~~--~

&ate o/ll]()ds f Zf
(b)

Ftg. 47 .-1

inteT Section (lf a vertical passing through point c nncl 01' ;~ lino pMalleL to the opper chord mcmlror JV-d passing tbrnugh point IV. Points e, J. g. h , ! and k will be found in tht1 sa.mo WilY- It will he no ted that poiuts e and f c.oincid~, indiTable 9.4
Upper ohur<l Bar Lownr chord I:lar V erticals l;lar
0 \ ogona l ~

Stress

Stress

Str~ss

Bar

Strcs 1.60/>

a-Il
It-Ill d-JV g-V

t-Vl
k-Vll

-6.85l' -6.85P -5.40P -5 .40P -6.85P - G.85P

a.-! X c-IX e-IX f-IX h-I X

~IX

G.30P 5 .05P 3 .80P 3 .80P 5.05P 6.30P

a-b
c-d

-L OOP b-e -1 .ifJP d-e

0
j -g

e-f
g-h ik

-1. 50.P -LOOP

h-i

1.95P 1.95P UiO P

1R2
Cllting that the s tres-s in the verticul t-/ is nil. The construetion of tho last diagram pertaining to ~he righl-ha nd half r.f tho truss could oo omitted as the stresses in the two l!alvt>s of n symmetrical truss subjected to a symmetrical system of loads will !~ exactly the same. In tho stress diagram of llig. 17.4 dnsh line!> indicate tensions ond solid line$ compressions. lL v::ill be seen that aU tho members of the Jower chord and tit(> diogonuls are oxtended, while the upper chord members and the verticals arc compre~seil. Tho magnit.udes of the> strt~Sscs scaled off the diagram are tuhulated nbove.

4./t. DIRECT

~f.t:;THOD OF STRESS DETERMINATION JN COMPLICA'l'ED STATICALLY DETERMINATE FRA~fED STRUCTUTIES

OccasionaUy the designer will hnve to deal with framed s tructures of n considerably more intricate pattern than those formed by the successive addition of supplementary joints to a basic triangle, each of these joints being attached by means o two concurrent bars. Those systems remain statically deLerminate and in a Jlumber or cases they may be derived from the simple systems by replacing one or more bars by the same number of other b8IS without disturbing the geometrical stability of the system as a whole. As a rule, the analysis of such systems will require simultaneous solution of several equations with several unknowns. However, in many cases th~ complicated systems may be reduced to the simple ones, or to such systems which can be analyzed without solving <.' quatiorls with numerous unknowns, by a fictitious replacement {substitution) of bars. The additional equations permitting to solve the problem will express that the stres...c;cs in all the substitute members remain nil. The following example will illustrate this melhod. Assnme that it is required to find the stresses in all the tnembers of the structure represented in Fig. 48.4a acted upon by some oxternal :force, say. Joad P applied at joint 6. It will he imm~d.iately seen that in this structure three bars meet at each joint, hence the method of joints becomes inapplicable. At tho same tirne the method of. moments will lend to a number of equations each containing several unknowns, which is extremely undesirable. In those circumstances l~t u.s transfori!\ the structure int o a simple system by replacing bar 6-3 by bar 1-5 as indicated iu Fig. 48.4b. The structure so obtained forms an' .unyielding combioaLion as it may be formed by the successive addition o[ joints 2, 4 and 3 to a basic hinged triangle 1-5-6, each of these joints being connected. by means of two concurr9llt bars. 'l'he analysis of suc.h a transformed system is greatly simplifted for the stresses in all the bars may be found, say, by the method of joints without the ~>o l ution of equations with mult.iplo unknowns.

1.1.1. birt.ct

Jlftll~d

of Stress Determi11atum in Framed Structures

183

Let us denote by X the stress induced by the load P in bar 6-3 aud let us apply the same force to joints 3 and 6 of tho transformed system in the direction of bar 3-6 (it is assumed that this bar is
~'Xlended).

Jt i s obvious that the stresses in all 1 .he members of both the original and the transformed systems will become exactly the same when the stress in the substitute bar 1-5 reduces to zero under the combined action of forces P and X. lndced, the two systems will be identical for any bar may always be replaced by a force acting in thr snrne

(O)
Fig.
48.~

(b)

direction and having the same magnitude as the stress in this bar, and wht\n the stress is zero this means that t he bar may be omitted without disturbing the system. The principle of superposit ion enables us to express the stress in any member i of the transformed system (and accordingly of the original on!:~, too) by

N 1 = Ntp + N,xX
where N,P

(2.4)

stress in the transformed system induced by the load P s:uno stress induced by a unit load X = 1. The same formula applying to the substitute bar, we rnny write t.h~tt the stress N, in this bar equals
N.=Nav+N~:cX =

= lhr: =

0
(3.4)

wheret'rom
X=
N P --=Nu,

Substituting the value of X thus obtained in the expression (2.4) we shall f~~td the stresses in all t he members of the system. In more comp licat~d cases it becomes sometimes necessary to replace two or more bars. rn such cases the method just described

184

The

Tn~sses

will not dispense completely with the solution of several equations with several unknowns. The to.taJ stresses in the su bstitute bars will still reduce to zero, and their expressions will take the form

N . =Ntp+N 11 X 1 +NnX2 +NuX3 + ... =0 Nt=N'lp+N21X 1 +NuX2+NuXa+ ... =0

Na = N~p+N31 X 1 +N32X 2 +NasXs -:-

{4.4)

... = 0

where N 1 , N 2 , JV,J.. =total stresses in the s ub::titute hars 1 , 2, 3, etc. X., X~, X~ ... =unknown stresses in the bars which have been replaced

1V111 N 1,., N 13 ,

=stresses induced in s ubstitute bar 1 by unit loads X 1 = 1. X 2 =1, X3 = = 1, _. _, respectively = same stresses in substit ute bar 2, etc.

N2t>

Nu.

Nt3 ,

The values of the unknown stresses X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , ete.., wilL he in t his cas0 obtained by solving the system of eq uations (4.4) . .Tn complicated structures the correct position of the substitute bar is not al ways clear. J::{owevor, it may be found in the following way: having e liminated one bar reject one by one all the joints connected to the remaining structure by two distinct bars until a joint is found whose connections are insufficient. The additional bar needed to fix this joint with respect to the remainder of the structure will constitute the required substitute bar. If the structure so obtained still docs not belong to the category of simple framed structures, another of its bars should be eliminated and urthcr joints should be rejected until one more joint inadequately E connected to the rest of the structure is found , indic.ating the po!;ilion of the second substitute bar. '.l'his procedure may be repeated as many times as necessary to transform the structure into a simple system.
P robl em. Using ~he replaccmen~ method determine the stresses in all the membors of a framed structure in Fig. 49.4a for sin a = O.G and sin ll = 0 .8. Sol1tlton. lleplncing bar 8-0 l1y bar 1-5 as shown in Fig. 49.4b we obtain 11 ~ simple !<ystem permitting tlle determination of tho stress X in tho roplnced biH' by equating to zero tho stre>ss in the substitute bnl' 15
N t1 =Nup+ Nt 6 xX-O
whc.>nce

4.4.

Dir~ct

Method oj Stress /)etermtnation in Framed Structure'

185

N 15 p and N 15" b!ling th~ stresses induced in the substitute bar J~ by t l1 t' l oad P and tho unit force X= 1., respectively. The stri)SSt >s in all tbl' other m~mhers of truss will be found using tlw formula

Nt=N;p + N;,.X
where N 1p and Nix arc the stresses in the corresponding m<lmber of th(l transformed system iniluced by tiiCl loail P and the unit force X = 1, respect.ivcly.
3

(a}

p Ftg. 49.4

Jn this example the method of joints should be retained as its conse.cutive application to joints 3, 2, 1, (J and 5 will ~how inunediately that only hnrs 16. Table 4.4
Bar No . Stress lnducea by un!t force
Stress Induced by load 1'

X= ! 5

Stress Induced by force X

Total stress
ot
system

in memb!rs tb~ ortg i nal

2-3 or 4-3
1-2 or 5-4 2-5 1-0 1-5
Not~:

-6
- 1

0 0 0

+MP

15
9

1'i +....::._P

14

-TP
-~P
14

9 -'fP

01'

4-1

+if

5
5

-~P
14
7

Ol' 5-0

--s
7

+.2_P
8

+45 p

56
8

+10 p
0

- 24
1'1\e
s tr~ss

_!p
8
X=Nt~p

+_!P

X 111

thu replaced bat iJG equals

;vl5:t 24 9 --=- -3P-e:: -P 8 -7
1

186

The

Tr~.~-sses

.56 and 1-!J of the transformed system are stressed by the lond P, all ~ho other membei'S remaining idle. All the computations are listed in Table 4.4. Entries into thtJ !lth and the 5th columns have been made only after finding the stres.; X in t.11o replaced bar 3-6. Valut.>s appearing in column 4 have been obtained hy multiplying tho~ of column 2 oy the magnitude of the stress X (see below), while the entries oi colmnn 5 result ftom the summation of figures contained in columns~ nncl 4 .

5.4. STRESS DISTRIBUTlON IN DLFFERENT TYPES OF TH US.."lES

Stresses computed for trusses of the same span, the same height and the same number of panels and actod upon by the same system of loads, but differing in the outline of their upper chords have been illustrated in Figs. 32.4, 33.4, 34.4, 35.4 and 37.4 of Art. 2.4. Examining these figures it will be noted that in certain trusses Lhe chord stresses increase from the abutments towards the centre line (Figs. 32.4, 35.4 and 37.4), while in other trusses they decrease {Figs. 33.4 nnd 34.4). In trusses oi different shape but of the same web pattern the verticals and the diagonals may sustain stresses of different sign; thus, in the truss in Fig. 32.4 the diagonals arc extended while in the truss in Fig. 33.4 they are compressed. For n number of truss6s the mode of stress variations in chord members, the sign of the stress in the elements of the web as well as certain other peculiarities of their performance may be predicted without detailed calcul ations. As an example, lot us take the three trusses reprcscnLed in Fig. 50.4a, b and c which differ one from another only l.ly the posiLion of their diagonals. In order to facilitate judgement regarding the sign of the stress induced in the different elements of these trusses by a uniformly distribu ted load we shall make use of an auxiliary uniformly loaded benm appearing in Fig. 50.4d. TheM and Q diagrams for this beam arc represented in Fig. 50.4e and f . The bending moment diagram shows that in the beam the lower fibres arc extended and t.hc upper ones are compressed, indicating that in a truss the upper chord will be compressed and the lower one extended. In the same beam the blnding moment increases from the ends towards the middle and accordingly (the height of a truss with parallel chords remaining constant). th0 stresses in the chord members will also i ncrease from t ho abutments towards the cent re line. Sections taken through t he auxiliary beam and the trusses (section I-I in Fig. 50.4a, b, c, d) will help to find the signs of the stre!>ses in the web members. The shear in section I-f of the beam being positive tends to lift the. left-hand portion of the beam with re.spect to the right-hand one. Hence the sectioned diagonal of the truss shown in Fig. 50.4a will be extended as shown in Fig. 51 .4a and

5.4. Stress Dlstributior tn /)tfferent T/f{H!$ of Tru$ses

187

I II

(0)

I
(b)

II

{C)

ta J ,):);;'
{I:!}

Jib I I I I ll! i r:LI!IIllll

I
M graph
:%:

(f)~
'f ~
Qgraph

~~~~~~rm~q! ~z
Fig. S0.4

188

The Trusses

the !\Cctioned diagonals of the trusses of Fig. 50.4b and c will be compressed (Fig. 51.4b and c). The same reasoning ",;lJ show that all the diagonals of the Pratt truss represented in Fig. 50.4a are PXtended, those of t he Howe truss in Pig. 50.4b are compressed while in the Warren truss appearing in Fig. 50.4c extended diagonals will alternate with compressed ones. Fig. 50.4/ shows also that t he shearing forces decrease towards the middle o[ the beam; similarly the stresses in the diagonals of the trusses will also drop towards midspan. J When t he loads are applitld ~o th_e upper c~ord of. the t_ru~s lD F1g. 50.4c 1ts vertlcals J, .'1 and 5 are compressed and verticals 2 and 4 are idle. Vice versn, if the load is applied to the lowl

/fVtiNSl
F ig. 51.4
Ftg. 52.4

er chord verticals 1, 3 and 5 will become idle and verticals i and 4 will become extended . This may be easily proved by considering the equilibrium of the appropriate joints of the truss. The direction of tho stresses in the verticals of the Pratt and the Howe trusses in Fig. 50.4a and b will bo readily fo und considering the equilibrium of that portion of theso trusses which lies to the right of section JI-ll (Fig. 52.4a and b). The shear acting in the left-hand portion being posit ive is directed upwards, compressing the vertical in t he Pratt truss (Fig. 52.4a) and extending it in the H owe truss (Fig. 52.4b). These stresses will also decrease towards the centre line of the trusses like the shearing forces in the simple beam (Fig. 50.4/).

5.4. Stru1 Distribution in Different Types of

Tru~$

189

All the above is readily confirmed by the stress diagrams in

Figs. 32.4 and 35.4.

If the trusses were loaded differently, the stress distribution might alter considerably. For instance, if a single load were applied at midspan of a beam its bending moment and shear diagrams would be such as shown in Fig. 53.4a, b and c . In this case tho shear remains constant along each half span. The same will apply to the stresses in the web members of the trusses. When two symmetrical concentrated loads are applied at the hip joints of a truss (as in Fig. 54.4a) the stresses in all the chord ;members except the ond ones will remain consta nt as rnay easily be -deducted from t he bending moment diagram of the auxiliary beam .repre~entcd in Fig. 54.4b. At t he same time t he stresses in the web me mbers will be nil (see shear diagram of a simple beam in Fig. 54.4c). The analysis of stress d istribution becomes considerably more complicated for trusses with nonparallel chords such as shown in F ig. 55.4a, b and c. When the upper chord follows exactly the bending moment diagram, t ho stress. (extension) in the lower chord members will remain constant and the compression in the upper 1 chord will be directly proportional to - where a. is the angle formed cos ex by lhe corresponding member of the c-hord wHh a
hori~ontal.

Such

will be the case of a uniformly loaded parabolic truss (compare the

bending moment diagram in Fig. 50.4e with truss in Fig. 54.4b) or of a triangular truss carrying one concentrated load applied at its apex (compare tho bending moment diagram iu Fig. 53.4b with the truss in Fig. 55.4a). In these cases all the diagonals romain idle and the stressos in the verticals are either equal to the load appliod at the corresponding joint (if the loads aro c.arriod by the low<~r l'ltord) or become nil , when the load is applied to tho top c.hord. The accuracy of these statements is well illustrated by tho stresse::; computed for tho parabolic truss represented in Fig. 34.4. When the outline of the truss chords does not coincide with the bending moment diagram, only tho signs of the stresses in tho top and bottom chords and the mode of tboir variation rnay be still predicted fairly easily, the l ower chord being always oxhmded and the uppe r one compressed as long as unit stresses oi the same sign contiHue to exist in the upper and lower fibres of the auxiliary simple bcnm. Let us take for example a triangular truss act-ed upon hy a uniform load and let us superpose tho corresponding bending momen~ diagrnm in Fig. 50.4e on the schematic drawing of the truss as represented in J:.l.g. 56.4. The scales should be so adjusted that maximum .ord inates of both drawings coincide.

190

The 7'nts.,es

(a~

r
Mgroph
{o (J gropiJ

(C~~
"!'i~lll,.,..,l !I'"'I(~'""'II"TTIIII"TTIIII.,.;:;II!
.E

(IJJ

.11111 1111811 Ill IIIIYZ

F ig. 53.4

(aJ

#
~

(b)

~lllllllllllllllllmllll lllll~ pq

(C)

llRIDft

Q grapll

Ftg. 54.4

Fig. 5.'1.1

6.rl. Analysis of Geometrical Stability of Fram-ed Structltres

191

The ordinate of the bending moment diagram a rlistance. x f1om the left-hand abutment will be

Y=hmax - (

{l. 5l-~

O.Sl

)Zhm4>:=4x-(L -%) -hmox

12

At the same place the height of the t russ equals

h=

';;:5i x=hmn"~
-T )

Accordingly the rutio 2 (1 will decrease from abntmenl bo centre line and so will the stresses in both the top anrl tho

i- =

Fig. 56.4

bott.om chc1rds. Con1hmation of this statement will he found in t he dittgram of stresses induc.ed in a triangnla r trw:;.') by a uniform lond rApresented in F ig. 33.4.

6.4. ANA fJYSIS OF GEO'METRICAL STABILITY OF

STRliC'fURES
1.' Stl>IPLE STRUCTURES

PRJ\MED

It has heen shown in Art. 2. 1 thai; a framed structure may he instantaneously unstable even if the number of bars i n each of its parts i~ stl.fiic.ient to ensure i ls rigi1lity. Therefore. the number of bars formin~ a given structure cannot con~titute alont> a criterion of ils geo met.rical stabilHy. Jn some cases instantaneously unstable structures cnn be detected fairly easily. Indeed it can be proved that in sepl!rnte members of such slructures finite loads will induce inf1nite or indefinite strt~.'!.'>t'-~. Conversely it may also be shown that iE any given load will produce a well defin ed set of finite stresses in all the members of a [rarnecl st.mctnre and t hat when the load is nil, all the stresses in all

192

The Trusses

the members of this structure will also reduce to zero, this sttucture constitutes an unyielding combination. The method of investigating the rigidity of framed structures based on this property may therefore be termed the zero load method. 1t should be noted however that before applying this method care should be taken to ascertain that the number of bars in each part of thr. strt~cture. is sufficient to ensure its stability. Otherwise erroneous condusions may be arrived at as will he seen from the ex.a mple of a hinged quadrangle represented in Fig. 57.4. Indeed the method

D
Fig. 57.4 F tg. 58.!1

of jolll l;s shows immediately that when no l oad is applied the stresses i n all the members are nil, but nevertheless the system is unstable. In order to demonstrate the acmm1.cy of the statements made above let us consider the following examples. A plate connected to the g1ound by means of three nonconcuncnt bars forms as we know ao unyielding combination (Fig. 58.4). It is easily proved that under zero load the stresses in all the connecting bars will be necessarily nil. Indeed let us replace these bars by the corresponding reactions .RA .R 8, and .R 0 (Fig. 58.46) and let us c.onsider the equilibrium of the moments of all tho forces acting on the plate about the point of interst>ction oE reactions BA 1111d I? ll (point O,). We obtain

Rcrc =O

and as t he lever arm r 0 =1= 0, Lhe reaction R 0 is uocessarily nil. The same reasoning will show that .RA and R 0 are also nil. This serves to c.onfirm the statement made above that all the member.~ of a geometrical stable system always remain idle when the structure carrie.s no loa.d. Now l et us investigate the case when the plate is supported by three concurrent bars intersecting at point 0 (Fig. 59.4a). Replacing once again the bars by the corresponding reactions and equating

fi.4 . A llllll!~is

of Oe<'melrical Stability of Framed Structurt>g

19;{

to zero lh~ ~>um or all the momNals of exLernal forces abouL poiul 0 we C1bL:dn the identity

'I.Mo=RArA + Rrh;~ + Rcrc = 0

for r,1 = r a = rc = 0. Accordingly, lhe values of tho reactions rl:'lflnin undetermint!d. l'he otht'r Lwo equilibrium equations (for inslanc.e, the cquntiows of the force projt!dions on the x and y-axcs) will not help in fanding n dutinite solution for tlwy wil l contnin lhrcc unlwowus. Thus, the stresses in an instanta.neously u.nstable
sy.~trm

nur.y have no well dr.'(incd value even when no load i!> applied.

The same con<:.ln~ion will he rcac.bed if some arbi trary value wt~re nttl'ilmted lo any one of the reactions. H could then he rcsolVl'cl nlong the directions of the other two haes, the whole sysi,Cill being

Cround
(a)
Fig. 59.!1

lha.ts iu e.qniliLH'ium. That. moans that we can lind any uumher of rcar..tion values satisfying th<~ equilihri11m cond itions. which indicatos lhat the f;ystem is instantnneouf;ly unstable. If: the same system is subjected lo some frui !;e load P not passing through point 0. lhe sum of IIWJUents of a ll external forces about this point hecorues

'ZM 0 =R~~.O+RIJO + ReO+ Pr '::/: 0

as nei thor P nor r are. r.e.ro. 'J'ba t means that the system is 1i0t in equilibrium and the plate will rotate about point 0. Howovt~r as soon as an infmit.esimal rotation will have oc.curred, the three SUJlportiug llars wiJ I no longer. remain concurmnl stnd the reactions indnced therein tJy the load P will be able to balance this load. At this pat't lcu lar moment. t.he cquiJibri\Hn equalion about the sarnC' point 0 heeoruos '2Mo=R_1 1' ;~ + Rnrn + RC'rc+Pr=O

iodk;11,ing that tho reaction i11 at least one o the bars mul!t Le inlinit.e, for the levet atms r~~. , r n and rc nre infmitely small. Hence,
t3- Ro3

194

The Trusses

the in/Rrnal forces dneloped in an tnstantcmeou.~ly unstablesystern acted upon by a finite load may surpass any given value and therefore sm:h systems cannot be u ~ed. Another example may be furn ished by the geometrically stable s tructure in Fig. 60.4a c.onsistiog of n plate adequately connected Lo lhQg round and supporting joint c nltac.hed to iL l>y two concurrent

...__--'-;......&~
Fig . 60 .1

~
~p
(b)
Fz~r

61 .4

hal's ac ond he. ff a load P were applied to thi~ joint Wig. t>0.4bl. tltJ "l r(lsses -"rG and N,b in these bnrs will be giVNI hy

I X= --Nca cosa.+Nrb cos a.= 0

:EY --:: .Y~" !':in a.+ Ncb sin a.- J> =(I
wh Are[l'om

Tt fo lluws tha t when tl1e angl<.>s a. formed by t h1:1 two ba t'S w1tb the horizontal <Jpproat~ h zero, the ~t resses in these b:trs will increase iudeftnitQly proving that the system hns become ins t.anl.aueonsfy unstable. I ndeed, in that c-asP joint c will be connt>cted to the rest. of the ~t rlH:.ltH'e by two bars lyh1g on one and the sAme hor i zon t,~.,l nnd we know thllt such systems 11rtl on11tablt). One more cx.ampl o of instantan eously unstable sttu{'Lurcs is pl'escntod in Fig. 131.4. Allhough the number of bars iu this syslern f)qunls 2!(-::1, the e-.arnination of equilibrium coudit'ions at j<Jints c and d leads to r.ontradictory conclusions. Indeed the equili brium of joint r requir(IS that the stress in bar cd should be nil. while the equilibriu m of joint d requires th a t it should equal 7 P. Th.is conlroversity i ndicates clearly that the system is instantaneously unsl~1h le. 'J'hus. if a system, is provided with a number of bars sufficient to ensure tts rigidity it will be instantaneously unstable, if (1) finite force.~ induee in one or m.ore members infinite stresses or (2) the stresses cannot be determined or controversial .~tress value.~ re.~ult from the consideration of different part.~ or joints of the structllre.

6 .4. A nal!Jsls Ctj Gtun" frical Stability o f Framed S tmc.l>tr r.

195

f ' i g . 62.4 repre~ents H J\ Ulll ber Of framed Sl.rU('.LUreS tho Stabi lity of whi ch t he render i ~ i nvilcd to in V l'f: tigat,e using the 1.ero Joad me thod . H e s hould kee p i u rniud t hnt. this me t!10d twco nHI8 inapp ht'ablc if th t~ nutnbor ot ba r<~ tl' iufcrior to (2K- 3).

(O) ~ (d/~

(f)

Pi;;. 62. 4

2.

COli1P l .ICA1 J:O S1'H UC1 UIU:S

First.. let. us <'Xnmine. the case ")Hi ll l,hc t nlJlsform nt io n of the c.omplicnlcd ~yst om into a simple one requi rPs t ltP r rpla('-l' lllt'll t of hut one bar. The- tra nsformed syste m w; IJ c-onsist of an elemen tMy ln angle to whic h a cert a i n nu mber of joints has hecn added , ench connected by two conu ll'l'(>nl bars a n d acc.ordingly t lu s syst.om wi ll form a n un y i elding combination ; h ence, t he stres~ N,.1, indueed i 11 the fiubs ti.t u te bar b y a load P will havH a well defined a11d fini te~ \781nH. lf a unit stre11s X = 1 dirt!clf<n ul ong t he ba r that h as been r(plaeed induces in the suhstit.nte bar a stress N~,. al!'o d i~tin ct from zero. th en , in aer.ordon c ~ with for mula (3.4), the i nner ro rrl' X iu the replaced mem brr of t h4' origin al sysl,(lm will t'qnal

X= -

N ep

N cx

13*

19f>

Sine!:' l.his stress is linite and well rlalined , Lhe same wi ll ap]lly to all the other stresses induced by a load P in the original system which , as wo know, proves that thu ily~tem is goomotr.ically stable. On the other hand , if Nex = 0 then
X=--=- ~ + Nex NeTJ

oo ot X

0 =o

[u othor words, the stress in tho roplac.td bar heeomes either infinite or inuelenniuatc indicating thett Lhe whole system is instnntancotlsly nustahtc. Acc.ordingly, the oxpression X = -

~""
Nr-x

cnnsh tntes a mean::;

of in vestigati ng the stability of complic.atcd syst.ecns. When ]Vex =fo 0 the system for.rns an unyielding combination, and wheu Nr.x = 0 it is i nstanlnncously unstable. Thl:' abnvo can be form ulated as follows: when the stress induced m . the substit1tte bar of the transformed .~y.~tem by a unit force X = 1 adiag along the replaced bar of the original system differs from zero, th!! system is geometrically .~table, bu.t when this stress becomes nil, the system is instantaneously unstable and u.n{U for practical usc. Fig!:'. 63.4 <Hld 64.4 represent a certain number of original and tmnsforroed syslerns for which the reader is invHcd to check tht! nc<~urac.y of the value of Ne:r indieaterl , anrl to decide accordingly whether lhc system is stable or 110t. The substitute bars arc show11 iu dash lines. The plus and rninus signs placed against certain bars indicate tho direction (sign) of the stress induc.cd in t he transformed sy1;tcm by a unit force X = 1 acting aloug the replaced bar of the original one. Knowing the direction of these stresses (the reader is invited to vorify them) and considering the equilibrium of joint K or using l.hc mcLhod of shears or that of tho momeuts, the rt~ader wil.l find 'in cac.lt caf;e w.hether: Ncx is nil or possesses so rne def1ni te valul:'. Lut u.s investigat.fl, for instanee, the syslern in Fig. 63.4a. TJw Ctqni librium o[ joint 1 o[ the transformed system showg immediately l.hat bar 1-2 is QXlCJHled and that the str.e!!>s in bar 1-6 is nil. Passing to joint 2 we ::;ce that bar 2-3 .is extended and bar 2-4 is compressed. Moreover, the projection on the yortical of all the st.re.Rses acting (Ill joint 4 will show that bar 4-K must be extended in order to bal a nee t.hc push exerted by bnr 2-4. Hence t lte substitute bar K-{i \vill ht) c.om pressed, for otherwise tho projccli ons of all the forces applied to joi.nt J( on l:he horizon l;al will110t. balance a nil therefore 1 ;he systorn i!-$ stable. 'J.'he ~arne result cot1ld h:wc llcen anived at by passing fl'om joint 2 to joint 3 and then to joint (J.

6.4. A llftly.<ts of Gr:ometric~Ll Sltbillly of Frtwtr.if Struclrtr~s

197

It is sugge11ted that the reader should prove that the structure rep resented in J:t'ig. 63.4c wilt become unsta bl e whlHI a= ~ For the i<lrucLurc in Fig. 63.4d he will lind that Nq is 7.01'0 hy
taki111:! in SIIC.t'Q~<~iun Rcctio11s

n-n and m-m. for lht!

Transformed systems

syslt>lll i n

Original systems

/(
(O}

+
(b)

cr; >jJ

(C )

(dl

Pig. R!U

Fig. ()t,.4b it i~< e-nsict to projocl o n the lwrizonlal all l he furrts acting a.bnve set~l.ion n-n. Using the same methods the reader ~;honld IJu~n invcstigat(' tho stahilit.y of the stnrcture in F ig. 6.'5.4. When the transformation of a complicated system into a simple oue t~qn ire~ tile l'oplacemAnt of more thnn one bar, t he eqnnlions

198

Tht: 'l'russes

df'nying the existence of a diffc ronce between th~ original and the ll'.tltSformatl systems are, as we havo already seen (Eq. 4.4)
1V1 = .\' 11, I NHXi +NuX"L ,Nw'l.,. f- . . - U

N 2 -:- :\": 1,..:....iV21 X 1 +Nz!Xz +X~aX:.+ . .. = U

N3 =-N~, - N~,XJ-i-v;zX2 +'V:,sX:+ . .. -=0 etc.

(bl
K
' '

,'c)

~
----- -------- - --'
Ftg.
6~.4

X= I

flu:: SLI'{'S<ses X 1 X 2, etc. , artsmg in this case in l.he substitute bars will pOS!>CSS CCIIIc r e te values moaning that the wl.J.ole syswm i~ stl'!'blo on ly whon the determinant D is differer1t from zero. e.g.,

7.1. fnflltM~l' U11eS /or StresSe.! in S/lnple FramaJ S trueturts

199

when

iYuN12N1a D = N2tNz2.N2.'l + 0
N 31]1j32N33 On the cortl.raty, when D 0 tho values ot strcsse.'$ X 1 X 2 otc . , become unc.IH'I,ain , whirh indicatl'S ~hat the syste-m is in ~tanLaneousl y

nn ~;;table.

01

(b)

(c: J

~~\g)
tdl

reJ

rt 1

. rgJ

Fig. 65.11
7 .4. JNFLL18\CE L l \ES FOR STRESSES IN SIMPLE FHAMED STilUCTUHES

A<s.tthe loads aro generally applied to a tr uss nt p anel poi nLl5 evcrylhing that has been said in Art. 5.2 a bout the construction of influence lines for girders with floor bea ms and stringL'rs rcmaiu~ tl'no fot those p ertaining Lo trusses.

200

The Truuu

All the method:s used for computing stresse:; induc.ocl by lixcrl loads (see Art. 2.4) viz., the me1.bod of moments. 1 ,he methorl of shears and the lllO I.Ii od of joints rnay IJe 0111 ployed fot the (!01\St;ruction <If infJne.nce Ji ucs . J'he method of moments. [n ordc1 t o cons truc.t the iurlucur:.e tiuo for the sttess irt bar 7-.9 of t.he deck bridge truss i 11 Fig. (.Hi .Ita we shall pass section I -I across thre-e bars of l.he corresponding p~rtc.L W hen the un it load P is to the right. of joi nt 8. it is Jn(II'C conve11ient to t:onsider Lite oquilihdum of the loft- hand part of the trnss as the latter is at~ted upon :::olely by tho 11hutment reaclion (Fig. liii.4.b). P lacing the origin of moments at point (i and eq unt.ing t.o zero i': iltf of nil t he forc.cs 11c.ti ng to the ltft of ~(;!c. l.ion J-1 we obtui n 1:.M6 =A 3d-L, ./t=0 wIt lii'Of rom

Thus, when t,he load is applied t.o the right of joint 8. t.lw sl.l'ess in hur 7-9 equals the lef:t-hand reaction A miltiplied b y a consta nt fa ctor ~ . 1l should be noted also that HAd is nnrnul'ica lly ~qual to the bl'!Hling- JllrHnenL '11! acting over the cross sor:.ti ou of 11 : > implu bea m situate<] at tile same distance Iro111 t ho suppor'ls aS lht> ori~in of mo ments (poi11t 6) in the truss. It is clear from tho 11bove that ns long as the load n!nu\ius to the right of point 8 the inOuonce line for the strog,~ L 7 9 will bo tlte same ns (or maction A multiplied by ~~ . Htnce the right-h1111d pa rt of tbo infhxencc lino may be oblainod by laying off : nJong the verbir.a l (lass ing throng h the left-band abutment a11d by COilllet:Ling it with a point of zero ordinate n L t he righ t- hand one (Line a,b in
Fi I{. liG .ltd). When the load is L o the loft of join t 6 the stress L 7 D cnn he dcri ved fl'ont the cquilibl'ium equn tiou rol11LiYe to the l'ighl-lnui Jla tt of Lht truss (Fig. (iG.4c)
3

giving
79 =

51d

ln other words, the stress in bat 7-9 equa l.'! irt this case the righthnnd reaction B multiplied by :!\ToLe that once again ':!Bd is l'.he

S::.

equivalen t of the simple hearn bending moment .111; ac.ting over

7.1. [nfluence L ines ./(>r Strt$$CS In Stmpk Framed Structure&

201

202

The Trusses

a sccLion corr~~sponding t-o point 6. H enc.e fo1 the load located to the left from joint 6 the influence line for st.re.ss 79 may b~ dl'a wn by joining a point over the right-hand alrnt men~ havin[r for ord inat<:> ~ wilh n poinL of zero ordinate over the left-hand one (lirw bla in Fig. 66.4d). If all the operations have been carried out correctly lines a 1b and b1a will intersect under joint 6. \Ve may now shade the area bounded by t hese line.s between joint~ 6-.1.6 andl-6 rt.>spec'tivoly, i.e .. the area acba in Fig. 66.4d. Another way of obtaining the same influence line is based on the relation existing between the stt'el>S L 79 and the simple beam bonding moment M~

L 79 = h

Mg

Th1s relation indicates that the influence line for slre::;s i n bar

7-9 can be obtained by di viding all the ordinates of a simplo hea m be11ding moment influence line by th~ height of the t.nt8;; h.
lncidontally, this proves once more that ltnes a 1 b and b1a must intersect at a point lying tn the vertical passing through joint 6 (poinl. c). Thl above ~xamplc leads to the conclu.si.on that tho stress inlhwn~:e lines for end -supported trusses can he obtairwd usi ng the following proce.dure: 1. F or the right-hand portion of the tn..fluence line lay off along the vertical pa.sstng through the left abutrnent (upwards or dou~nwards depatding on the sign of thR stress) an ordinate where a is the: distance of the origin of moments to the left-hand abu,tmmt, and h is the [PtJI.'r arm of the stress abou.t the same. point. 2. .Connect this ordinate with a point of Zf.rO ordinate. at the righthand abutm.cnt 3. On the line so obtained m ark the intersection point of the right{/.nd of the left-hand p arts of the influence line, this point lying in thR vertical passing through the origin of mnnumts. 4_ Connect this intersection point with the point of zero ordinau:

OV<?r

the left-hand abutment. 5- Connect by a straight line the two points of interse.ctinn of the aboue lines wilh the Fcrticals bounding the panel which contains the bar undt'l

cm.sidera.tton.
The sequenc.e o[ all the operatious would remain exactly .similal' if i nstead of laying off ~ along the vertieal pa::;sing through the

ahutment A we started hy laying off along the one passing t hrough the abutment 8 wher~1 b i.s the distanc.e betwPen this abutment and the origin of moments. Then the ordinntc ~ sh ould be connoc L ed

7.1.

fn{lt~nce Lln~s

for Stresses in Simp[,. Framed

Slructur~s

2(1~

by a straight line with the point of zero ord inate oveJ: tho lcH-hand abutment, the apex of the influence line should be found by projecting on this line the origin of moments, and finally tho l'ig ht-hand part of the iufl\lence line should be obtained by connec.ting this point wit.h the point of zero ord inate at the right-hand abutment. The method of shears. As an illustrat ion of this method . let us draw t he influence line for the stre1;s in the diagonal 6-9 of. tho same truss (see Fig. 66.4a}. The equilibrium of all the vertical projections of forces acting on t he left-hand portion of t he truss (Fig. 66.4b) wJ1en the unit Jond P = i travels between joints S and J(j requires that
~y = 1 tt~ding

A -D69 sin -x = O

to

D69 - -

A sin a

When the l oad is siluatctl bet ween joiDts 1 and fi, lhe :mme c.onsiderations rf.'lative to the right-hand portion of the truss (see F tg. 6 6.4<:) entail
whcnc.e
Deg= - - . so a
Jj

These two expressions givillg the strtlSS Den tn lcl'rllS or lhu reactions show that when t.be load is to tho right of joint N tho infl11ence liuo may be obtained by mul t iplying the t:eac.tion ./1 hy 1 a constant fac.tor stna -.- - , and when it has shifted loth" lcft of joi11t tJ

we must apply a factor ( - SID a to the influence line ord inates of rE.<action B. Accordingly the construction of the corresponding patts of the 1 - ovl'r influen ce line will consist in setting off the ordinates S lD OI

-.-t-)

+ -.-

1 the left-hand abutment and - .- - below the rightrhand one and 51001 tn connecting them with the points of zuro ordinate at the ot.her 13nd of the truss. This will give us the li nes a 1b and ab 1 in Fig. 6l'\.4r. respectively. Marking on the first line the position of joint 8 and on the second t ha t of joint 6, we obtain the right-hand (positive) and the left-},and (negative) parts of the influence line; t hese two points should be connected by a straight line. It may be observed that in this ca!;8 t.oo the intersection point of the two portions of the influence line falls on the vertical passing t.hrough the origin of moments, both points being infmitoly dbtant..

204.

The Trussell

Tho change in tho sign of the ord inates to the influonc.e line obtained indicates that bar 6-9 will be consecutively compressed and then extended as the unit load t ravels along the deck from joint 1 to joint .W as rncntior~ed aboYe; members designed to resist strossos of opposite sign ate called c.ounterbracos. T ho 111ethod of joi n ts may be conveniently used i'or tho constJuc1ion of Lh~; i nnuenC'.e line for tho s tress i n the vertica l 6-7 (Fig. 66Aa). BoLh Lhl' method o moments and the method of shcn1s would he uf no avail in this case as any section through the truss would nn~s at least four llllrs (sec sections II-II and Ill- fff of Lhe ~H me figul't.l). l!:quating to zero the sum of va rtical projections of nil the forct.~ actiug n L join t 7 (Fig. 6fiAJ) we obtain
~y =
v16

+ 75 si n~ = 0

wherofrom and Lh i~ is valid for a ny positiun of lhe lond along the truss as i t can never be applied directly to join t 7, the bridge heiug of the !leek type. Hence tlu: influenc.e line for the slre~s v,G could be derived from L hnL of the stress 7 ~ Ly JllHltiplying its orcliuatl\s by (-sin~) . .;\..q fo1 ljt.rcss .L 7 ~ it can be obtainod by equating Lo 7 .cro tho su n o( hori zon tal projections of all the forces ading on the joint unller rousidoJ'a L ion

leadi ug to
l ;76 --- -["'79 -A CI).~

I'

T hcrcf<tr~
V16

- L 7 5 sin [1 ~

-L 7o tau~

The snnl(! result can he ac.hicvod directly ptojecti ng nil t.hc fOl'l'l:lS applied to join t 7 on a normal to bar 7-5 . Tho influence liuc for stress V 76 obtained by multiplying the ordinall}~ of tho infl11enc.o liuo for 79 by ( - tt~ n ~ ) is nJ)t'tlsonLed in l~ ig . 66.4g. 'Jhe influence line for tho ve1tical S-!J (fig. ti7.4a) shou ld also be constructed using the method of joint:; for again any section through the truss cutting this bar will cross at. least three more b1u'S. C(lnsidering tho equilibrium of joi nt 8 we find immediately that (1) when the load is applled to any joinL tJ.Xcept joiu L8 (fig. (:fi.4b)

LY = - Vsg=O
(2) whou the load is applil'd to joi nt 8 (Fig. 67.4c)
~Y =

-V8 g- P =0

7A. ln{!utnrt f,lnt., for Strr,<.~ts In Simple Framed S/r.uturc.<

<~lid th~re[ore

20:'i

V89 =-P = - 1 Consequently whon the lmiL load i s 11pplied to any CIE thll joinl.s ] , .'J , 4, (j ot .70, 12, 14 and JG, th~ vertical 8-9 remains idle, hut when this load shifts to joint. S the stress Y 8v bcc()mes c.qll<ll
\(1

p11ints f1nd c.uunccting Uw~~ by straight, lines we obt11in thc iunucuc.e

(!',

1. Knowing the 01'din11tes to the innuunce lino nt the relovnnt panel

8 / ' 10

(0'}

Ji'if!.

67.4

line r~quimtl. This lin6 tcpre~QJ1ted in Fig. 6i.!1d h11S lltll ~hapl of a ltianglc with a maximum onl i n~tt~ oqunl lo - i ovlr joint 8. The ~ign of tltc Ordil\<\\;(' indic,q_\CS that tho YCrlirnJ Can ho on ly ('(llll(lrCSSCd nnd tbordore consti lULls a st.rut.
l ' rnhl(>.m 1. Drnw tlw i nfhumce 1inl)~ fnl' thl' t.hi! PruU lt'II"S ~hown i n Fig. li$.4a.
Sf,l>ttf.on.
S ll't!'>-':'l'.

in har.;; i-8 nn1l 7-'1 of

monL~. llll<lptiu~ joint 8 1<>o tht tm~ to th(

Tho inlln e>nr lin(l f111' L 70 will be obtnine.1 l>:r th~ rrwthnd ,,r mn. .JS the origin of mutnent"-. The equ ili!w1 11111 or that, por .,r loft of ~tion kk (F~t \l8.4bl whcu thl> lo111l is tu 1l1<~ ttght of lhi:; scrlion rNJuirl.'s 1:M8 =A3d -!. 7u}I-IJ

20()
Tint~;,

1'hc T r usst$

~rt ual ~ll 2.25 uvcr the lefL-hand abutw~ul, by conoecting thi s ordimtte with the Zl'l'll nrdmote po int at the oppo~itt> end of the t ru ss. by marking tho po~ition of till' ori.t,: in or tuornents ljoint 8) on this Jmc and finally by drawing a line through.

tho required iu fluonce line will be obtained by laying off nn ordinate

{OJ

(b)

(t)

:!.25

Fig. 68.4

l.lw zc~ro point at. t.ho loft-hand abutnumt nnd the point just monti(mod. The cornplchcl in lluem:c line will be of triangular shape with the apex direc tly jotnl 8 ( Fig. G8.4c). Thct me thod of sboars is wl'll adapted for the construction of the influence line for t.hc stre~s in bar 7-11. Using sec.tion n-n (Fig. 68.4d) and equa ting to zero the pl'oject.ion or all tho forcE'S act ing on ~he lt>ft-hand por tion of the truss we obt.nin.
u ud~r

7.4. I nfluence Lmes }CI' Stresus in Simple Framtd Structllr C&

207

wlccn lho Joad P = t is lo the right or the

Stle~fon n-11 .

:}'=A+ V1a -

Y18 = - A Similarly wlc.n tile.> l)ad ccuiLy is to tho Jo[t of socti\n ricc m >r llw rigltt-l.and pvrt 111n 1lf tlc e truss require.;
LY=B-l'is""O

tJ-tt,

ll10 (quili l-

" lu rd rum
l';s=B

should he III)Le(l thnt when tl1e load:; are tlansmiltcd tic rough tl1u up]lHr dcord (as in derk bridges) the fus t joint to U1r; & ight of l'Cr tinn rv-n rtl latwo to t.h~ slrLISS v18 is jni nt S, but when t.he load nro appliod to the !owN cl10ru (through bridges) it will be joint. 9. The s nm o will apply to joints 6 and 7, the first being Illlmcdintt:ly lo tho left of soetion a-1~ in tile t'ase of deck bridg-t~s and the stetJlc.l iu t.he c~se of through hridges. As the equations of equilibrium of tho Jeri..- andior tho right-baJid portioJJs of the truss are ind t<pc uclont the level at whidc tht\ Joad.s are transmitted, the 1r1nnenel' litH::; for both casos will bt~ Sil'ic.lly parallP-1, but the position of tht' rmcHJI through which stction n-u passes will v ~ry. leading to a dJ:;plac.emellt of the panrl points correspouding to the apic~s of Lh t~ ln.: . The illO\Ience li e~< 111 Fig. t>8Ae and f COI'ri'!'(})Ond to th(' two posttio us M the> floor beams, tht.> fl rst p('rtaining to ci<:rk bridg('S a nd llu :-,econd uuu to through bridges.

I~

or

P roble m 2 . Hcqui!ccl th(l mnucncc l iJlt> for SLL'O~~ D~a or the- truss roproscmtcd ia Jo'ig. ()!).411 . Soluti,m . Taldng sec tion ~t-n and using the methocl of mom<mts (poiut /i. h!! cng t::~ken as J he odgih) we lind tbaL when the lone\ unity i:> t<~ the right. of o ut
St>Cl iCIO

Dw=-r -

Ao

ITn r is Llw ll.' vor ann of tho strl's.~ D:;a rt)(a t vo lo point K, and '~ that .,f t.h< ; rcoct ion .ll aboc.ct the SMno point. 'fho dist.;c nc~ a. mlly bt r\>und frurn 1 .1": tl'ianglo K-tr-4

a+2d = ---.!!:!._ Luna

whc:fl! h2 ill th!' height

or tl vc,rtical

6-4 O qiWI to

32

nwtrcs and tan a =

- ~=0.1481.

It- 32

Tlu TntMI's

Henco

a + :!d == 9 X0.1f,Bt =24.0 motros

32

fl~18 1)\

'1'111 k vrr ann r ecp1n Is

Thl anglt> r=(a +3dJ ~ i11 ~ will be tlltcrmincd from 32i 9 32 tan~ = 1.185 3 U~i ug l :tbh:s ~1( naturll( trigonometric functiOliS Wll find*
~

-=w-=

~ -49'50' unJ sin ~ - 0.7G4 Ull ing th"s" values we find r = (18 +1J) 0.71i4 .. 20.\3 uw trt1s S11hstiLnling Lhl' abovu in the formula Kivi ng 1J56 iu terms 11f o 1111d r we hlain ll:IA D;,r.= _ =0.871o, l 20 6 Th" construdion hf t.h(> inOneUC(> Jiuo fo U~o will l!e.gin wi~h it-'; l'ight-hand JlCII'Li!ln whic.h will be fonued by ~ho lin(> c.IIJIHCcliug t.hu 0.374 or<linat. ovN t.lte

',

'
' ..

'f l

I
I-

I
I I

;-t

r- 1

' l ;$(/ ~181'1'

I

i
I I

: {':r.. t~Y

1f-p fo,. !'s&

: '

''
-

L .. . .. - - .

Fig. 09 .!1

ll'ft-(,;o ntl ubllhlll!llL \\it h llw Zl!l'll m u iu a lo pnint ill tlt n OLhN rnd ,,f tho truss. Tlu II!IL-h ~<ntl portion wil l hE.> oht11iued J'l?lllCill lwring that lbt tlircctious of the

'l'hr same figures could llC obtained using tht> formula

sin~=

V1 + tauz~

tan~

7.1. lnfZIIrllcf' L int!s for Strusf.< in Simz,Z, Fram,:tl Strud11res

21)9

two pitrl.~ alw~tys inl-N~ct under tho ol'igin of moment!;. Within tht1 pnnol eon-

t<liniug roc.tion n-n n thil'!l l in<~ will e<mn<cl. the vortk<\S lying urulo;r tho pn nel poinl.s on hotiL :;ido.-< o[ s(l(:tion n-n. Till~ complotod influuw;o lino is shown in 1-'ig. ll!.l.'ob.
ari~ing

ProbltHn 3. Hequirod Utt\ influMce. lines for sLrt>sse::c U;~ D~.~ nnrl v 76 in a triungular roof tnts.~ in F'ig. 70Aa whon tho loads arc aJ>pl ierl t.o t.he

l OWt\1" r..hord. Solution. lnflltence line for strtss U75 l'a!<sing !<l\CtioJJ n-n ancl <'<u;;idorillg tlu o~quilihrium of Lhl' left.- hand part of the trus.~ when lonol un ity }J i!' to Lim

{(/!

ln/li!INICl! /..int for

U,.s

(e!

Fig. 70.1

right of tlw section we ohtain

wltorefrom
ZM6=A3d +U1~r = 0

U-s=-~~ ,, r
'l'ho influl'nr.o .line l't>JH'OSt>lltl'd in Fig. 70.<\b will th us havt> a tl'iaug\llur shape with itll ajlex directly unde-r the origin of motMnt~. influence line jM stress D 56 Using tile .c.ame scc.tinn an<l t'quatiug to zp.ro t.ht so nn of a'J I thn mom1mls <>f fnrc1~s :tct.ing on the )p[t-lo:tnll part of t.ho truss :tlwut point 1 wo ob tain, wheu tloo unit luod P = 1 is to tho right of SI.IC.timt n-n,
l:M1 = D56r 1 =0

11.-853

210

T fze Trusses

{f)

----------------Pig. 71.4
l,

trvss;

125

:
I

T;
f

hffix,Stna:

~ 1

f. ___ .
I ,.- -

I
I

I
t

: I
I

- - - - - .J __ ..

--=:l!IIlil!el!-_______________ .:J.swa tr ~
Fig. 72.4

lnflvem:t? lUle fu: 0 2

I

1
t

Hence the urdinates of the influence line will rlduc.c to tero as long as Lhe unit load Is to tho right of the pnnol containing bo r 5-6. Tho left -hand purtion of the influence line mny he c-onst.t-uct!ld using the (~q uulit>n of the ('f! Uili brium O( lllOIDCDI.S pertaining to tlto riJj'ht-hanc l part O the

' ~ ' :' CWii' Ll!lJllWlN

I!.l!l!llillliMII'~-

:Influence lille for v

----

influence line for [136

Ftg. 7;1.1

Ftg.
t.ru~s .

7.~.1:

Fig. 75.1

the L oad unity P being t o t ho left of sect.ion n-n,

:E.IIf1 = -Bl - Dr,art= O

whl'J'{'from
Bl D6a = - rt

Le., the str<!S~ D 56 is equal to the right-hand abutment reaction B mu ltiplied hy

(- r~) .

212

Tlu 1'r11Ut't<

The c.orreiipondiug influence line appeal'S in Fig. 711.-lc. lnfltJ.ertce lint for slrts/1 1-'76 U:;;iug tho method of joints and ptoict.ting all th o forc-e~ act.ing ou joint 7 <Inn lnll'izuuta l we obtnin

!X=
irul ir.ati ng that

-l.'1~.:.o~

t;(

-:-

U 79 cos a

~o

ln/lu;n:e line for

Vu-12

Influence line for Vso

Fig. 76 .4
Tho
pruj~ction

o r the !arne f<tr<:cs

(HI

a V(rlical giws

l:)' = - V70 -:Uf7~ sin a =0

wherefrom

Hllncl', th.; iu 0nl'ncc li n<' feu l';6 m ar he oLlainotl hy rnullipl} iug all lito t.he infhunco l int fur U7,., by 11 co n~tnnl fnr.tor (-~si n <X/ . 'J'hl' llHt:xi muul O l'(l inil tA.l of thi,q inOncnc:c- lirw shown in Fig. 70.4e will ho l'CIU ill tro 1 . 'l'h(l I'NI<kt i!:' inv itA)d to solvu llw fn!lowing twn J)ro!Jlems on hi!> ( Wn .
nrd htl't<'~ of

l'roblcm J.

Pr~>vo

tlu: rc curac:y o[ tJt o influt'OCl' li uo::; in Fig. i J. 'o .

l'rohkrn 2. (al Pro ve t he.> ae-tur:tcy f lh<' influence )toe.~ iu Fig. 72.4 through 7i.lo :utd Ih) clruw th<' mOucncc lines for tit ( ~lrPSS<'S in ~tlcliti tna l har" mnrkt-d hv

n c l<lltbh. clash.
lfi~t ts.

(a! It i ~ rcc.omrnllltdcd lo uso the molhod of joints for liH! in All once liuo fot ~ t1ess 1'2 of the t.ru ~~ rc~pn.smt tcc.l in Fig. 72.4. Wher tlto load 11111l.y P ill
IIIOI\1. , 1'2

nppli<<l l<1 smy jniut with tho exc.optirm nf tl1o jttin t. OVN tlw t'ig'ht-h:nul abnl= -B. Whon the load is OY(Ir Lhe Jight-hand aLulrn t>nt, = ll. (b) As rcgn rds the tru~s in F'ig. 73."1 it i~ r~r.tlmrn Limled to c.(ln.o<itlor tlt c < Jquilihrium vf that portion nf thll Lru s~ lo t.h c right ~tf the ~ecli r>n , wh<n tlw load unity ill t.o the left thert>of. lt is ohv iuus thnl in lhi ~ ca~o thC' har unrl!'r <"on ~idc;ration

v2

will

TOffi llin

iuk.

8.4. INFLUEKCR LgEs .1-'0 H STHESSES IN COMI'f.I CA'i'ED !:'' HAMED S'fRUCTUfiER

The design of cornplicalnd framed s trut.tnres and in parLicu lar

of multispan ~tat.ica ll y determinate ones m fY hi.\ carried ou t using the r<'plac.emen t m<'thod described in Art. 4.4, whereby Lho complicnted truss is converted into a simple one. i\.s an exam pi~ lot us consider the truss rept-escntcd in Fig. 77./Ja..
ln ordee to obtain th(' influence line for tho reactiM Cat tho i n Lormodiat.o ~upport when t ho load trave ls a lc '1ng thtl uppc.w cllOrd . let us toplnct' the sup port. C by a vertical memlwr fJ'-{i (l'ig. 77 .4b). At Lhtl joinL 6' we mu~t thcu apply an ex ternal Iorc.c Xc. whit-h will he equal to the rcactinn C wbeu the stress in the suiJsti tuto har (j'..(J beconws nil whtrrf rom

1-l t'.n) N6o i!-; t;hc s Lrtss in bar 6''-6 of t he Lru~ s how u in 1-'ig. 77./J.b when the load unity Lro.vc.ls along tho upper chord and A'wo is the stress in tho same brtr i nduc-ed by tho force Xc = 1. llonn! the inOuclH'e line for the abutment reaction Xc may he ohta.inod by riividing- lho ordinates to tho iuOucncc 1iue for strc~~ Nh by (-Nwo).

IPI

( o)

IP I

G'

({)) x,.
Fig. 77.4

(e ) ~~ Influence l~nc for Xc

'

fD
J

~: l

II

' . .:
5 ./

I~+
J 1 f.g. 7.S.4 1

I!
I

: .....J

8.4. Influence Lines in Complicated Framed Stmclures

215

Tl1e i nfluence line fo r the stress N'uo may be constructed using the equilibrium equations regarding joint 6' (Fig. 78.4a and b). I.X = -N6r. cosa+N61 cosa=O ~y = N6~ sin a+N61 sin et+N'ss = 0 whorefrorn N 6e = - 2N6s sin a Substituting N66 in the expression for reaction Xc we obtain
2N fl.~.sinct

Xc=-::..:--N6'6

In order to obtain the influence line for N'ss let us pass section I I-II (see Fig. 78.4a) and let us consider the equilibrium of the left-haud part of the truss assuming that unit load P = 1 is to the rig ht. uf the section

I Me= A 5d- N6r. -Sin .-d- = 0 a.

whe1 efrom

N6s = 5A sin a

Consequently, the right-hand portion of the influence line for stress N6s may be obtained by laying off the ordinates 5 sin a = = 5 2 above the left-hand abutment and by connecting it ~ith Lhe poiot of zero ordinate over the right-hand one. The left-hand part of the influence line will be obtained remembering that the lines a l ways intersect under the origin of moments (point 6). 'fhe correspouding influenee line for tho simple truss (Fig. i8.4a) is represented in Fig. 78.4d. Let us dctcrmi ne now the stress induced in bar 6' -6 by a force X c = 1 using for that purpose the equilibrium of joint 6' (Fig. 78.4c}

whore Consequeutly therefore

~y = Ne'6

+ 1 +2No'6' sina = 0

N s~ =

(see Fig. 78.4d)

Nss =

-1 +2 - 4- X - 2 -=;r
2Nis&
3X 2

. sVi

Vz

Xc = 2N R5----=

sin~ l'lso

V2x2

= - 3

2 V2 N

o ~

2Hl

. llt.uc;. lho inll w.nco line for ~action X~ will bu ohtained hy multtplytug a ll the ord u_~_atcs Lo tllo wfloo ur.c Jinc for Su~ by a cr)H.Slan t Iaeto r ~qual to :.! 2

_.'l'ht: ~o~respon~ iug inOuc~co line is rtpre:mnlod in Fi~. 78 .4e; Y. Jth 1fs a.d Lhtl w flucnt:e h ues for ~tro.<;ses in all (.h( other bnt'S o( tho tl'U~S can be en;;ily ol)tained.

9.<1. 'fliUSSES WITH SUBDJVJDF.:D PAN~L~

W hen the method of momeuts is used t he stress in any uw mher of a truss can be exprcs~tl by the formula

N = .!!_ r
where il f -= moment of tilt' fortcs lo tho righL or to tho left of tho section about Lhe origin of moments r = lever ar m of the strasil N nbou~ th o S<Hno point. Tllc a hovo formula shows that other conditions re maining unchnnged , the s lress N decrease!' propotlionally l.o the incroa..o.:c in t lw lover arm r. Accordingly, the inerea~ in tllc height of the t ruf!s wlti ch always le11ds to the i ncrease of thtl )ever arm r will entail n red u cti on in t he stresses induc.cd in its element~. SLntcturally it is muro c.onvoniont wht~ll the dia,gona L<> form an anglt close lo 1.5"' with tho horizontal nnd thcrefoc an incn:ase i n tho height of the t1uss will lead to lengthening of t.he panel~. Th ur~ ill a t rus!> wit h parnllol ehorcls the length of a panel will u~unlly he very close to the truss heigh t (l<'ig. 7HA.<t). HowovN, pauols of increased longlh require Lhc usc of heavier tloor beams and stringers whic.h. may outwL'ight. lhc oc:.ouo my o bt.ni nod Lhrough tho rodtH~ li nn of ilttcsse!S in tbc truss mcm h<m<. A rationa l solution of the p roh lom rosidcs in the subd i v i ~i on of t.ho panels with tho introduction o[ secondary member.:;. running auxi liary king-postcrl banms, which will transmit tho loads appliert within t ho pu nc I to lite joi n l:,'J of t ho main Lru:!S. Theso auxiliary systoms will permit the i nsta llntion of c.ros:s h~Jnms at in ltmncdiato points which provides for u cunsidornbll! mdmLion in t he weight or t ho floor elt-Jnl\nts. Thc~l' systGms will remni n idle as lung as t lw l oad is nntside the panel whidl they reinJorc:.e, unrl w ill 1 Jcco mo stressed only while t he load is w it hi n the limits of tltat. panel. Tn Fig. 79.4b Wl~ have rcprcseutod a rleck brirlgo lrns..<l, tho upper chord of which is roin{orc.cd as described above. T he bar ab i ~ a lways id le, its only purpose being to ensure the stability o [ tho co mbi nocl system.

9 .1.

1'nne~

mil/). S!tbdimdP d

Po.n~l.

lf t ho king-posts wero extend ed dow nwards and co nnedotl lo tho upper chord momlwrs we would obtai n the truss shown in Fig. ?HA.c. Jt wi ll be oadily ob~etvod t hat tho stres.<;l\1:! in all the members of th e latter truss arc ident ical lio those or tlto truss in Fig. 79/b. A gradual shortening of all tho vertical memllors connoct.ing the auxil iary king- postod beams with the uppor churd loads. to the syst-em roJ>roscntod in Fig. 79.4d in which the beams coincide-

: :, ~~
II
I I

'

~-

Fig . 7!1.-l

with the u p per chord members of the main truss. H wo now t U!'IJthc king-posted benn1s upside down wo will ohlain tho truss sltown in Fig. 79.1te, and if in t he latte r the length of ks becomes nil , we will linal'ly obtain a dock- bridge truss with subdivided pam1ls represented in :Fig. 79.4! whic.h in tho J~ nglish sponking countrit)S is usunlly <"nllcd a sr.tbdit:ided Warren truss.*
engilll'Cr a nd l't.ienti!lt, Professor J,. Proskuryo kov of the Moscow Jnst itut" e of

In nu...,ia, trusses of

tha~

type wcro fi rst used hy lht) emint>nL II ussian

nnilway Engineering. A bridge of t his Lype was d()Signetl by him in 1895 and hu ilt across tho ri ver YOlti l'e i. all ~he s~rCSSC:! in Utis truss havtug been lc tcrminotl with tho nit! of innucnc~:~ lines. Tho rigidity nucl the reducc :d weight o this bridge have placed it among the top-ranking onginetHing achievements.

of that time.

218

The sec.ondary elements represented in Fig. 79.4/ transmit the loads applied to the upper chord to t he main joints of the same -chord. In other cases these elements may transmit the loads applied to tho lower chord to the joints of the upper one or vice versa as for instance in Fig. 79.4g. It should bo noted that auxiliary systems similar to that shown in Fig. 80.4 cannot be regarded as constituting a genuine trussed beam rein.forccment, for in addition to vertical loads it will transmit <Jqually horizontal forces to the joints of the main system . In structures, where the secondary elements (su bverticais and s ubdiagonals, as they are frequently called) transmit the load to the main joints of the same chord. all tho mema bers may he regarded as belonging to tltree groups: 1. Members belonging to the main tl'llSS, the stresses in which are not influenced by the presence of allxiliary systems. 2. Members belonging entirely to the auxiliary systorns, tho stresses in which may be obtained in the same manner as for an isolated end-supported trussed beam. Fig. 80.4 3. Members bclongig simultaneously to the main and tho auxiliary systems. Stresses in such members will bo obtained by the summation of those pertaining to the main and the auxiliary systems considered separately. Whon the seconda1y members transmit the load from the upper chord to tho lower one or vice versa, the truss members will form four dist.inct groups. Three of these have been just enummated while the fourth is constituted by su,ch members for which the influence lin~s change de.pmding on wlu:the.r the load travels along one or the other chord as the performance of such nwrnbe.rs is altered by the presl>nCe of the secondary ones. Tho influence lines for the stresses in members of the fourth group will Ilc obtained as follows: .fi1st draw the iniluence line for the appropriate member of the main truss both for the case of a load travelling along the upper chord and along the lower one, disregard ing the presence of the secondary elements. This 'b eing done, examine the effect of the secondary members, for which purpose shift the load from joint to joint of the auxiliary system, noting with rnrc to which member of the main truss this load is transmitted.
Problem 1. Draw tho inlluenco lines for the streslies in members 2-8, 5-!l' and 4'-1 of the througlt bridge truss with subdividod panels representod in Fig. 81.4a.
S olutiotz. Start wiLh the constuction of the influence lillO for stress V23 . Tho member 2-3 bolongs to the first group and thorefore the corresjlOnding influence

9.!/. Trusset: with

Subdit>id~d

Panels

21!1

lines mny be obtained disregarding comple1ely tho subvcrticals and subdiagonals (see Fig. 81 A b). Using the method of joints and considering the equilibrium of joint 3 WQ shall find a triangular influence line represented in Fig. 81.4c. The subdiagonal 4'-7 lJolnngs to the second group, the stress D 1 , 7 may be obtained as for an isolatoo king-posted beam shown in Fig. 81 .4d. In this case it i~ i!8!:ily found that when tho loud unity nets at the joint li' tho sLrcss in Lar 4'-7 will bo given by the equalion

l:Y=
wlu;nce

~ + Dr. .7 sino: =
D
4' 7 -

GLvt'fi J'lNCWre

ra

_ _ _ 1_ 2sina

(C)

((/)

Fig. 81 .4

Fig. 82.4

and whon the load shifts to tho supports, the stress D 4 7 becomes ni l. 'The: c ,orresponding infiuence line is rcprostmted in Fig. 81.4c. As for the stress in bar ,;-4' whic.h belongs to the third group wo shall pa~s a sectiou 1-l nnd as~uming that tho loarl unity is to the right of ~his scclion, we shall ohtnin wherefrom

D 54 - -~ sina
This ~quation indicates thnt n~ long ns the load is \o the right of section 1-1 the influenco line for D 5,. may ho oht,ainod by multiplying thll orolinntes to the

1 innucncc linu for tho nbutmont roac.tion A hy ( --.-- ). Having thus ohtaiuml Silt 0: the J'igltt-han<l JlOrtion of tho inlluonc.o line re<Juired, wo may dnow it-'> lt>fthand potiou using the ru\() that t.hoy must int(w~c~ct. in tho vettical THI$sirag through the origin of moments nud that whln thu load reac.he.~ the lel't-hand nhut.m!lut. tho ordinate to the influenct> line roduces to zoru. Jn thl! euau consitl1 1rod t.lw origiu ui rnomc,ntl' is infinitely distant , the truss chords being p~~ralleJ. Th< influcncn lint> will bt> completed by connocting points a nnd c con,~l!Jlonding t.o joints 5 all(l 5' ( Fig. 81.4/). lt is intlrost.ing to note that foJ" the t,t~s of Fig. 81/t& we should c.onncct points a mul b conospon<ling lJ joint$ !i and 7 l!liminating thereby tho triangle abc which rcpn~sonts th <~ infltumcc Jim for tho~ nwmhor .5-4' nf the auxiliary eystem (~imilar to l htl mw shown in Jo'ig. 81.-'le l'or tho uwmber 4'-7).
Pr oblem 2. lloquired the 'influence line for the stress r 3 , of the througlr hridge trns.~ ~!town in } ?ig. 82.11l. Solution. The vettic.nl uncter consiclerati<n holonging to lho fomth group of' memheos, we must. bt>gin wit.h the const.ruction of tho influence lines rclaL.iv() to thi s mt>mhcr for loads trave1ling along the uppor and lowor c.hords of the main l'YHlmn, ro preSfln tell in Fig. 82 A b. For ~his purpose lot us Jlass section I-I and writ(l that !M ob(>Ut point k for the left-hand p11rl of l.lw truss <!-quuls ZlroJ whon t.lw lnad unity is t.o t.hl right of tllis ROCtiOil
whl'DC.()

v~4 =--

Aa

a+2d

C<nnecting the ordinate a~ d at tho left-hand abutment wit.h t.he zoro ordin2
:rto at tlw 1ight-hand <me we shall obtain the right-hand portion of the influonco
(t.l! lefL-han'l portion will be derived from the rule tl1at tho two intorwc.t under the origin of momt~nts (point kj. h1 en~' the lortd travollcd uloug t.ho lower chord the c.ompleted influonc.e line is ohtltincd traciug tlto conw:c Ling liTIIJ through the points coJTe-~pondiug to joint~ 8 atd .? (Fig. ~2.4c) and, if tho loads Wlro applied to the u ppl)r chord , through the two }lOint8 c~1rrosponding to joints 2 aud 4 (Fig. H2.4<l). Tholllt two influt~nce linE's show that when the load is to the left. of juints 1 and 2 01 L.o tho right of join ts 5 a1111 a, the ~t.ress in the verticul 8-4 i:l iudeVtudent of t.hc level of load appli!:.!Jlion. But wltHn thn load stands OVIO't' j11int.); 3' or S ' of thl' lower chord the secondary Jlll:mhors will transmit it entirl'ly to th11 joints of the nppe1 one, whicl1 iu nfft!Ct is cquivalont to the transf~:~r of tho lond it.Sl,lf. Ar.cordingly ordinatl'S "~-m and n-n will pnwail at these tnomc,nts. Nov~rtho\oss wh<>n thB load moves to joint .'! all the secondary memhos lu:com~ idlo a11d il will ho t.ho ordin11te u-u in Fig. 82.4c that. will giveth<! v-alue of tile

lillC r()quir()cl.
Jill(~~ it! way:;

Sll'CSI:I

'rhl'li<' oJ'('Iinnt es will suffice ft>r the construction of the influenc.a line [ u r LlH t.ws.s wit.h .'>ululiviuod panlll~. Th e required influoncolino hounds the shaded atea in Fig. $2Ae. Tiro following prohlom should be solvt~d hy tho reaclet 011 his own.
Prublem. (n) Check the influence lines pertaining to tho through bridge tnJSS\JS in .i"igs. 83.4 and 8~\.lt.

lf31,

fl

-~

........

'

i ~~
' ,,

,,
'
] I

Ftg. 831

...... ... .5 _, J ~ '.

t1

I= 18d

!i< l

r.
'

I I r-..,----- - - -.l

t.-- --t-1! 1 I
;

I Jt-=mr~.tLUilil'tln;ul!llll;lll 1 ll lltJli;_;IUC
: lnfl ur.nrt! l 11(! (or :Js1
I
I I

II

r---- i--I
I

'

'

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I
1

- - - --

.. --- _J,

;L2a ~ ~--,..-1

I
I I

-.

- .. - -~,.d;~ -, ;;m(l11 .V 111 ul u~mm" "' "l

I I

- -- .

/n{luencc tim: fqr Ds'o'

t1.. ~ ~

i
: t

1I.

'2

'

.1 --rz l -----.. - - .J. . -._"--:.~.: _. __-J._!nfll!_e~c_: line (or ,Liss 1 - ---7 t~xWJr.J)J14m;.lll!ll~lh u)ill ~~'"l"'l w1 . I
i
I

~ -1-.t. _ ll
I
I

I I

1 -..i
I
I

I - ---l I

I I

I 1 [ (}
I - -- - - - - -

'I
I I

J!.

,._,

.. :
!

~j
,

L.,:::::.::_. - .... ~ --- ------ -

I I _a _ 1 6d..l1 I ~ I. or\ -- \ ~ ~:::;:Jmumun!!ll"l"""""l

I

I Influence line for 1 _ -~ v~:- t , : . . I I

!

-- .,. ~

4 1'-

i ;

'

I I

Fig. 81..1.-

222

The Tnuscs

(b) D1aw the influonco lines for strossl)s in the members of the same trusses marked by o tloublo dash. Hints. P rior to the construction of the influence line for stress Vs9 of the tntss in Fig. 84 A . dim inato all the secondal'y members, thus finding the main system

( 0)

1
I :
'

. !n( luence line tor fl,~ (vP~"<Jr w liJwt.: ! 1:11ord t oaded J

1

:
I

~1 ~ . .::_.I ; . . IJJILV"i
~ .
:.

JVff . 7-

; ; ,/ ' .-
li.n;; fur

0.:}.@
14

i;

L,.....--- f~fluMce
1 ( ;:,1 1

flower chord l()(lf!P.(/)

vi;
::1.

_......,nx:1IIT~!'mne--'
I
I

( d .l

feJ

Fig.IJ5.4

rtopresent(.>d in Fig. 8;jAa. 'I'hcn using tho method of joints lind the st.ross VB~ rolativo to tllis systom

whnrl'from

v:e= -2u~. sin a The stre!;S in bar 8-!J of the main system is tlms equal t.o that in bar 7-9~of Lhe same system multiplied by a constant facto1' (- 2sin o:). The infiuence lino

10.4. Thmst DevelQping Framed Structure$

for the stres~ U~ 9 is given in Fig. 85.4b. lt has the shape of an isosceles triangle and its ordinnw at lhe IIJI~X ()quais l 18 v~ aV37 ".,..*x---=-3....,.5,-;d_c_o_s_a - 4x3.5 X 3 _ _1_4_

Tht) inflmmcr. lino for V~ 9 will have tho samo shape and, provided the lo11d travds along tht) lowur chord, ils maximum ordinato will e11Ual (Fig. 8S. 'oc)

---rr- V37=y
On the other hand, when the unit load trav(~lling along the UPJX'r chord rt>.acht>s joint 9 the equilibrium of this joint requ ires that ~Y = - Vg0 -2U~ 0 sina - 1=0 and

3ya7 2x1

Vfi 9 =

2q9 sin a -1 =

This influence line is shown in Fig. 85Ad. Th<1 c.omparison of the influence lines of Fig. 85.4c and d indicates that wllcn Lhe load is either lo the left of j()int 6 or to the right of joint 10 the st1 ess is independent of the level of load ap}llication. At tho saHie timo any load appliod to tho secondary joints of panels 8-8 or 8-10 is transmitted to the uppel chord and may he regardod a.s acting directly at the joints 7. 9 or 11. The corresponding influence line for tho truss with suhdividod ponols is l'bown in Fig. 85.4e.

10.4.. THHUST DEVELOPING FRAMBD STRUCTUHES

1. TRUSsgs WITH INCLINED SUPPORTS

If the vertical supporting bar representing the roller support of an ordinary truss is replaced by an inclined one, the system becomes a thrust developing truss as in addition to vertical reactions it will he characterized also by horizontal reactions at the abutments. lJet us examiue tl1e arched truss in Fig. 86.4a. Denoting by V A, H A and V 11 , H 11 the vertical and horizontal components of the abut~ ment. reactions A and B respectively and by x the distance from tl1e load unity to t.he left-hand abutment wo shall obtain
If.,,. - fl 8 =H

Equating to zero the moments of outer forces about the binges A aud B we get, on the other hand
VA=1- and V8 =T The two latter equations are exactly the same as for an ordinary
l-x
:r:

simply supported truss or beam and the. corresponding influence lines aro represented in Fig. 86.4c and d.

Tht Tnts.qe.,

Afl regards the inOuenc.e line for the lh rusL [{it may he de r ivod . us ing the relation exis ting botwt~cn If and V 11 (fig. 86.4b)

H ..., Vn toL ex
1.0 t he influ~:noc line for V

T ho inrluencc line for ff obtained by muiLi[Ji yi ng nll the ordiual.es 11 by cot a. is r~pn)son l ed in Fig. 8G.Lie.

Fig. 86. 4

Let 1111 now draw lho infiuence line for the sLress in l'omc l.rnss wcmbor, say in har 5-7. For this purpose let us pal'S 11 seclion 1-l and placing the load uni ty to the right of !.his soc.tion, let us equate to r.cro tho mome nts {about point k coinciding wit.h joint fi) of a ll the external forcos nc.ting on !he left-h and port.ion of t he trus!l
:E;lfh =

v AZh -IIYh + U~7hh=0

wherefrom

10.'1. Thrun Dr.t:elopinp Pranud Strurture$

WhcJl the unit load is applied at point P 0 lying in the same VtJt'tical with the point of intersection of liMs A K and BF (point F). the stress in bar 5-7 becomes nil. for the resultant of a 11 tlw forcus applied tO the left o Sf/.Ct.ion f'-J passes through point k and tlu, moment equation becomes r,M" = u~,h" = .\ c.cordingly point F 0 is a neutral point for tho ~tress Ur, 1 At the :1a rnc time lhe torm (M~- Hy 11 ) entering tho txprossioll for ~'~ is equal to the bending moment in !'Elction k of a tbrt>e-hingtd arch. J-lcrh:rl the c.on!>lruction of the influeuco line !or stress U 57 may be cnl'l'itHL out in tho ~tllnc way as tha t for tho bending momant act.ing over sec-tion k. of tho said arch, provided a ll the ordinates ol' this

latter arc multiplied by ( - ~) . Consequently, haviug Jnid oi'f t.hc ordinate ( - ~) over the left-hand abutment we must courwcl this ordinate with tho neutral point f and then extend this liuo until its intersection with t.he vertical passing thl'o ugh joint B. Tho ler~ part of the influence line will be obtained hearing in mind that it must pass through the zero ordinate at the left-hand abutment and must intersect wHh t he right-hand part in a vertical passing through the ori~in of moments. The two line!! being drawn, the positions of joint 5 should be marked on the left one and that of joint 7 on the right one, these two points lJ\ling finally connected to [orm tltc completed line represented in Fig. ~6./J/. T~ct us now cousidct a truss with sup ports at d ifereot lovds (Fig. 87.4.a). We shall commence by constructing the influence lines for the reactions. For t his purpose we may resolve the righ1.hand reaction ll ilttu its vertical and hol'ir.ontal componen t.cs Vf, and J/JJ at a point b' si t:uated at the same level a'! point A. Denoting as usual the horizontal and vertical components of reaction A by l'A and}[!\. and placing the uni t load a distance x fcom the left.hand support, we may then write the oquilibrium equations o tbe moment~ fi rst about point b' and then about the cantre of t.he hirrge A 'kMb' = VA (lt +Z2)-i {It + lz-x) =0 ~MA= -Vs(lt +l2)+ 'l x = O

The influence line for 1' 8 vrill penn iL the determination o reacLion TJ for uny position of a vertical Joad using the formula B

= Sino: _v B 'fh() same n>suiL

COSCX

may be achieved with the aid o( the influence line for H 8 sine<.' 11 = H 11

221 1

The Trusys

T hes4; two expressions are represont.od grap hically in Fi t:r. 87.4c nnd d whic.h show that the vertical reactions of the truss va1y exactly i n the same way as those of a simply supported beam with a s pan of l = l 1 -7 l 2 (Fig. 87 / lb). The horizonLal projection of all th<.> forces acl.ing on the truss s hows thal
I
I
I

I
I

:
1c
I

.~; 'i
.

lf.'/1
I

1
I

i
I
~

'

r" jllliJJminr...__ : A : ''~ : I ' I \

,,iJ
I
:

Jnflutfl/!t IJ.ne for

V,.

~.!:L. l~ ---~ Wt
jl'"V.
t

aln!~ !~

---

-!l
:

I IJ

l
I I

:
I I

I I

I
: I

L ... A' -- .. ----- -~---- 's ,,..J!

I

(l'l

: I

I(

'-..1

~~ ~"!'wr-v b.l'f! ! /.
,I
I

1r 1

1 ~~~1:J

fv.J ...-.min.- ;.11 ]I

Fig. 8SA

The relation between If and Vu moy he found by equating zero the sum of thei r moments about hinge C (Fig. 87.1a)

1o

r.Mc = -Vslz + f-1!=0

wherefrom

II = Vulz I ln this expression Vnl 2 = M~ is the honding moment a('ting ove.r sectio n C of a ~;i mply suppot1cd beam, spanning (l1 l 2), when Lh~ load P is t() tho left of thi11 section . C()nsequently, t ho t hrust.

II oqnnls ll'~c , which is oxact]y the samo as in tho case

or

a tJm.>e-

h i ngcd arch with n span of (l1 l 2) and a rise equal to j (Fig. 87.4e.). It is apparent that the inOllence lino for H ob ta ined hy multiplying

-r

10.1. Thnott Devclcpiltf( Pramrd Slrucluru 1

227

all tl1 e ordilllltos of the line Ior Va hy will coioc.ide wilh. \.haL for the thrust of an arch slown in Fig. 87 .4f. The influence li ne for tl1c slross in luu 2-4 of t.he same truss rna y he obtained passing a section I-I (Fig. 88.4a) and writ.iog lh<~L J:.M <tbout poi nt 3 equal~ r.oro when load P = 1 i~ to the r ight. of tlds section whcre[rorn

When t.hc direction of l oad 1' passes tl1rough point F (Fig. 1->8.4(/.) thA ~tres.<> in bar 2-4 will reduce t.o zero, for in t his case point 3 will (all on the line of action oi the re~ultan L or VA and IfA- I< no wing t.hB position t.ho neutral point and using the abovt~ expression for L 21, the inOuenc.e line is readily drnwn, espec.illlly if wo talw heecl of the nnalogy existing between the expression~ fo1 L 2,, Hnd for the bending moment acting over a corrc!!ponding section of a three-hinged arch (see F ig. ;~2.3/). As the firs!; d iffers from the. 'latter

or

only by a constant factor .!. the influence line relative to the right r part of tho truss may be obtained uy laying oiT an ordinnl.c ~ <lYer r tho loft snpport and hy c.onnccti ng it with tho projcc.tior of m~utral point on lhe horizontal, which gives 11s line ad (Fig. 88Ab). The lino COI'responding tO the !crt part Of the trUSS will be drawn using the well-known rule that tho two must i nteN>ec.l i n a vertical pas.<;in,; through the origin of m oments {point .?). Tho influenc.(l liue for D 3 ~ obtained in a sim ilar. way il( shown in Fig. 88.4c. Tnfluenco Jines for wob members of arc.h trusse~ with paralltd cl10rd:-~ can 1Je obtained hy projoc.ting the strel;~\S acting in all the nwmhca:s c.ut hy a section on a normal to t he c.hords, the method of moments being inoperative in this c.;a!q) as the chord int.orsect at a point iulinit.cly distant. For in!'tanco, the ordinntc~ l.o t.ho influonce li ne for stros<~ D~~ of the truss represented in Fig. 89.4a can he found by O<tuating to zero the prujot~tions of oll tho Jorees ncting to the loft of sec lion T-.f on a normal Lo the dirt~ction of thl' dHJtd members 5-7 aud 4-6*

H should llll rorncmh<~red that H., = IT 11 = H anti that. sl r(ll'~S in tho hori zont.al deck ml'mh!!rs remain uil M long as the loads romniu verticnl.

228

where Ql =angle between the chord mcmlJers aud the hori7.ontal a= angle formed by the diagoua.l 5-6 with t.ho vertical.

(fJ)

I
I
I I

I
I

I
I

: InfLuence Lr:ne
--. ,

tor

I
:

1"'.,.,

---. ...___
II
~ ~,-~

D.\6

I
I

I
I

............._

I
I
I

-,._-!....
:
I

I I

: .,,

I
I I

I 1

1 I

I
I

(C.'
I

~{E~-~1 % Connecli'}Jl ~J .. . ,
-

1 Jn(Luenca
) I

line tor :
;
:

I [)J4
1

I
:

ll./1()

Fig. 89

F rom this aquation we obtain 1

DGe=

CO!'! Ct - IJi)

(VA co:;cp -Hsin <~)

or

D56 = co.s (Ct-ip)(Q~cosp-llsiuq>)

1

where Q~ is the shear in a simply StlJ)portNl beam of llw same span.

10.4. Thr/.1.$1 DeiJI.'Wi>illg Framtd

Str~turu

22.9

The term (Q~ eos q> - If sin cp) being identical with tho cxpressio11 of lhc shear acting over a cro~:; section of: a three-hinged arch, thl influence line re lative to lhe right part uf the truss can bo constrocted in the same rnaun()r as that for lhe shear in an arch (sco Fig. 33.3d). This mea.ns that an ordinate equalllo eoso; ct s -q> cp} over the left a hutment must bo connected with the neutral point f determined by projecting on tho x-axis the point of intersection of lines b' B and A F (in this purticular case Jino AF is parallel to the chord members 5-7 a1ul 4-fi and pn::;ses through point B). The lino relative to the le(t part of the truss wil l be parallt~l to t he one pel'laining to its right part due to the parallelism of tho chords. Thu completed influence line for stress JJ 56 is roprosontcd in Fig. 89./rb while another influence li ue 11amely that for stress D 31 o bt.ained in a similar way is rcprosentcd in Fig. 89.4c.
2. TliREE-Hr.\GE O TIWSSED ARCHES

'rVere the right-hand supporting bar of the truss shown in Fig. 87.4.a replaced by some framed system such as system CR

Ptg. 90 .4

(Fig. H0.4) we would obtain a throe-hinged trussed arch , consisting essentially of two pin-connected t r usses with immovable hinge supports. Let us examine n three-hinged arch with supports nt the same level represented i n Fig. 91.4a. Both vertical reactions a rtd thru:st Jor such system~ are determined in exactly tho same way as in the <:U~'<~ of solid arches. Thus, for a load uuity siluat.cd a distance x fro m tho left abutment, reactions vA and V R will amount to l - :t; d :& V A= - l - an V 0 = -y while tho thrust. H will equal
M~ T where

Me is the bending moment

2!\0

The Truucs

I'

(a )

11

.lz-Z lz

).1

~ j Jn{ltJI!rlce ltoe (or v6 (C)~~/ ~ . I I

J

j j

Jn{lueflce l im: fo, h

F ig. 91.d.

10.4. Tl!rcSI

De,;tloptn~r

Framrtl Structure$

ac.ting over the currc.>.sponding cro:-;s ~cc.t.ion of 11 :,;im ply suppor tocl beam of tho samt~ span, c;.nrrying the same load. The influonco Jines for Llw vccLic.al reactions and the Llnust are shown in Fig. 91.4b, c aud d. As regards s trosses indtur-d in the soparato momhors or the semi-arches it is clear Lhn L as Joug as tho Joacl is applied directly to thu scmi-nrdt unrlor consideration tho othor on() mn y he flcti tionsly rcpla(:.ocl hy an irw l ined supporting rod. Tn other words, t he ~ystom may bo reducod to tho case of a siruplc l:nrss with supports at rlifferent levels, whicla has hoen just (l Xalllincd. Tlw eonstruction of influcrwo lines for tho ::sLres..c;cs in moru hers of ~uch trusses i~,; already rnmililu' to Lhc roadcr who willta~;~i l y ro'l)o,v t hat of tho inflnenr.e lint for .;, 4 shown in Fig. ~1 1A e. It romains to lind out what happens whon the load shifts t.o tho ot.lter sem inrc h . In lho.l r~ase tho loncl may be resolved i nto two COlniH!I'aeuls. tltc first oi whic h is applied at the crown hinge and thl' olhcr Lo a joiuL clircc lly over t he.\ abu tment at tho oppo!<ite end of the ard1. Tho ordinnLcs to the infincocc line when unit lond P acts over the crown hingr: and t.lw abutment nro well kuown and oqual y, {Pig. H .4e) aurl r.ero, respN:.t.ively. A(~c.ordingly, i n tho case of bar 2-4 whNl tho load Lravols from hinge C toWat'dS the righl, the .sttcss will vary linr.Mly from !Jr to 0 in ar..cordau~ with thll expression t.l - :: I :; O L
24 -...:: -

- 1 2

Ye 172

Tho cnl'respouding infiuoucc line will be repre.sontcd by Lho s traight line con nect.ing Ye w ith ])Oint b as s hown i n Fig. 91.4./. Sc.vcral i nfiuonc.c liucs fm s tresses in mem bers of dircrrmt trussed arches arc represented iu Fig. !)2.4. Two of thcso system!; have their end supports at different levels. I n systems of the latlor type it is more convenient to resol ve the abutment reactions along a vcrtic.al and n line which connec.ts the nbut.ment hinges (Fig. 93.4). The vertical roaction11 VA. and Yi 1 will be determined fro m tho well-known equations . = -l-x z V ,t aud V'a= -y
1

't'hc compouenls ZA and Z 8 of the ab utment r~actiou~< whl'n only vertical loads are involved will he given by

Z,.=Zn=Z=h
wlaere h is the lever arm of component Z abouL Lite crown hinge C. Tho thrust 11 is easily found from

M'b

H = Zcosa

232

.
(b)

' r.~

H.

(C)

10.1. Thrust Developing Fra med Stru~ tiAU$

233

where a is the i1lclination to the horizont-al of the line passing through tho abutment hinges A and B.

I'' iJ

I z

Fig. 93.4

(a .I
~------t-.::...:.._

_ _ _ _......J
I

,,

"

:
I
I

fr;fi.oence ,:frw 'or U

:

('bJ'

7i

l{ : ~ L------------Ftg. 9!!..4

~ +' I (~I

---,-

------- ---~} ' I ~

It

il

This enables us to rewrite the expression for the thtust as fo llows

H = Zcosa = h

M'b

COSCI. =

-h-

,'ltJ'b

cosa.

As the tel'm cos(/. ....!!:...._ represents the length of the vertical insert billwet'ln the line connecting tbe a.lmtment hinges and the crown hingv we may denote it by f whereafter the expression for H will bccomt'
H=-c 1 1'ho 1eader is invited to check the accuracy of the influence line for the thrust H of the trussed arch represented in F ig. 94..4.

MU

The Trusses
11.4. V"J\lUANTS OF '1'1\ USSED ARCHES

<ttttl

.Le t us consider the trussed arch with elevaw.d tic provided with fixed and one roller support as shown in Fig. ~!5 .4. 'fhis s~at.ic.ally tleum u ina L.e a rc.h may be obtai ned by replar.i ng the in eli ned bar of l he right-band abutment supflort by the tie a.b allsorbing the thrust. Tho method of stress analysis for similar tied arches is illustrated ltn,eundet using as an example the structure represen t.ed schematically irl Fig. U6.4a. The inOuonce Jines for reactions V ..t and V u arc of t he usual lri;mgular shape with ordinates equal to unit y under the suppod.<; aF: shown iu Fig. 96.4b and c. Tlw ini'Juence lino for Lite fortl' II in the tic (equivalent to the thrllst H) will be readily detol'mined by equating to zero the moments (about. c.rown h inge C) o( all i;hc forces to the left of section 1-.f when load unity P is to the right t:herliO[

~Mc=ll.A. ~ -H/=0 1.
whert'from

lf = -A- = - 2/ j

V l

M'/:;

When tho load is applied to the left of the section the equation bocnmcs

aud

H= 2T"=-r
Atc.ordingly, 1-lw influenc-e line for the force f1 may he obtained hy mull;iplying the ordinates of the beudirtg moment .M~: acting

Vnl

Af~

over sec-tion C of a simply supported beam by a constant factor This inIuence line is roprc...,ented in ~'ig. 96.4d. The influence line for stress L, (Fig. 96.4a) may be obtained J)a$[ng section I.t-II and writing that; ~M abou~ point k of all l'orces to the left of this section equals :r.ero
~Mk = V"\ak-fl/-.L,h -::: 0

T.

wherofrom
l L~ = h(V<~.a,.

-Hf)

The neutral point corresponding to L 4 will fall on the vertical pa&c;ing through t he intersection of lines a1k and b1 C. T he completed inOuence line for L, is given in Fig. 96.4e.

Fig. 9.5. :[

!!1 I

(e)

''

',

'

' ',

influence line for

\
\

L~

',I '

Fi~.

96',,1

The Trusse8

The t-ender is invited to draw tho influence lines for stresst~s in other members of the structure. Let us now consider a system consisting of two pin-connected trusses and a multihinged arch, two variants of whic.h are shown in Fig. 97./a and b. I t is easily proved that such gystems constitute unyielding combi~tations and remain statically detorminate. Methods o[ stress analysis for these systems will be shown using as an examp'hl the stl'Ucture in Fig. 98.4a. As usual the influ~ncc lines for vet'tical reactions VA and V u will be triangular in shape with ordinates equalling unity at the

(b)

Fig. 97.!1

supports (Fig. 98.4b and c). It is easy to prove that tho horizontal components of stresses ac.ting in all tho members of t.lle multihinged areh A SB remain constant throughout the system for any given set of vertical loads applied to the trusses AC and CB. For this purpose eonsidcr tho equilibrium o[ any joint (!';ay. joint n - 1 in Fig. 98.4d). Projecting all the forces on tht> horizont.~~,J we get
~X

=-

N n - t t..:os o:,l-1

+ N n cos o:n = 0

wherefrom

N,l-1 cos O:IL- t = N ,. cos <7.,.

where
<llld

11.1. Vari1mts of Trussed Archrs

2)17

,I
I I I

-. i
Infwencp line (or V.'

-'\-. {j

/
({)

"

(gJ

(h)

Fig. !J9 .d

2138
Tho n~ rore

Tlw Trusses

H rH =If,. - d f ll Nn.-t =_..,.:..:--_

COS~n-t '

N n-- COS H etc. ~n'

vertical we obtain V,_ 1 =0

Vrojecting t.he wherefrom

~anw

forces on

th~

~y

= 11 tau a,. - H tana.11_ 1 lln-r

=H

{ta1r an- tan a,~ 1 )

'flw above oxprei!sions indieat.e that the influence lines fo(strosse.s in all the ~eparatc links of tho arch ns well as in all the ver'Licnls ot suspensions will. have t.he same shape as the influence line for t.lw
lllrll);!; If. As .fm Lhc lattc1', it may be obt.ained by passing section 1-1 {see Fig. 98.4a) and hy equating to zero the sum of momHnLs a hi1111.

t ho crown hingo C of all t he rol'cc.s applied t o the lefl. of the sectiou. Llw stress N., + t acting on hinge S having been previously resolved into two co mponon t.s Hand H lan a, + 1

~Me= VA~ +
whNeJrom 2/

Hf=O

J1 = _ VAl = _ Mb
f

The negnlivo vnluo of TJ inrlicates that all the liuks of the arch arc com)H'Oi'Sed . 'l.'he influenGe .line for fi is a triangle with itc; ap0x ~nrned downwards and situated directly under the crown hinge C (Fig. 98.4e). Lot us now <:onstruct tho influence line for stres..,: Un For this purpo.'!o Wt\ shall pass sec.tio n JI-l l equating to 1,ero t.he moments o[ a ll tho forces about point 1n when the load unit.y aets to the right of this :>t\c.t ion
wherefrom

lJ, ~-

-*

tl' Allm.-

ff (Ym

+ h)j -=-1- [l\1~,.- fl (y , ,..:.... h)]

b~HHJiug

It wlll bo ob&Hvc(l that Lhc term in hraeket.!'l reprc:;ents the

lll Orn lllrt acting over sec.ti on 1( of a lic.ti Lious ~hrco-h ingcd a rc h

the ~atut\ span whose crown hinge t:oordinates arc equal to ~ and f while tlto15e of the centroid of section K equal a.m ami (Ym + h).

or

11.1. Varla11ts of

Tr11 .~~,,z

Arches

This will enable us lo find the 11ositinn of the neutral point perlniniog to the influence line for Un. For this purpose we shall first locn lt' the cenLroid of section K along tho wrtica l passing througtL the ori gin of moments rn {Fig. 98.4a) afLor which the lines A K and BS may be drawn, their intersection determining the abscissa or tlae neutral point required. The completed innuonce line for Un is shown in Fig. 98.4j. In order to co n~;lruct t.he influenco line for stress D,. in ono of the diagonals lot us equate t.o zero t he sum of vertical projectious. of nll the forces to tho left of ~ection .TJ-TI (see Fig. 98.4a) when tho unit load is to the right of this section

2':Y = V A-Htan a.11 -Dnsin ~=0

whenc.o

D,. =~(VA -11 tan rt,.)

~m..,

Tho l ntt.or equation shows that. thl' required influence Jino cnn be obtained through the summation of the onlinates to the inllntmcc line for l!lll ~ AB with the ordinates to the influence line for the tht'll~t

If multiplierl hy ( ~") The noutral JlOint auethod can ba used for the construction of Dn inOuoncc line too. Fot' this p11rposo we mu:;t first find the posi tion of t he unit load for which the ex prN;s in n (V ,\ - Jl tan nn) red IJ Cl'S. to zero. In this expression VA an1l If can he regarded as the vertical reactionnnd thrust of n f1c.titions arch of the sa mo span as the ac tual structure nnd having for c.oorclinatel' o the crown hinge and (Fjg. 08.4g). The position of the neutral point will be derived from

t:: .

1 D,. =~(V A - !fta n a11 )~0 SJnp

showing that

~ = Lana11

II

Tho lall('lr condition may be fulftllcd only if tho loft-hand ab utment reaction 11 of tho thrLIC-hinged arch forms wit.h the horir.onl11l au augle a.,,. Tho neutral point will be situated at the intcrsec~ion of this reaction '"'itb rcoction B of the fictitious arc.h, the latter Hctiugncc.essnrily a long a line pas.~ing through tho crown and tho right~ h and abutment hinges. The complat.orl infJuenc.e line for stress Dn i.s reprasen t.crl i u Fig. 98.4h.

Let us now examine a structure in which tho two trusses s mmoonl

tl10 multihingod arch as shown in Fig. 99.4a. This system is geomet-

tic.all.v st.ablt~ aud s tntically detormino tn, Hs main peculiarHy resid u1g in l.he fact t hat it takes support at four distinct points A', B' , A'' und /3". Tho following proc()dure may bo rocon1 mended for the det~rmilla tion of t.lw nhutrnMt rco.ctions: the directio ns of the oxtr~me links -or t.ho umltihingcd nrch sl10nld be oxte ndl!!l until t heir intersec-tion with t.he: v<~ rti(:als dta\\' n through lhc centres of the nbotment hinges A ' and B' of tho trussc~. Here the roac tions arising in the l'X treme link5 1uay he rosolvod along a verticA.I and a horh!)ll t.nl dilection into Lwo compoMnts VA, HA, and l'j1 , 1/ 11 , respec.t:ivtdy (.f'ig. 91J.4a). A~ a l mady shown in the beginning of this article Jl" = // 11 =H. Il'nving denoted IJy v ;\ amt Vi., tho r(}fl(~tions at the Sllp)lOrt.s A' nnd B' and by VA a nd V n the total Vllflic.al reactions of tho whole s ~steul Wt havl'

v
Tlw
tlli~

vn + Vi~

tH(na Lio11 expressing the cqnilibriu m of the momt'nts about pOi IlL 01' in t()I'~()CtiOO Of V JJ and ./:{ o gives

wh<'rt:frolH
-r. r A -whm~ ;lfoxt

V'A + V. _Mexr ,\ - 1

is the moment of all the externa l loads acting on the

sl nu~tu re about the sa me poinl;. Jt follows that the su.m of the IJrttcal components of reactions VA.

muJ.

v::\

is equr1-l to the reaction of a stmply supported beam.

Tlw thtust II will be convcuiontly determined by eq<tnting to zero tlu, sum of moments nhout the central hinge S of all Lhe forces acting on l.ht' left (or right) half of t.he structure when tho loarl un iLy is
Lo tlw l'ight thereof

wlwtofrom
II
.1-1 ~ l>t~ing

=-,,'1-/'/:;

'

the bending moment acting at midspan of a simply sup-

purt.eJ. beam carrying the same load.

Consequently, the influence line for the thrust H will have the .,;lwpt. or an isosc.(>.k\1': triangle re.prosentcd in Fig. 99.4b. The verticA.l

11.4.

~'nrlants

of Trussed Ardu:s

24 1

rcac.tions V.A and

V ncan

be also expressed in terms of the thrust H VA.=Htan<p and VB=Htan<p

It follows that the influence lines for these two reactions will take the shape of the triangle shown i n Fig. 99.4.c. The reac.t.ion VA. will be deducted from

V.A= VA-VA.= V A-Iltanq>

This expression shows that the required influence line may be obLained by the summation of the ordinates of two othor iJtfluence Jines, namely, that for the abutment reaction of an end-supported !Jearn and that for the thrust If, the latter being multiplied by a eonstant factor (-tan <p). As is well known, the first of these two int1uerwe lines is a right triangle with an ordinate equal to uniLy over the left-hand support. The influenc.e line for V.A could be also obtained by the neutral point method. The position of the neutral point is conditioned by

V.A =VA-Htan q>=O

showing that t he ratio ~;- must be equal to tan cp. The latter condition will be fulfllled when t he resultant of VA and If (e.g., the lefthand reaction of the fictitious three-hinged arch re presented in Fig. 99 .4d) will be at an angle of cp to the hori'ZOntal. Thus, the position of the neutral point relative to the reaction V.A. will be det.cmuined by the intersection of the abutment reactions A and B of the said fictitious arch. It follows that in order to draw the influcnc.o line for V~ by the neutral point method, an ordinate equal to unity should be laid off along the vertical passing through the left a hutment; this ordinate should be then connected with the neutral point and extended until the intersection with the vertical passing through the crown hinge, the ordinate so obtained being finally eonnec.ted to a point of zero ordh1ate at the right-band support (Fig. 99.4e). I [ i t were required to construct the influence line for t.ho stress arti ng in some chord member of the truss, say, member (n - 1) n we should ptoceed as follows. Having passed section I-I and equating to zero t;he moment about hinge k of all the forces acting on the left pcu't of the trus~ we obtain
~Mh

= (V.A +VA.) ah -Hyk -Lnh = 0

wherefrom

t!l-1153

The Trttsses

J n this expression M~ is the bendi11g moment aeting over section k of a Uucc-hingcd ardt whose span l equals that of the .slructnn.~
involved , whit~ t.he ee.ntroid coordinates equnl a.h andy,.. Tlw comr> Lt, t.t~d influence line obtained by this method is represent.t>cl in

Fig. nH.4f, L e t us consider now the corstruction o( the influence lint fo r the ~t.(!~S arising in one or. Lhc web members, say, iu the dingonal kn of Fir,r. nnAa. As long as the load unity remains to Lhn rig-hl of sec:lioa l-I, the stress D,1 will bo dete-rmined l.ry the equation
ZY = V,,wherefrom

D,. sin a-If tan cp,. = 0

indicating that. the neutral poin t will be locawcl in Lhc line of action
of a load r< mdtri ng ~t = tau <p,.. As l1 as already been mentioned, this hoc.om<!S possihTH whon t.he rosnltant. A o[ VA and If, in ot!H)r words, l:ht 'left-llal!d t'CIH' liou or a llcLi~ i ous th ree-hinged arch in Fig. 99.4d, is i nc.line.d through a11 angle IPn t.o t he horb;ont.'ll. Hence tho neutral point will lw doLormined by tho intersection of a line passing through the lnl't-hand abutment at an angle !Jln. wilh the horizontnl and a line <;o rrn(!Cti ng the right-hand abutment with t.he ctown hingo. The infln{)rH:H line fnr sti'Css Dn will he obtained by laying ofi' the odina.Lo - .srn

o vur

t.bo lert; abu~mont and by connecting this ordinate with Lhc pn.1jecti<Ht of the neutral point on the x-axis. To find that patt of the influence line ndativo to the left portion of t.he semistructur!.', a li ne paral lel to Lhe first should be. drawn through the r.ero point at the left abutment wlt<.!reait.er the position of tho joints k 11 nd n shall be marl{ed on these Lwo lines and cOttuec:.t.ed t.ogothor. That po rtion of l.he influence line rorrosponding to l.he right half OJ: tJu~ ~I.C li C. tUJ'H Wil) bo ObtninCC[ by ('01Hle:C.ling the IJrdillat:e a t t.ho c.rown bing~ with t.he z.oro poinl over t:hc right- hand ahulrn<;> nt. Tho eornpleted line is reprt'sent.ed in Fig. g\).4g. lnfluouce linl'::s for any othe-r web tmHrtber or vertieal. cunn(:c ling tho multihinge<l arrh wilh the truss can be obtained inn sim ilHr way .

5.

SPACE FRAMEWORK

J .5. GENERA,
In a most general way of speaking tho term !1pace framework indicates threo-di monsiona1 thwugh slrHc lnrcs capa ble of resisting load s in diiTerent planes. Certa in of such structures ma y be reduced, for: a given nrr-angcmonl of loads. to a combination of plane structures (trusses). whic.h simplifies greatly tlleir design. Thus, the bridge truss showll in Pig. 1.5a can be r~Jdurod to two vEu:Lic.al plano trusses A J3(.:]) nnd JJ1NFE whon tl1e loads P are S)'lll llletric.al abO\lt the longil:ud 'n wl axis of the strneture. Howcvor. if lho same trus~ were loaderl unilat()ally, it should bo c.onsidoccl Ml n s pac.e structure, the hol'izont<1l tr usses AMNB and Df.:PC tr::~n~mitting part o[ tht: load Jrom one vertical truss to the other. The t hree-dimensional structure of F ig. 1 .5b suppor ting <1 wntor tank is S tmkhov 's hyperboloi1l which cannot bo reduced to ouy number of plane structures and rnu!;t be designed as a single unit. Tho same applies to the Schwt!d ll'r dome illustrated in Fig. 1.5c. T h(l different members of space frameworks are usually c.onne.t.t.<'d together by rivet;ed or weldccl joints. providing a certain degree of .rigidity. However, compu tations taking into c.onsideration this rigidiLy become e xce.e.dingly c.urnhorFomo, and the.refore. in actua l desigll work such structures a1o a lways regarded as articulationconnected (d ifforillg t hereby f rom throo-dime.nsional framed bents in which all the joinl.s are made and regarded rigid) . T he articulations of space framed struct.un\c; must allow rolalion art~und three mutually perpendicular axes thus providing Lbree Ut!L!I'CC!S of freedom as co111parcd to Lhc single one of the pi n joinls of plano trusses. Accordingly, all tho mtmbers of a space structure mi!Ct.ing at ono joint can rotate ubout. nny line passin~ through the point of intersection of their axes, whil~t those of a plano truss may do ~o mly about an axis perpnnclicular to the p lane of th~ tnts.~. On the other hand , the anatlgement. of the individual mcmhors of: a space framework must be sur h that they should forllt an unyielding co mbination ;just as in tho c.ase of a pl a no one.
10..

24.4

Consequently. a space framework is a geometrically stable structure, consisting of a number of bars situat.cd in different planes

Ftc. 1.5

and connected together by so-called universal or bell-and-socket joints. When such a structure is subjected to a system of loads acting at the joints, no flexural stresses arc inducod in any of its members which become directly extended or compressed. Any system of noncoplanar f6rces in equilibrium must comply with six statical equilibrium equations which may be gro\Jped together into three equations of projections
~Y=O;

~Z=O

and three

e~p1ations

of moments
~My=O;

~Mx = O;

2.:L Spam Fram..e.wurk Supports

245

In statically detcrminaw systems these equations are a lways sufficient for the computation of a ll the reactions at the supports and of all the stresses in tho individual members. It must be borne in mind that the solution of these equations becomes the easier, the smaller the number of unknowns in each of them. Therefore, it is advisable to seek such systems of equations in which each contains no more than one unknown (two at the utmost) .

2.5.

SPACE FRAMEWORK SUPPORTS

Spac.e frameworks are connected to their foundation or any other unyielding system using three different types of supports; (1) the spherical movable support (Fig. 2.5), (2) the spherical roller support (Fig. 3.5), (3) the spherical fixed support (Fig. 4.5). T he first consists of two flat parallel slabs with a ball in between. This type of support allows ro tation al10ut all the three axes x,

(b )

/? if.!. 2.5

y and z. as well as the displaccm~nt along any direction lying in the xy plane. Only the displacements along the z-a:xis (both upward and downward) are prevent.ed. (The arrangement precluding upward displacement is not shown in Fig. 2.5). Thus only one constraint is imposed by a support of that type, a vertical reaction R r being developed along t.he direction of this !;constraint. The conventional schematic representation of a support :of the first type is shown in Fig. 2.5b. The second type of support consists in principle of two rockers, the upper and the lower, with a hall inserted in their sockets; the. lower rocker bearing on rollers which lie on a slab provided with lateral ribs. Similar ribs existing on the lower surface of the rocker make a ny lateral displacement of the two impossible. This type of support permits free rotation about any axis passing through t he centre of t he ball and a longitudinal displacement in a direc.tion perpendicular to the roller axes. It prevents displace-

S p tl CP. Fratflt'work

mout along two di1'eCt.ions, one being perpendicular to the -plans of the roll!!r axes aud the other pnrallal to t heir axes, thus imposing Lwo ~;.onstraints on lhe body it. catries. Two reactions , Rx and R z or flu a nd Rz (depending on the position of the rollers) will develop n.t a support of that lype. Tts conventional representation is shown in Fig. 3.5b. The fixed spherical support (Fig. 4.5a), occasionally refened t.o si rn ply as spherical su pport, consists of a pair of si rnilar rockers wit.h 11 ball , but no roller~. ~;o that the upper rocker can only roLate alwut any axis passing thro\lgh the ct,ntro of the ball, but cannot move in any direction. A support of t his type will impow three constraints, hence, three reactions R x R y and R z may develop. Sche matically Lhls support is represented in Fig. 4.5b. 'J'ho minimum number of constraints necessary to maintain a body in a fixed position is a lways equal to t he number of equilibrium cqun L ions. T he1 -efore , in the case unrler consideration this n umber '"'ill c<JIHI.l !';i.,"X and t he simplest comhiuation of such constraints is ~<h own in Fig. 5.5. Tho body l is provided with a fixed spherical SllpporL a.t point C nnd a roller support at point 8 whic.h l~avos the body freo to L 'Olato only about the axis BC. This las~ degree of freedom will be oli minated if a movable spherical support is added at a t hird point A, provided point A does not .fall on the line BC. I r t.be structure proper does not constitute an unyielding combination the number of constraints at the supports should be increased accordingly. As an example, let us consider the hinged quadrnnglc J3 1 /J 2 B~ I3 4 in Fig. 6.Ga. lf it wore attached to the grou nd nt. three c.orners using as heretofore three supports of the diffe;re nt types described, it woulcl conserve two degrees of freedom , for its shape cou ld be altorod in its own plaM, and furthermore it co uld fold around one of the diagonals. The systam could be made immovable by 1\dding two const1aints and effectively, four supports of the roller t y pe as sh own in Fig. 6.5a provide t he required stability . J ndlcd, point B 1 c;a n move neither along the vertical, nor along t ho direr.tion B 1B 2 due to the c.onstraints developed by the support al this same point; a t tbe same time the displacement along BtB 4 is made impossiblo due to the presen<:e of a horizontal constraint nt point B~. Acc.ordingly. joint B1 is fu lly immobilized. T ho joints JJ 2 , B 3 and B, are connected to the first one and to the ground using a sufftcient numbllr of bars (constraints) to make the whole system co 111 pletcly ~La hle. T he position of the sup})Orts must be judiciously chosen, for otherwi~ it may l1appen that one part of tho s tructure will have redundant constraints and will become statically indeterminate, while t he other part will retain one or more degrees of freedom. An example of

,.,ill

 ;J.

'). s (1(lt'e

Framework .S'UJJfX>rls

247

(0}

Fig . .9.5

raJ

Pig. 1.5

Fig. !i.S

(a)
Fig. G.5

(b)

24S3

Space Framework

a faulty distribution of support constraints is given in Fig. 6.5b. The direction of the horizontal constraints at joints B 1 and B 2 coincides with that of point C, t hese two constraints become redundant, whereas both joints B1 and B 2 are free to move towards A. This could be corrected by shifting the constraints marked with a cros.s to new positions indicated in dash lines.

3.5.

THE FORMATION OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE SPACG FRAMEWORK

The simplest unyielding plano system is c.onstitute(l by a triangJo

ACB shown in Fig. 7.5a. Ult us add joint D using two bars A D and CD as indicated in Fig. 7.5b. The system obtained will he uustahle, for tl'ianglo ADC can rotate llhout AC. Tn order to obtain
D

A
(a)

{b)

B
(C)

Ftg. 7.J

au unyielding combination, a third bar not lying in the plane nf ADC should be introduced, say bar BD (Fig. 7.5c). Tho pyramid so obtained is the simplest t hree-dimensional framed structure; additional joints, each connected to the already e,xistiug system by three separate noncoplanar bars, may he introduced to form new structures, which will remain statically determinate and unyielding. Let us now !l.Xamine the relation existing in a space framework as described above between the number of joints, the number of bars and the numbor of constraints at the supports. Let S be the number of bars, S 0 the number of constraints and K the number of articulated joints. The total number of tho unknown stresses and reactions will then equal (S S 0 ) and tho total number of equilibrium equations which may be used to fmd these unknowns is 3K, for at each joint we may equate to zero the x, y and z projections of all forces (internal and external) applied to this joint.

.'3.5. 1'he FurmatioTL of Statically Determinate Space Prnmcwork

249

Hence the number of redundant members and/or support constraints i will ba given by i = S +S0 -3K (1.5) When i > 0, the system is statically indeterminate, when i < 0, the system is unstable, and only when i = 0 the system may remain statically determinate and form an unyielding combination. However, tl1is condition though necessary is not sufficient, for the equation

S+S0 -3K=0
pt't'rnits the determination only of the number of bars and support constraints required, but furnishes no information on their mutual position. The latter must be known in order to deterrnine whothet the system is statically determinate or not. In the case of the simplest structure shown in Fig. 7. 5c we l1ave: S = 6; S 0 = 6; K = 4, the expression (1.5) showing that in this case i = 5 + 6 - 3 X 4 = 0 and therefore tho requirement stipulated above is satisfted assuming that the constraints at the supports (not shown in Fig. 7.5} are the same as in Fig. 5.5. However, the same results could he obtained for the structure given in Fig. 8.5 which differs from the one just mentioned by the fact that bars AD, BD and CD lie in one and the same plane, thus making the wholo slructure instantaneously unstable, for joint D can move along a normal to the plane ABC. Accordingly, having made sure that i = 0, the stability of the system must be examined by the method of zero load described for plane ~tructures in Art. 6.4. As will be remembered, this method consists in the computation of stresses in all tho members of the system at zero load; when these stresses are nil, the system is geometrically stable. but when they are indeterminate and may differ from zero, the system is instantaneously unstable. J n the case of the structure shown in Fig. 7 .5c it is easy to prove that at zero load all its members remain idle. Indeed, separating joint D and projecting the stresses N1o N 2 and N 3 acting in members AD. BD and CD respectively on a normal to plane ADC (Fig. 9.5) we obt.aiu N 2 cos~ = 0, wherefrom N 2 = 0. The same reasoniug shows that the stresses in all the other members of the system are also nil, which mt>ans that the structure forms an unyielding combination. But if we apply this reasoning to joint D of the systcm1 shown in Fig. 8.~ we obtain N 1 X O+N2 X 0+N3 X 0=0 which is an identity satisfied for any values of N 1 , N 2 and N 3 The rernaini.ng two equilibrium equations which Jmay be wrilten

250

Spacr Frameu;ork

l'or this joint will cnutain three unkno wns whose values therefortl indoturrninate. This indicates clearly that Lhe system is instantaneously unstable. Let us l tO\\' toxam ine the structme reprt~sentcd in Fig. 10.5. vre buve in this case
r~main

and thus Lhe ~;ystem may be statically determinate. Applying again the zero load method we shall starl by separating joinl A a nd by

8
F ig, S.5
Pig. 9.5

projoe.ting sttesses N 1 , N 2 , N 3 and N~ on a normal to plane A CB 2 B 1 T his leads immediately to N, = 0. Proceeding now to joint E we may easily prove t hat all the bars moot ing at this joint remain idle. Pa~sing consecutively to points D, C. B1 , B 2 and B 4 and considering their equilibrium, we shall fiud t hat a ll the othm bars of om structure romaiu unstressed. which proves lhat this str ucture is both statically determinate and geometrically stablo. The system which wo hnv~ ju:;t examined does oot bulong to the catogory of simple structures for it is i mpossible to d is mantle it by Lhe successive eli mination of joints, each connected to the remainder of tho system with the aid of t hree bars oaly. Such systems are termed complicated and may he ob tained by replacing one or more bars of a simple system by a corresponding munbcr of differently situaLed members. For in. <;taoce, if in ou1 systom we roplnce the diagona l AB2 by u diagonal B 1C (s hown by n dotted line) we shall be able to take tho s tructure down by eliminating successively joints A, E, D and C, oach with three conncc.ting bars. Thus the complicated system shown in Fig. 10.5 in solid lines can bo obtai ned hy alt.ering the position of only one bar in u simple system.

251

In conclusion let. us e.xamine t ile plane truss repr<>seu ted in Fig 11.5, a H the joi nts of which ate of tho universa l typo. If we

41$6
II 'I

IV. \ f/1

Fig. 10.5

Ft~.

11,5

assume that the central triangle of this trus~ is r igidl y connac ted to the ground by means of 6 sup port co nstraints we have

S=11; S 0 =6; K = 7; i= 11 -;-6-3x7= - 4

T h\lS the i;'}'Stc m is un stabl~;~ a nd has fo ur degrees of freedo m; indeed, i t. may fo ld a long lines J.J, If.JI, III-Ill and JV-IV.

4.5. STHESS A:'XALYSIS I N SPACE FRAMEWORK

The fo llowi ng three methods are in use for stress dctl!nniuation io stat.ically determinate space fra meworks: (~'~) 1he me thod of sections, {b) l,he method of bar replacement., (c) the method of reducing the s pace struc.ture to a series o{ plane <lnes . We sh all examine each of these methods in turn. (n ) The method of sections. T his metl10d is used fo1 tl1c co mpul~a tion of stresses in th e members of s imple framed struct\res a md consists essentially in passing a section through a certain numb1n of hal'S in which the stresses are sought . The portion of the struct ure r<'movcd is replaced by the intemal forces acting along 'l.he S('e.Li oned hars, these forces baing t hen determined with the a id of equilibrium equations. In general six equations of st atics may ba written for each section aJtd t.hercore the number of unknown stresses determined for a single section may not e xceed six. Dop<mding on the equilibrium equations used and 0 11 thu pm;i tioo or the section itself this method may be subdivided into: (1) tiJ.e method of moments, (2) the method of shears, (3) the roothod of joints.

252

Spau Pnmeuork

J 11 the first of these three methods the equilibrium equations are obtained by expressing tllat the sum of moments of all external fol'ces acting on a body in equilibrium about some preseltlcted axis is always nil. As its name implies, this method is very si milar to the method of rnomonts described in Art. 2.4 for plane stntctures. t\s an illustration of this method, let us determine stresses N 1 and N 2 acting in the legs of an elevated tank appearing in Fig. 12.5. Having passed the section m.-m we may equate to zero !.1'11 of all the fotces acting on the upper pottion the structure a.l;lout the ax:is 1-l. The stresses N 1 nnd N'l. are regarded as applied at point A, where their l'OSulm tant is resolved into a vertical and A a horiwntal component. This leads to the following equation

or

'i.M1 = WH-Qa-(N 1 +N~) c s in a=O where the angle a is given by

tan a=b Owing to the syrnrnetry of tho loading, N 1 = N 2 and therefore
c
F ig. 12.5

Nt=N2

WFJ-Qe 2csina

The second method is analogous to the method of shears used in the analysis of plano structmcs. In this case t he equilibrium cquatious oxpress that tho sum of projections of all external forces on :some conveniently chosun axis is nH. This method will be madll quite clear if we consider the cantilever truss represented in Fig. 13.5. Joints A, B and C of tltis truss are rigidly fixed by means of six. s upport constraints (not shown in tho drawing). Using expression (1.5) we find that

t = S+S0 -3K = 15 +6-3 X 7=0 and since under zero load all the bars will remain idlo, which becomes immediately apparent if joints 1, 2, 3 and 4 are isolated iu
succession, the system is statical ly determinate and [orms an unyielding combination. In order to determine tho stresses N 1 and N 2 acting in the diagonals let us pass section R and assume that the projection on tho z-axis of all forces applied to the right-hand portion of tho truss

d.5. Stress Analy.,is in Space Pramr.worJ.:

253

is nil
~Z =

-P+(N1 +N2)sin~=O

Taking the moments of N 1 and N 2 ahout the x-axis we obt.a in

~M., = N 1 a sina-N 2 asin a.=O

arrd

therefme
N1=Nz
~Z =

ln this case the sol ution of

0 yield!i
stu a

N1 = N .. = 2 P-

Whtm the section passed separat~s only one joint we obtaiu the method of joints. The equilibrium equations used in this case do not differ in principle from those used in the previous one.

y
Ftg. 13. .5

We shall usc this method to determine the stress N 3 acting in bar .l-2 of thu same truss (seo Fig. 13.5). Separating joint 1 and equating to zero the sum of forces pro.ieet.ed on the z-axis we obtain
~Z = -P+N3 sin~=0

wherefrom

Na = si:~
The method of joints is particularly well suited iu the following < :ases: t. When three bars meet at an unloaded joint. In this case as previously mentioned (see Fig. 9.5) all three bars aro idle.

SpaC't: Frame.u,ork

2. When all the bars meeting at a joint, with the exception of <>nc, lie in tho sn me plane. lf no load is applied to such a joint or if this Joad a<.'ts in tho said plane , tho stress in the member which is o trtsitle this plane will be Hil. (b) The method of bar replacement. The method can be advantageously used for complicated space systems when it if; i mpossiblo to pass a sec tion cutting six bars only, thus making the met:hod of St)elions ptac.t.ically inapplicable . The basic principle of this nwthod d~,rives from tho fact that any complicated s tatically determinate :->y~l.om can be reduced to a simple one by replacing one

m mo ~~~ ha rs . Let us take up Lhe c.ase of a eo mplieated system which can be

con ve r ted in t o a s imple one b y the replacement of one bar o nly . .Let X be t.he stress in the bar to be replaced. Having introduced t he substitute bar, let us consider tho simple strnc.turo so obtained 1111der the adion of the given set of loads <lnd of the lo ad X applied a lo ug tho direction of the bar replaced. Denoting by .V11 Nx ancl :Yx the stresses induced in tho substitute bar by tho loads r.l.un lly applied, tho forc.e X and by a load unity acting in the direction ol' X, re~poctivcly , we may wri te

Nx = XNx
Tbo <'omhlued stress in the substitute har may be then expressed hy Np XN x As in the ac.tua l structure th)s hat is absent, Wt! must equate f,his stress to zero

}{p +XNx=O
whic.h lo.ad!:$ immedia t ely t o
(2 . '5)

Once the \ahw of X is known. the stress in any mernhcr of the stJuetur(' will he easily found nsing the fo~:muln

s lross induced in rne mher k of the simple st.ruc.tllJ'l' by t he actual set of load8 P S,.,, = s t.ress in the same member induced by the load uni t y X = 1. The ~a me pr.o<~O d nrc can he followed wheu the conversion of llw giveu ~ystern t.o n simple one req uire~ the replacement of sevtmll ba rs. Ja the la tter c.ase Lhe detormination of ~tresses in. the b ar~ wh k h nre being replaeed will rcq nire Lhe s olution o f several equat io ns with severa l unknowns ~qual in number to Lhnt of the bars:
wlwre

x,,f' -

4.5. Stress Analysis in Space. Framework

255

just mentioned. It wilt be readily seen that in this respect therf! is no difference hchveen space frameworks and plane structures (see Art. 4.4). f n order to illustrate the use of the above method, Jet us compute the sl;resses in the structure shown iu Fig. 14.5a (inc.idental-

Pig. 14 ..5

ly these stresses could be obt.ained direc.tly by the method of sections).

As u~ua l let u~ check fi rst whe !:her tho system is statically de lcl'minate and stable. [n the ca~e under consideration S = 12, S 0 = I) and 1\. ~ G, whcreftom i=12+6-:-:l X G=O whic.h shows that at least ouo of the basic requirements is sat.i~lie,d. The demonstration that under zero load all the har.s remain idlt~ will be given latct. HepJadng har .l-:1 by bar A-2 (Fig. 14.Sb) we obtain n simph~ structure for which t;he stress in the substitute bar may be found by the nret.hod of joints. StarLing wil;h joint 1 we lind the SI.J'OSS produced in bar 1-2 by Uw load P; passing to joint ,'j we see that undel' the action of this load bar 2-3 remain~ idle; separating then joint .Z we shall (,'asily ohtain the stress in har A-2. This hojng donP- Jet us examine tho stress arising in the same bars from the application of the unit load X. This slress may h1.! repr~scnted hy

Nx ~" 1V~+N:
where N; = st1:ess in bar A-2 induced hy the .load unity H[)plicd at joint 1 N~, = st.ress in the same bar induced by tho sa me load applied
at.

joint 3.

256

Space Framework

Owing to the symmetry of the structure

N~=N:

.and accordingly

Nx=2lv~
As will h~ readily observed from :Fig. 14.5b, the stress N~ is opposite in sign to the stress N p and P times smaller than the latter. Hence -:-r' N 11 2N P 1\x= ----pand Nx= 2N~= -----pSuhlltituting this value in expression (2.5) we obtain

X=

Np NpP 1 ---::;::-- = ;--;rr- = .- P Ax 2~ 11 2

Once X is known, the stresse8 in all the members of the structure are found with no difficulty. Heturning to the demonstration that under zel'O load all bars of the structure romain idle we can now state that fo1 P = 0 the

force X = 0 and accordingly har 1-3 is idle. Separating joint~ 1, 3 and 2 in succession we shall find immediately that the same applies to all the other bars. The method of bar roplacemont can be of considerable help when investigating tho geometrical stability of the structure. Determining the stress N x induced in the substitute bar by a load unity we may meet with two case~: 1. The stress N :r = 0. Then X becomes indeterminate being ex !H'esscd by ~ which indicates that the system is instantaneously unstable. 2. The stress Nx =1= 0. Then in the absence of external loads X = 0, and both terms of the exptession
Nk=Nllv+XNhx

rHduec to zero indicating that the

~y~tcm

forms an unyielding com-

hina tion. (e) The method of reducing the :~pace ~;tructure to a series of plane ones. This method becomes applicable when the structure is composed of distinct groups of coplanar members. ln such cases all

t.hc external loads should he resolved along planes coinciding with those of the groups of bars just mentioned, whereafter each of these \'.ophuar groups may he analyzed separately.

.'i .5. R r nm plcs o.f Stre$/J A nrll!ISis in Space Fr nmt>u ork

~57

Le t us conside r, for i11st.an<:.o, the sy.stem r-(.l presente>.d 111 I<ig. 1.5.5. Tho lHHn hc r of support const.raints S 0 ::... ;, x 2 ~. . . 10, tho nurnher of bars S = 3.) ancl the numbel' of joints K ' 1!'i, gi\'ing
i ::-10+ 3!"i - 3 X 15 =0

Sr.> pHTaling consew tively joints G, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 , 2, H. 4 HtHl :; it is eas y to Jlrove that w hen P = 0 aJI tho bars !'(.' main id k. A c<:Mdin~ly, tht) structure is both s tatically detenuillnl( and geomc~ trica lly :>tablt.\. In order to fincl the stressn:::: ind1rc.ecl hy load P

Fig. l ;i .(;

let us resolve Lllis load into threll c.omponcnL<; N 1, N 2 Huu ;\':J as indi c n~d in F ig. 15 .5. Isolating thcwaHer joinls '7, 8, 2 and ;.; we l'rnd !:hat bars 7-8, .?-,1 and H-B 3 remain idle. Similady, isolating joints 9, )0, (i and 5 wo :;:hall prove that the same applies to bars .?-10, .1.0-t/. 4-.'i and 5-l:!r,. Alone two [>lane trusses B 2 -ti-7-B 3 and B 1-10-()- IJ 2 wHl take up Lht~ enUre load. These trusses may he designed in tho usu<ll 'vay , c.o mponcnt N 1 being llppli ed to the first one, c.omponcnt N a to Lho ~concl, and component N2 ooing divided between the t wo in HrtY urbi Lrary proportion.

5.5.

EXAMPLES OF STRESS ANAL YSJS TN SPAC E FH;\ME WOH K

Let us detennin e tlw stm~~<e~ in Uw mom hers of tlw ~l'nt.rlll purwl ol' t!tE cantilevet str11cturP J'l' prosenLed in Fig. 1t>.5 luHh hy tho met.h od oi sediou and h;v n ~duc.ing the struc.tu te to a ENi ~s of plano l-rl! S!;E?.S , (a) M e.thod oj sulions . Start hy Jl''<>Ving Lhat all the weh mem bers of the pla no truss S-8-12-9 rmnai n idlo. For this JHil'pose isolate joint. !) ; fou r har;; mee t at
17-853

258

Space Framework

t his joint but thre~ (1-9 , 2-9 and 10-!i) lie> in t.lw s;1 mt> plane, and as no e.t.Qruu1 loa!l is ap plicHI to th~ joint the sLr<>SS in bar 5-9 must be niL For the sam e roaS(lU bars .'l-10, .70-fi 6-11, 11-7 and 7-12 will rmnaiu idle. Thi~ }>(ling known, puss section n cutting nll tho mc:mht>rs of the pnnc!l under consideration.

J.'ig. 16.5
Dotcmnine stross U 23 by equating tr~ zoi'O thl' sum of mom ouL s of all forces ac.ting on the left part o[ the truss about the xaxis coinciding with the direction of bur 6-10

(.:23= 0

ln order to dot!~rmine stressos D1 and D 2 in diagonals 3-6 and 3-10 project tlw forces 11cting in tho left part of truss on the x- and z-axc.>s
~X =2P-j- (D 1 -D2)

cw;a = O

}';Z~

D1 sin~ + D2 s in ~= 0

whorMrom

Dl = -Dz
and hy s uh~titnting in l:X
Wtl

lind
p Dz - - cosa

From t.r ianglo 10-18-3

Therefore

In ol'dt~r to dcturmim: s trnSSC'!:' L 1 om! L2 of tho l nwor chord clement!'< (i-7 and 10-.1/ wri t e ':i M,.,, =0 about an axis xi ~parall e l to the x-nxis llut passing through tho ('l'Utl'e of joint 3
~-'11 X I

= - (DI -

2)3 . 2 = II

giving

This being known , wl'ite same ]mint

wherefrom

~Mz= O

about the ::-ax is passing thr<Jugh the

(b) Method of rt>duction to plane trus.~P.S . St.nrt by res!ll v ing tht' loads along tho planes of the two incliued laLetnl t1usses. Tho corresponding compnnonts (l<"i g. 17.5) will 0 1\Uill

Nnw tonsitler the tru~;s .l-4-12-V shol'.'l1 iu Fig. 18. 5 nnEl determine stress Ui in the uppnr chord m<:mhN 2-3 . As th is same member bL,longa also to truss

Pig. l7..'i
.5-.l-~l-8

Fig. U .5

(:lee Fig. Ili .5), anuth01 stress lll will be inducNl in it at tho same tirne Owing to tho fact. that t.lw '-'t!l'tical projections uf loads Ps ancl J> 2 are of
nppos it.EI 8ign

Vi =

-u;

ami thcrofore tht> r~sulting stcss will be nil.

2()0

S pnc~ F rnmmvork

T he l;tress D., in the diugoual wi ll be obt.uined Ly proj(lCting all th e forc~s acti ng on the left part of the Lru~ 111 a not'mal t o the ch orus
~y

= -'2P 1 l- D2 cos 1\ =0

' ' )1 . - -"ijl 5 J As/

11!1Ll

cose -:-0.8

Dz - ~ 2 X !'J X 5 p = 25 p
li X 4
1~

Obvi(msly the sLress Dt in w i ll e<JUUI

tin~

corl'eSponling rl i11goual of the other truss

Finally equating to r.eto r,,lt ahou t pui11t 3 giVl'S

~M 3 = - UP1 -:~P 1 -4f.e=0

whe rd rom

and t he s tress

Thu~!

tlw

;;tre~scs

t!etc.<nnined by both wethods 11ru in _complete agt'(!Olllcnt.

6.

KINEMATIC METHOD

OF INFLUENCE LINE
CONSTRUCTION

i.G.

GENEHAL

The. Jci!le rna t.ic method of influenc-e line con~lruetion for nuy given fnnc.tion (shear, bnnding moment. normal rnn:.c, nhutmcnt reacLion , stress in a morn hor of a Lrnss) is hased on o ne o f tho mos t gone l'H l pri ncip lcs of theoreti (;a 1 mechanics- the princip ll: of virl.un.l displacemmls. Jn ac.c.ordn nee with this pri nci plo, tho total work p erformed by any g il.'en system oj forces along olrtual displacements of a. body in equilibriT.un must be nil. Sueh dist>lncement.s arc reckoned inli nH~Jy sma.H

and t.horcforo thoy may be ac.e.omplished witho\tt dis t.urbiug auy of tho cxisl.ing intt'rnal or. tiX L crnal com;t.raints. At the same tiuw
the insiguillcancc of those d isplac.cmen l.s permits t.h11- i ntrod nclion nf t he follo wing simplifl c.atio11 ~: when plate .f shown in Fig. 1 .t.i rotnt.cs a 11 in1initc!".imal ang le dcp ahoul point 0, any oLhcr pninL n. Jocut.cd a dist;wce r from poinL 0 will shift 1.0 a.2 nlong a (~ irc u l ar ure: however, ~inee l.he angle of rotaLion is very small, we may c:onsidrH that point a moves along the tangenL to the arc and not the arc itsoH, noglccting completely the distance a1a2 For the sa rnc reason we rnay also neglect !.he difforonco between dtp and tn n (d<p) which simpliltf> S very conRiclcrahl y the c.onst.rnction of lhn vil'tun l dis-

placement

graph~.

2(i2

Kt~te.rnatic

M ethod /J f lnj lrU'IICf. Une Con$tructton

The k inematic theory (also called the strain energy or clastic energy t heory) enables t he construction of influence lines for all types of structurt's: beams, arches or trussr1s, statically determinate or redundant. Tho methods based on this theory are pnrLicularly well ft t fo t certain complicated cases where they lend to quicker and more teliable results: they arc also very useful (or checking inl'lnencc lines constru~;ted by other methods. Here under Wt' shall describe only one of the me thods derived from the above theory. This method might be termed the instant aneous centre of rotation mothocl and is extreme ly sim ple and e<lSY to grasp .
2.G. BASIC PRI NCIPLES OF THE KINEMATIC METHOD

Let us consider a plate rigidly connected to the ground by means of three eonstrainl;s represented by thnm supporting b ars (Fig. 2.6a).
p

Fil(. 2.6

i\ s~nnw that. it ig required to construct the inOuoo<:.t:\ line fot tlw s tress in one of these bars, say, barB, when a unit load P, romaining always parallel to itself (Fig. 2.6b) travels along tho plate. Unlike the statical me-thods. whieh require that a section be }H\S.SC cl ac.ross several bars, us ually separating the whole structure

2.6. lJasic P rinciples of thl! Ktnematir M cthcd

or p art thereof fro m the grounu, the method dosr,ribed involvos the elimination of one b<tr (or eons traint) only and i t~ rcpl<J<~enlonL by a force X equal to t.he stross acting therein. Jn the c.asc un der consideration the system so obtai ned can l'Otate freely about point A a nd is ma intained in equilibriu m by tho load P, t ho force X and the read.ion.s acting along t hQ remain ing s uppo rting bars. Let us apply to this syste.m the p d nci plo of virtu al d is p'Jac.oments . A~ point A is rigiclly contH.H;terl to the ground it will constitute tho centre of rotat ion of the plate, tho only possible mo1;ion of which will consist in a 1otation about this point. Snppost\ that the plato ha.s: turned clockwise an iniiuite~irnal angle drp {Fig-. 2. 6b) causing t he l oad poin t to shift l'rom a t o a1 and t he point (I f appliea tion of t he fol'ee X fro m b to b 1 Deuoting h y 6p thB co mponon L of the displac.e nw nt a-a. 1 d iredod n l o u~ the Ioree P and by 6~. the compon <>. nt of the c .lispl neonwnt b-b 1 cli r.l'.etcd along tht1 force X we may writ.c

P6p + XBx = 0
w hich expresses t hat the work performed by the exLornal fones actin g on a body in equilihrium remains nil. T he l oad P l.miug equa l t o u nity, we draw immediatel y f rom t he ahove

X ;=-. ~P
U:x;

(1. 6)

whic.h represonts the equation for t.ho requil'cd inlluonec liue in its most general form. A naly;r,i ng this expression we no t o that fl-o m t ria ngle a 2aa1 (l"ig. 3.6)

whel'e aa1 = Aa d(p. lt follows tha t

bp = Aa cos Bd(p

Aa co~~ being equal to the l over arm of the load P about: p oin t A , l et us denote i t Ly :v wb.k h gives
~P -=

xdq

He r eafter a ny displace ment acco mplished by so me p oint ol' tho pla te in the dirccl.ion of the load will be tcckoned positive and auy dis placement acco mplishod in tho oppo::lit.e dir~c tion-ncgati.vc. 1t is clear that Lhe displacements of different points will depend o n the position of load P, this d isplacement being p roportional to th~ lover arm x, or in other words, to t he dista nce of t he l oad poin L t o t he <'entlfl ;p of rotation A.

21V.

K illf!rlwUc lrfethod of 1 n{luence. T .in<' Con struction

H.nv i ng deterrnincd tho d isplac.em en ts of all t he possihl ~ points of application of the load .P we may represent t hese displacements grnphically obta ining the ~o-calle d diagram of virtual displacements or
di.~placement

graph of the system .

.Le t. us examill(l the term 6x. Using the same reasoning as 3bove we ohto.i n from Fig. 4.t:i Ox= bbt cos -r = Ab cos 'r d(p = r dq; As both Lhc point o[ appHcation of the force X and its direction rcnn aiu constant, the di ~ pl ac;oment <> x is a cor1st.ant illdependcnt from t he pos i lion of the load P, and rnay therefore be roganlecl as rt}prescnting the scale to w hic.h the vi r tua ( displac.cments have been drawn. fn1k cd, the shape o( Lho i nfluence line will depe nd solely on tho numerator Op of the expression (1.G) hut the detcrmi natioH of

1----..jp
Fig.

:u;

Ji'ig. 4.6

nunH~ 1ic.al value::; or. f;ho ordjnates to thi~ lino requires that the va h w of. the denominator ~ x be exactly known. Thus, the ordinates to the tnftuenc(! line for any ju.nclton are equal to /.hose of the gra,ph of virtu,a.l di,.~pla.cnrwnts of the system made possl.blr:- by the elimination of the corresponding constraint divided by the .\'WW fa.clor ~x Thu scq neuce in whic.h t he (;onstrnction of the inflnc.nc.e li nef; hy tho method of the ins t anta neous centre of rot at ion s houl d be cnrt'i (.)d o ut is as follows : (1) e l iminalo t.ho t>onstraint corresp o nding to the Junctio n under eo u ~ itl (~ r:aLion an(L roplaeo it by l;hc force X, (2) draw the graph of virtual displacements for the rncc hani~m ohl.ained upon elimination. of the said con1;traint, (H) <.lotcrmine the scale factor pertaining to this graph, (/J:) detennine the signs of Lhe ordinates to the influence line. As an illu::;tration of tlw above, let us consider tht~ example of a ca11tilover beam appeadng i n Fig. 5.Ga for which i t is required to eonstrud the influe nc.e line for re a(~tio n B.

2.6. Hasic Principle:> of thl' Kinematic "-,tethod

The dimination of the right-hancl support )caves the hl:.'am l'rt~e to pivot about tho tcmaining one (point .4), which will tlll\f'('for(:> constitute the ~entre of rota! ion of the syslem. If th~ h(lll.tn is lllt'IH>d count.erdockwise l;hrongh an angle d<p about this centre tht.
~-.--..:xe-_

p =1

(a)

(b)

(cJ

Fig. ;;.6

disjllac.cmcnts of all the points will he eprescntcd by a straight line intersecting th~' hcanl axis at A (whore the dbsplaccmcnl is nil). The ordinate~ lo this lino wilL he reckoned positive to Lite ldt of A (all the points bci11g rlisplac.ed downwards, e.g., along tlw 1lired.ion of fnrcc P) lind negative to the l'ight of it. The displacement (jx is positive and equal to the ordinate t~ot respondiJJ!{ to point B. 1f in our drawing we put 6x = 1, cxprc:-;sion (1.6) will give

ln order to obtain the influence line fo1 reaction Ball that JenwiH~ to h<~ done is to ehangc the gign of all the ordinalel:'l to the d iS()Iaeement graph as shown in l''ig. 5.6c. ln the following articles we shall consider more compli('ated

cases.

2116

Kinematic :Me.thod of I n{1uen ce L inP- Constrnction

3.6. HI::PLACEMENT OF CONSTRAINTS DY CORRESPONDING

FORCES

As already stated, the construction of arl influence line for any function starts with the elimination of the corresponding constraint -whkh must be replaced by a fon~o.

fa)

{b)

(a)

-=Fig. 7.
(J

fb)

Fig. G.fi

Let us consider in deLa.il some of the more typical cases of ('Oll.sLrl\int elimination. (a) R limination of the constraint corresponding to the vertical re.action. In this case the lixed support should be represented by two con<.'urrcnL bars one of which is hori:wntal and the other vertical

Fig. 8. 6

us shown in Fig. 6.6a. The vertieal .supporting bar is then el~minat <)d and n'placed by forces X = VA directed towards the hinges as .'Shown in Fig. 6.6b, which corresponds to a positive reaction inducing a compre~sivo stress in the eliminated bar. lh) Elimination of the constraint corresponding to a thrust. In this case the hori1.ontal bar is removed (Fi~. 7.6) and replaced by forces X = H 11. again directed towards the hinges, this direction coinciding with the direction of the thrust reckoned positive. (c) Elimination of constraints corresponding to ,-;tres,wJs in truss members. It is the member for which the influence line is 1'equired that should bo tcmoved. The forces X should be .directed a way from tlw joints thus indicating that tensile stresses are reckoned po:::itivo (Fig. 8.()).

H.6.

lfr.JlfJtl'ment of Ctm.ttmlnts by Corre.~ponditlf! P<Jrcc.<

2G7

(d) Elimination of constraints corresp onding to shearing forces. A11 y cross section of a beam, an arch, or It hent capable of re-sisting lho action of a ]lend ing moment, a shearing or a normal force may be schematically teplacr,d by a connection consisting of t hree hars a~; indicated in Fig. 9.ob. Tho mutual 1)0!;i L ion of thoso ba rs may be varied at wi ll but tlley must al ways e ns ure the rigidit y of tho c.onncc.tio n whic.h i rn-

( 0)

"'

Fig. 9 .0

plio5 t ha t these three bars may never h ave a com mon JlOint of in ter:scetion. I n the arrangemant appearing in Fig. 9.6b the force acting in t.hll vertical hal' is equal to the shear, whieh follows from the oquilihrill fll of vertical components o( all forces aeLing to t he ltfl (or to the righ t) of sec.tion I -I

}';'Y=Q-X= O
whenc.e

X= Q
CouscqucnLly, t he construdion of the influence huo for the ~hl'ar acting ovc.r sce.tion CC reduces t o the construction of that for the stress X i!1 the vertical bar. Upon removal of t he vert ical bar t he two parts of the beam will ha ve a mobile connection represented sc.hemati c.ally in Fig. 9.Gc. (e) Elimination of the con. ~traint co1re,~ponding to a normal force . Adopting for L he c.onnection b ars a pattern represented in F ig. l O.fla and projecting all the forces acting to the lefl (or to the right) of section I-I on a h orizontal we obtain

kX =N - X .,,... 0
wlterefrom

Kint!malir Af1Lhod

of lnfiue.nu! /A1w Construction

In other words, the stie~s in the hotizontal bar is nqual to the normal fore.e N acting in the member under consideration. Upon removal of the horizontal bar the two parts of the member will have a mobile corwection represented schematically in l'ig. 10.f)b. (f) Elimination of the constmint corresponding to a bending moment. The connecting bars may bo placed as indicated in Fi,::;. 11.6a..
0

il
N
.~'J

,y

(aJ

{!IJ

{b)

X~N -....

{i
{b)

2C}[
.X=M

Fig. 10.6

Fig. ll.fi

Passiug .soction /-/and equating Lo zero 1:M ahout point K at Lhe interscdion of the verl.icu] rod with tho one coinciding with the neutral axi~ of the member Wf!. olll;ain whel'cfrom
~

YM ---;-

lf r
equal to

1. the forc.e X in the connecting 1od wi II he nunuwicaHy

th~

moment

X=-T=Jlf
and llms, in~tnad of constructing thn inl'luenc(~ Jine for the hP11diug momcu t; acl,ing ovet the c.ros1'l section we may construct the iJJflwwct line for the stl'ess X ind\leod in the lower bar of Fig. 1LH. Upon elimination of this har Lhe comHwtion betwe1m the two parts of l.lw mcmiJCl' Will r.on~i~t of two hnrs intorseding in its ll{!Ut.ral axi~; which is equivalent l:o a hinge;. Schornatically this eonneclion is rc~presentud in Fig. 11 Jib. All the above shows thai; t.hc con.sl.rncLion of inl1ueneo lim,s for lht! usual stmss functions mav he roduced to tlw consluctiou of tho,~c for a uorma] forco acting in a. bal'.

'14

!i.6.

CON~TRUC'l'lON OF THE DISPLACE.\mNT GHAPHS

The virtual displacernmtt graph deL~rmiues compleLely the ~hape of the influence lines, t.hoir odinates differiug by 11 constant l'<ldor only. For. this reason it may be said that when tho displaecment graph is compleLed tho main bulk ol' work has been done. Let us examine the consl.tnction o[ displaeenwnt graphs in Lhc case o[ one, two ~wd four hinge-eonnoetetl plates. (a) Displacement gmph for a single plate. i\ssnme th:At plal.e 1 wi Lh une il xed poiu L 0 is acted npo n by (I lie moving loud P """ 1

Fig. 12.1J

and a flxod force X, the dirocLion of Lhc former may he arbitrary. Let plate l tum an angle drp ahonl point. 0 in a cloekwise dir1~dion {on the dwie.e of direction see Art. l),(:i). The :c-axis of 1.hc graph may he dwseu al, will exe(!pting parallels to the direction of foree P. 'J'hus, in Fig. 12.6b tho :r-a:xis i~ normal to the line of: action of force P while in Fig. t2.Hc it ha:-J been chosen h()rizontal. The axis of ordinates must he always l:ll ken parallel to force P. The {IOI'Linent points of the system will be de.noter] on 1.hc graphs by the same letles with a prime index. The displacement of point. rn along the direction of. P will equ.d

(soc Art. 2.G)

61, =X d<p

when) ;r is the distance of the line of ~ction of the fo1ce to the centre or rotation (always meas11rcd along a normal t:o this line, regardless of t.hc direction adopted for the X-HXiS o[ l.hc graph).

270

](inemalic. ;1-[rtlrod of lnflue.nce Line. Con.ilmction

Dw above expression showi' dcal'i y that in the case uncle!' c.oJlsiucratiou the displac.emcnL graph will form a .straight ljue intersccl.ing ~he x-a.xis at point 0' where ;:r reduces to zero. To l.he right of -point 0 ' the ordinates of the graph are positive, as tho direction of the di sp ta.cement 6p coincides with the direction

{a'

Fig. 1:1.6

of the forcn P, whi lo to the. left of this same point the ordinates will be negative, for t.his portion of tho pla tc will move in an opposi to 1li rt1c.tion. The scale fndor will b~ obtained remembering t.l111t.

It f11Llows lhat for x = r

t\-..:~6J)

In other ,,. ords, t.l1e scal o factor is eq ual to the displaeemcnt. graph orllinalo rnoa~urcrt a distance r from point 0' Wig. 12.6b anJ c). (b) Displacement graph for two pin-connected plates. Lot. us toHsl.ruct Llw displttc.emcnt graph for two plate~ I and II ftxed at. points 0 1 and 0 2 and eonncc.ted to one anot.l1er hy means of hinge .l loc.a Wd in line with points Ot and 0 2 (Fig. t3.G). As we know, ~mch. a syst e m will bo i.nst.antn neousl y uns tab le , hinge 1 being able ln sustain infinit.esimnl di::$placement..s al.ong a normal t.o line 0 1-02 , its motion involving ii1fmitoly small rotations of plate I auoul.

1..8. Construction of the Displacement Graphs

271:

poin l'. 0 1 and of plate II a bout point. 0 2 Hav ing chose n t he ;x-a xis of t.hc displaceme nt graph nnd havi ng found l;he p rojection~ of. 0 1 , 0 2 and hinge .l on t his axis we rnay p1oceod with the consLrucLion of the gmph itself, wh ich will eon~i s t. of lines Oil' and Oil' intetsocti ng at poi11t 1' (Fig. 1~ . Gb). The scale fact.or c.an be found assuming eiLhcr that L h e displacemen t o~ point l, commo n to hoth plates, il:' caused by the rotation of plate I a bout point 0 1, or by tho rotation of plate I I abou t poi nl: 0 2. Jn the ftrst cMe t he scale factor. will be give n by t he length of the i u~el'~ between t he line bounding the graph and the x-axis , measured alonJS a parallel to the rlirec tion o( forc.(.l P a distanee r from point Oj, a11 d in t he seeond by t he lengt h of a similar i nsert but meas ured a dis t:a nco r 2 from point 0 2. Tf measu red corroct:ly, both scale fac. lor~ will he exactly the sa me. Thus far we h ave admitted Lhnt plates I and fl arc lhed to the ground at poinls 0 1 a nd 0 2 whieh re main im mobil e, thereby i mplicating the presence of a third un moved plate con~ t. iLute d hy the ground itself. (n t his respect it is quite importan t to note that from the vi ewpoint of theoretical mechan ics all of Lhese L hree plates a re p erfectly equi valent. T lu~refore , it is a bsolutely im material which of Lhe three will be rec.koned immovable un<l no chango whatsoever will oc<.~ u r in L h e outlin~ of tho dis plac-ement graph when the label "immobile" is shifted fro m ono plale 1-o another. f ndeed, if it we re assumed that p la le I I is the i m 111ovable o1w, line l '-02 should bo a dopted as t.he a:x is of t.he disp lac.e ment graph nnd nothing except the hatching of the graph area would alter as showu in Fig. 13.6c. 'fhe importanc.e of the above rem ark resides in t he fact that in a rl\1 m her of cuscs t he cons tru ction of t ho vi rtual displacemcn Lgraph mny he <~onsidornb l y simpli fied by an appropriate choice o.f that pnrt of the struc ture which will be reckoned immova ble. (c) Displacement graph for a system of fou.r plates. Let us considet.. a sysl.e m of plates /, 11, III and IV connected by means of hinges1, 2, 3 a nd 4 (Fig. 14.6a), such systems being frequently e ncountered in prac:tke. If wo assume that plato ./ is the immova ble , poi n ls 1 and 4 will lie on the a:xis of the graph (points 1' a nd 4' i n Fig . 14.Gb) . Imparting to pl a t e II an infi.ni losimul rotation a bout point 1 in a clocb'vise direction we s hall obtain a dis plac.ement grap h repl'sented by the line .Z' -2'. Tn order to comple te the displacement gtaph for p late .lll the disp laeoment of only one oxtra point is required as th o displa ee~ ment of point 2 is already known (point 2'). lt is very conve nient Lo adopt as such the instantaneous centre of rotation (otheewise called the instantaneous centre of 1.e1o velocity} of this plate with

'27~

K lnt>m.ati r.

}.{ r.lhod

o j 1 nJlucnu Line. Conslrrtclion

reference to pJ ate I, for on the graph this point will necessarily lie on the axis of ZOJ'O displacements. In ol'der to find this centre let us extend Lho liue .l-2 until ils intersection w ith the line 3-4

w provo Lhat point 0 1 c.onslilut.es tht! 1equired Ctln tre of rotation . Indeed . li cLitiou:sly enla rgiug plate ll.f until inchl:-;ion o( point 0 " auil fixing this point we out.a in Lwo iustanLane~JI I ~ Iy unsln ble systems formed: t.he iil'.<st, by plates I I au d 111,
It is easy

~t

point 01.

Z' Ftg. N .li

eac h having one lixed poinL (point~ 1 ~wd 0., rcspcclively) and hillg't'-COUilCCLod a t point. 2, and the second by pla tes T.TT anu Jhod at points 0 1 and 4 and hinge-co nnected a1; poinl; .~. gadl or t.llcst~ two sy~ lems is in every res peel: similar to the ~Sy~le 111 of

rv

.Fig. 1.i.6a.
As li-\.ing Lhc -point 0 1 does not prevent in f11 1iLe.~im al dis plac.enw nlfl of plale.<( fl. III and J V wi lh n~spect L o pl alc .I recko ned inuuovahlc, it i.s clear that this po iuL is in effect L hc instantaneous t'en tre of rota tiou of: plate I I.T. It follows tha l: t.hc projection of point 0 1 on the :~xis of the gl'aph will provide the extra poinl, r cquite~t and l.herel'oro line 2'-0'-3' will c.onstiLute l\w displaceme nt g-rnph ror the plate III. Hepca.l:i ng the same reason ing for plate JV we ,<;hnllllnd t hn t li ne 4' -3'-0' forms lhe dis plucomont graph for Lhc lntter.

273

Thus the broken line 1'-.2' -3'-4' constitutes the entire disphH~Hnwnt graph o[ l.he system formed by four hinge-connected plates. H, fo1 i nsta nee, plate IV were regarded as the reference one. Ji ne H' -4' would constitute the axis of thf' gTaph from which all the displacement~ should be mea~u red. The instantaneous ccu tm of mtnl.ion of plate If would be located a.t point 0 2 formed by the inLcr~cfLion of lines .l-4 and 2-3. Ou the displaeement graph the colTesponding point. should lie on the axis of thH graph (line H'-4'), it:-. di~plnc<Hntmt b~ing nil. Poiul.~ l', 2' and 02 mnst also lie on one and the same straight Line, for all the three helong t.o plate II.
5.H. DE'l'.E.H111NATION 01-' THE SCALE FACTOR

As :llrcady known (Art. 2.6), the displacemonl; itt the d il'ect.ion o[ the force X equals

Ox= r d([! where:ls the clisplaccmeut of any point of t.he plate along the di1oction parallel to the load P amoun Is to
bp=Xdlp

lL l'ollows that for x= r

Ox= bp
Thus, the scoJe factor may be obtained by measuring tht ordinate to the displacement graph 11t a di.r;tance r from the projection of the centre of rotation, where r is the lever arm of the force X about this c<'nln. On the graph distance r must be always measul'ed along a normal to the direction of the mobile load, l'egard]ess of the anglo formed hy the axis of the graph and the direction of the load (see .l.. '1g. 1') - (' )C) Exn m ples of scale factor delerminaLion, when tJw sy~t(Hll consists of uue or two plates, w1>.re given in Art. 4.u. 'l'l1e1e are several ways of obtaining the value of the scale factor when three or more plates nrc invulvcd. It is obvious that regardless of the procedure ndop1.cd we must always obtain U10 sauw resull.s, hnt rwvCl'l;lwlc5s for the sake of clarity we sha11 denote l.ry & 1x, 0 2,,, etc., t.l11~ values oE the scale factors dol;e.rmined iu (liffercnl ways. A::!Hllllll' that in Fig. 15.0a plate I is fixed in which case liuc .1'~4' in Fig. 15.Gb will constittlt.e the axis of the graph. Tho di~placo menl 6~.x will be conditioned solely by the motion o[ hinge 2, point :.) helonp:ing l.o plnl;e I which i~ .regarded as immovable. As~urne that t.he entire force X is 11pplied to plate l i in which ~ase the Col'l't!Sponding lever arm will equal r 1 The scale ractor
18-853

274

K irtemalic A--1elhod of I nflltence Line Constructi(}n

6 1x will then be equal to ordinaLc Lo line 1' 2' measurerl a disLancc r 1 either to the left or to the right of point 1'. H, on the other hand, the force X were applied to plaLc fll, th<t lever arm r 2 should be measured from point 0 1 and tho scale factor

(b)

Fig .15.6

0 2 x would he given by t.he orrlinate to the line 2'3' measured a distance r2 from point 01. Let us determine the scale factor 6 3 ,~ assuming thn L plate IV is rendered immovable. In this case both points 2 and :; will acquit'~ a certain displacement and therefore the required St'a lo factot will bo represented by the algebraic sum

f>ax = ~3x

+1'13~

where 63x i.s the displacement of point 2 and 63x tlw t of point 5.

7.6. Examplt!S of Tnjluenu Line

Con.~trw:tion

275

In orde1to determine~;1x let forc.t! X act. solely on plate III. In that case the lever arm equals r:i and the insert between the axis of the graph (line 3'-4' in this case) and the line corresponding to the displacement of plate III (line 2'-3') measured a. distance r 3 from point .1' will represent Osx It must he rec.koned positive, for point 2 moves along the direction of the force X. Afll'or<'l3x it~ valno will be found by applying force X to plate I, the lever arm in that case equalling r 4 The insert between the graph axis and line 1' -4' (rcprcsenLing the displacement of plate f with reference to plate IV) mcasmed a distance r 4 from point 4' will yield the value requited. Thi!'. di~place ment is negative and therefore the value of &3x will be found by subtracting the length of ~3x from that of ()l!x A comparison of the three scale factors obtained appears in "Fig. 15.6c. H all the opetations wore carried out correctly all the seale factors ohLainl'd will he in strict coincidence.

6.6. THE SIGN CONVENTION

The correct det.etminalion of signs will he greatly f,;implifted if the rotations of the plates were such as t.o ensure in every case a positive displacement along the line of action of tho force X, fot in this case the scale factor 6:x: will be always positive.
This will be fulfilled if the motion imparted to the plates coincides with the direction of X. All the ordinates to the influoneo line in that case will he opposite in sign as compared with the ordinates to the displacement graph, since X is equal in amount and opposite in sign to ~J> [see expression (t.6)J. :c If: the load P is directed downwards (in which case positive displacements 6 11 are laid of below the graph axis and the negative ones above the axis), those of the ordinates t.o the influence line which are above the x-axis will be positive, and those below the same axis negative. Vice versa, when the load is directed upwards, positive influence line ordinates will be below the x-axis and negative ones above it.

7 .6. EXAMLPES OF INFLUENCE LINE CONSTRUCTION

Problem 1. Hcquircd the il1fiuence lin<' for reaction at D of a multispan staticnlly d~terminate beam l'biJwn in Fig. 11i.6a. Solution. Eliminate thQ constraint at the support B and replace it by a force X. Impart an upward motion to point 1 c.oinc.iding in dircct.ion llnd sign with force X and construc.t the displac.ement graph for plate I which will be represented by the line 0'-1'-2' of Fig. 16.6b. Line 2'-9'-4' will correspond to the displacements vf plate II and line 4' -5' -6' to those of plate Ill. The lever nrm of X
. 18*

27ii

Kinematic 11-fethod of 1 nflueJlCI! Line Construction

ahout point 0 is !!qual to l. 'fhe value of gcale factor Ox will be given by tlw onliuat.o to the displac.ement graph at point J. If the latter is adopted for unity the inlhwnce line will m~gc with thl! displacement graph.

2
0

"

Ill

0.5l

(bl

.,.. Influence line for reaction 8

>6

Fig. 16.6

Thl! ol'(linutes at points 2, 4 and G will be found from the similitnd~ of trinnghls ~ 3 B Yz = +..-; !14. = -,-; fl6 =
Po!<itiv(

+'T hrdinates arc above tlw x-uxis, negative ones

~
(Sl!(J

Uclow. Tlw :;ame influ-

enco Hue was obtained previously using statics

Fig. 57 .2c).

l'rolllem 2. Hequired the influence lino for the ~hear in cross soction m-n of the bonm roprcsented in Fig. 17 .6a. Solution. Introduce a movable connection 88 shown in Fig. I 7 .lib hntween the two p;uts of the beam sepnrnted by section m-n and two forces X = Omn I'eplacing t.lto verticlll constraint at this cross section. Stloct a graph axis, .~ay, line 1'-.l.l' and mal'k on it aU tho fixod points of the hcam (points ./, 3, 9 and 1.1). Tmpnrt a dod< wise rotation to plate I about point A and a similal' rotation tH plate II ah"ut point B. The two displacemento:; will l1e reprerentod in the graph h~ th(~ lines 2' -iJ' -rn' an1l n'-9' -.10', t'Cl'pectivdy, tlwsu two lines being p:trallel a~ hoth JHll'l.1! of thl) heam am rotated thi'Ough tho ~>ame infinitc1:imnl angle dq;. ~tad< points 5' ;nul G' on t)Jl.) eorrcSflOnding lint.o; of the gra11h. Line .7'-2' will c-onstitute tho graph for plat.CJ 1/I, line 5'-11' for Jllate H' anllline 10'-11' that for plate V, the whole gril{lh cnnsi;;.ting of the broken line 1' -2'-!i' -6' -1 0' -11 I In olcler tu det()lmim) tho s:-ale fa1:lor as~ume that plate T is fixed. Then ()x will he l)qual to m' n' which will he l'cgardl)d a~ unity Ox=m'n' ~-.,l
1t is madily seen that Ox is the Slim oft\~ and The same innuencc line hcul hcen obtained Jlnviou!')y uRing stntks (S(!O Fig. 55.2cl.

o:.

7.6. Examples of

fn(1uNic~<

Line. Coustruction

277

trus); of fig.

Problem 3. Hequired the influenM line for the streR~ U ,.0 of a deck-!Jridgt~
l8.li1~.

rcJ

-:%,.;;'"-....,.ll,.,..J

---::I--I--I

,,~J
I

Ir.,--I--I--I--I--I:--.....!:....-~
rt .~

IV S

.~

!IJ

}'

11

II

(C)

Fig. 17.6
Sol~tion. H1place uppllr chord member 4-G by the ~tress X= U 46 It ~hould btl nottJd that Uw elimination of bat 4-6 does not entail that of the corres!)omliug

f:tringer.

Fig. IS.G

The fol'ce X will ~~ause a clockwi~e tot.ation of Jllnte I nnd countl~tclMkwise ono nf plate II. The ronesponding d i~placement gaphs will 1~~~ reprc8en ted hy

278

K l n e11~at k

M e/Jwd of ltlfluence Line Conslruetion

Jiuo;; .1 '-5' and 5'-12' (Fig. f8.Gb). Projecting on these lines points 4' and (}' we obtain the displacement of joints 4 and 6 or the upper chord. The scale factor is found assuming that plate I is rendered immobile, plate II otating about point 5. Tho lever arm r of stress X about this point Qquals h = 4 m and, nccordingly, tho scnle fa ctor will be given by the insert between lines 1'-5' and 5'-12' measured vor~ically a distance of 4m from point 5' (assumin~ plate, I fixod, line 1'-5' bec.omos the graph axis). Knowing the value of thts insert and teckoning it equal to unity, it is easy t.o determine tho influen c-e I ine ordinate y 0 at tho abutment A. Indeed, from the similitude of triangles, Yo= ::1. Tho same influence line had been obtained previously (see..:Fig. 71.4). Problem It, Requirod the. inllueuco lino fo1 the stress in diagonal 5-6 of a t.hrough hridge truss shown in .Fig. Hl.ll. Solution. Eliminate the diagonal uuber consideration and rcphtcc it hy t wo rorco.s X = D 56 . The system will be thus transformed into two plates I aud Jl

{a)

(b)

......................

~;

Fig. 19.6

(hatched on tho drawing) connected lt> one another by two bars ii-7 <md 4-6 the uirections of which intmsect at point K. Let plate II be fixed. Its displac.ements l1oingin that case nil, the corrnsponding displacemt!nl. graph 6'-12' will merge with the .x-axis (Fig. 19.6b) and the instantaneous ta.mtrc of rotation or plate I will be at point K. The fore<. X will impnrt a dockwi~e rotation to pinto I about this centre, line K'-4' representing its displaceutent graph whilo tho lines 4' -6' and 5'-7' will represent that of bars 4-fi and 5-7.

7.fi

l~:camples

of b1(luence Line Construf.!tion

2i()

.~to ogardccl t.ht! ~T itph .

;\ cttwll y i ~ is no~ L .he plate 1I but the ground , i.~ . , points 1 and 12, that :>houl1l as 1\xed . Therefore trac-e li ne 1'-12' and adopt it 8 $ the f111al axis of

The t'nt.io displacement graph will then he reprosentod by the brol<en line 1 '-4'-{i'-12', tho sign convention stipu lated in tho provious section remnining iu force. 'J'hereaftl.'r pruc!ed with the rloterrnination of tho scale fact.or. Assuming that plato f f i~ immobile anrl that forc.o X acts on plate I, the lever nrm r of this force nlH>IIL point K will equal 20.6 metros (see Problem 2 in Art. 7 ./1). The insert hot.wtwn the graph axis 6' -.12' and the line representing tho displacement of plnlc I (line .1' -4') HH!asnrod at a distance of 20.6 m frorn point K' will provide tho value of Ox = 1. Ui'\iug tlw similitude ()r tri11nglos oLtaiu ordinate y 1 untlcr the left-hand

ahut.mont

v;-=18
Y1 =

20. 6

2~~6 =0.87/t

Tho inOnonco lmc thus obtained coincides fully with that of Fig. li!.l.4 construc.tod using statics. Proble.m 5. Jlcquircd the influence lino for the bendiug moment ac.Ling ovor c.ro.:<R! soc.l.if)lt {(. of a parabolic three-hinged spand!'el a1ch of Pig. 20.Ha.

/aJ

( b)

Ftg. 20.6 SolrJ.tion. ntroduce au extra l1inge ut cross section J(. which leods to the formal.inn of fo\lr plates l, IJ I and IV connected together hy me~~ns of four hinges 9, !(, 13 and 17.

rr,

280

/(inemutic

l~lethod

of 1 nfluence Line Construction

Cmtstruct tho displacemMtt gtaph nf this syst.em of plates usiug ttw im:laut.aneous ecnt.re o.f rotation of plate Ill with reference t.o plate I (point m) whidt will bo I'('Jll'e.~cntcd by the brokon line Y'-K'-13'-17' (Fig. :!.0.6b). Points .l' and 8' afe plotted on tho graplt uxis. Points 2' and 3' are t.lum marked on the displaccJment gl'aph for Phtte I I, point 4' on tllllt for- plate /11, aud points 5', ()' and 7' on that fo plate 1 V. Comw<:Ung all lh11se })oints tognlhet the diSJJiacemcnt graph of all tho panel Jl<lints of the deck will he obtai !lPd. Iu urder to dcte1miuo tho scale fnctor ilx Jllate II and let fnr<;(l X ac(. ou Jllat(l 11 I causing it to rota to with cference to plate 11 about tlw hinge K. The lever :um of fol'cc X may be. taken equal to 1 meh't.>, Tho 8calo factor 6"' will he given by the l(;'ngth uf the segnwJtl. hetw(.'ell t.lw graph nxi!l 9'-K' and the line representing tlw lispl:u!rnent o( plate liT (lin~ }(' -J,'f') mt>aSurcd one metre away from point }('. Knowing the vaino of this ~t'gmmtt the ordinal.c to tiH~ iuflnt:'nce line for the hmuling moment 11t t.he ahutment hinge !i will h() found flo~Jm
!Jo

h
wlwrefrum

=1

'"h

Yo=Oxx~t=1xk=1

All the other <Wdinates t.o the influenc.o line will hr readily found t.htHc.aflrr.

7.

RETAINING WALLS AND EARTH PRESSURE COMPUTATION

1.7. GENERAL
Retaining walls are structures intended to prevent the sliding down: of slopes too steep to remain standing on their own. Fi~. 1.7 shows l wo differcn L types of retaining walls and a sheet pi lo-wnll wh ieh in numerous cases may serve the !'lame purpose. The retaining walJ shown in Fig. 1.7a is a massive eonstrucLiou, its main dimengions b and h being of the same order. WaLJs of: this.

Fig. 1.7

type a1e usual1y huiH of I'uhhlo or rnass concrete. They aro suujt>ctrd to their dead weight Q, the ac.tive and passive pressure of thH eal'th E 1 and E 2 developed over the rear and front faces AB and CD and the rcacLion CB ucLing over the foundation. Retaining walls of muc.h lighter construction showu in Fig. 1. 7b arc usually hui II. o[ reinforced conc.reLe and consist of a foundaLion slab CD :md a vcrtieal wall AB. The forces acting on a wall of this type consist. of' the doa~l weight Q., Q2 , , etc., of the weight G of tho column of earth resting on the foundation slab, the active and passivepressure of the earth Eh E 2 , , and the reactive force.s d islributcd over the lower surface of Lhc foundation slab. The reduc.cd weight. of these walls renders it possible to ma1<e usc of prcfahl'it~n tion techniques.

:2R:!

R etatnt n.g Walls aml /i;arth P ressure Computation

Sheet pile-walls are built up of separate wooden, reinforced conCI'(.Ite, or steel sh eet piles which are sunk into the ground side by .~ ide using specia l equipment. The dead weight of shoat piles and the vorl.ical reaction applied to their points are so small that they .aro always neglected. Accordingly, the only forces that must be <:.onsidered arc the ac.ti vo and tlu~ passi vc prcssutes of the earth E~o E 2 , E 3 , , etc., which must balance each oth er. I n all computations pertaining to retaining walls the dcplh of the structure in the direction n ormal to the surface of the drawing wi ll he always taken equal to one mette. The des ign of retaining walls and of shoot piling must b e always preceded by the det;etmiuaLion of the loads and forces acti ng on these s tructUIes including the earth pressure E. \Vithout comm itting any serio us error, both t ho acLive and the passi ve eart h pressures may be computed on the .ussumption tha t the earth consti t utes a granu lar material.

2.7. PHYSICAL PHOPEHTIES OF GRANULAH MA'l'EHIALS

Gra nular materia ls consist of very small solid roundocl particles .i\nd therefore the only internal stresses that cap develop in s uch materials are friction and compression . Dry sand and grains of cerc.als in large q uantities consti t u te granular ma terials which arc as c;lose as possible to the definiLion given above. In the actual design of retaining walls cohesive soils a re frequently met with but tho forces of cohe~ion are usually neglected and the soil is regatdcd al'! .a granular m as~. l.n order to determine the pressure exerted by a granular mat.t:tiul 011 a reta itri ng wall the follow ing physical properties of this material lllUSt bo known: 1. Its weight por cubic rnette "Y usually given in tons. This weight varies from 1.() tons per cubic metre for dry sand to 2.0 tons per cubic metro for water saturated matel'ials. 2. Its porosil.y 1l given in per cent and rcpresen l;ing the ratio ot ..all the intergran ular voids to the total volumo of t he material. For <Compacted sand 11 ~ 30 per cent, for loose sand H is close to 50 per -cont a nd for dry clay i t may vary from 25 to 40 per cen t. :1. The weigh t of the material suspended in water 'V\) also given in tons per cubic metre. As one cubic metre of t h e material conta ins T] per cent of voids, the loss in weight duo to its immersion will he equal to the weight of the water displaced or, in other words, to

where Yw is the densit y of the water .

2.7.

Phy.~ical

Properties of Grttnnlar Mall!rials

283

Conscquen t ly
(1.7)
<:1. The angle of repose <p whic.h is the steepest anglo to t.hc horizontal a t; which a heap of this material will stand on its own (Fig. 2.7). This angle is ch aracteristic of the friction developed

(a}
Ftg. 2.7

(b)

between the particles at the surf:ace of the granular matotial (all forces of cohesion hei ng neglected). The luagnif.ude of the angle of ropose <p depends greatly on the d egree 1>f h urnidit.y of the material. Thus
for f1r for for for dry sand humid sand wet sand dry c.lny wet cluy
q> ~= q> = q> = <p

q>

= =

30-35 40 25 40-45 20-25

5. The angle of intern al friction p characterizing Lhe fricLion between the i nnet particles of a large volume of the uwtcrinl. The ma~ nil. udc of this augle can be determined experilltcnt.a ll y using a dovi1~e schematically repreflen l;ed in Fig. 2. 1b. Thi~ dovicc consists nf a metal cylinder separated horizontally in two parts (.t and 2), a plunger die 3 and a dial indicator 4. The lower Pllrt of Lhe cylinder (part 1) is fixed whilst the upper one (parL 2) cun move h orizonta lly under the action of a force T. T he specimen of Lhe granular material 5 contained in tho cylinder is ::>ubjected to a cons tan t verUcal pressure N, transmitted through the plunger d ie 4, and to a graduall y increasi ng shearing force T. Tho rnagnilu do of this force is registe1 ed at the precise moment whon the stat,e of limit eq nilibrium is reached, in olhor words, at the moment when the firs t. sign of sliding o t he upper part of the cylinder along the pl ane a- b is detected by the dial indicator 4. At this moment the compressive stress 0' acting ac.ross scc Lion a-b is equal to~ while Lhe shearing stress 't equals ~, F being the art~a of tho cross scclion a-b.

281

Retaining Walls and Earth

Pre.~surl!

Computation

\Vhcn lhe st11tc of limit equilibrium is rcacherl, the resulting stress p is deviated from the normal to the plane along which the slidiug occurs by an angle equal to tho anglo of internal friction given hy tan P'"""o wherefrom T=atan p
valu~s
~

'l'hl! U.S.S.R. Building Codes usually stipulate the following fo1' tho ungle of the internal friction:
for fino s:md p = 20-30

for mo1linm sund for colll'!:O saud, gtavnl

:md rounded peb hi~s for sandy loam for n~dinay loam

= p = f1 =
t>

~10-40"

10-'J:)w

15-30 = 10-::1oa

The value of. the angle of inLel'llal fl'ir.t.ion in sandy soils may he c.ow:;idered appoxi mately equal to ils angle of repose <p, i.l),,

G. The an~ll' of friction between the material and the faco of the wall t>, which depends mainly on the condition of. the sul'face along which the contact occurs. When the sul'face is very smooth 8 almosl; equals 0, and for very emm~e surfaces & may approach the angl~

<p.

of iutcrnal friction p. In actual design wol'k 8 is frequently tnlwn oqual to ZL'ro. Olhcrwise it may be cxpre~st~d as a fr!lc.tion of the nugle o[ internal friction

{) ~ 2 p up toT. p
7. The c.ohl!sion C whieh is usuaJiy expressed in kg per. sq em or in tous per sq m. In dry granular materials, snch as sand or grain, C is practically nil. In other usual soils the cohesion will amount only to a fraetion of a ton pEH' square metre and thNcfore it may he ~afely negleeted. A device similar Lo the one desc.rihcd above can he used for the detmmination of the cohesion C which is related to the normal and shearing stresses hy Coulomb'~ formula

;{,7. ACTIVE PRESSURE OF GRANULAR MATERJALS

Tho active prt!ssure of a granu.lar material is t.hc force which it will develop on some surface when the latter move~ over a ve1y small distance away.

::1.7. Actiue

Pre~sure

of Grannlar ,\{alerinJs

:!.85

As the surface AB of l<'ig. 3.7a shHts lo a new position A ,B 1 a vart of the granular material contained in the wedge ABC sl:al'ts moving- downwards. The surface which separates the moving par.t l'tom the one remaining immovable is called the cleavage or slip pla:ne (surface) and i t.s projection on the plane of the dmwingthc cleavage or slip line. The paths of the particles contained in the wedge ABC arc very intl'icate and depend both on the clwradel' and the magnitude of the displacement of the surfnce AB. The

Fig. ,1.7

directions of the pressures E and R exerted hy the granu lar material cannot he dci;Nrnined with certainLy, fol' th~ stat~ of limit cqniJilwiliTH will never be reached simultaneously at all poinls along the surfaces concerned and therefore tho stress will not he deviated everywhere from the normal by au angle equal to the ant!;le of friction. the correct determination of the presstH't' devHioped by the earth againsl some surface is therefore extremely complicated and has as yet not found a. comptehensive solution. The si mpliiied Wt!dge theory given hy Coulomb (1736-180()) is based on the following assump Lion!'\: 1. The eurved deav;~ge surface is rcplnced hy a plano wherehy Hs p!'ojeetion on the plane of tho drawing becomes a strnight lino IJC. 2. The gl'anulal' materials contained within the wedgo at'L' considt!recl solid. :~. Tlio wedge it.seH is in a state of unstable oquilihl'ium, i.e., in a state preceding im modiately its sliding down. The lnti.Cl' a.sst~rnp tinn permits to determine the directions of the rcsull:ant pres-

281i

R etaining Walls and Earth Pres$urc Computation

s urcs E and R . When the surface AB moves <~wa y , t he wedge A BC s tarts sliding down and the forces of friction whi ch develop along t he surfaces AB and BC within the maLerinl will he nlso ditected downwards. If t.ho limit equilibrium is reached .flirnultaneously at. evety point along tho surface AB t h e resulta nt stress will be devia ted everywhere fro m the nor.mal t o this surface by an a uglo cqunl t o the anglo of frict ion IS a nd therefo re th e resultant p ressu re will also make a n angle 6 with the normal U. Similarly the pt'essurc R. will be devia ted fro m the norm al V by an angle equa l to the angle of internal fri ction p. Lot us determine t;hc pressure Eq developed agains t the surface A B (Fig. 3. 7b) when an arbit rary surcharge is app lied to the surface of the earth . Assn me th at G =dead weight of t he wedge ABC (G = area A B Cy) Q = resultant of the s urcharge acti ng on t.he wedge G1 = resultant of t he forces G and Q; G11 = G+ Q. Knowing Lho magnitude of Gq and the dircetions of t;hc pressm')S E q_ and R we may construct the triangle of forces abc. rho :mglcs of th'is triangle are

abc={} - p; L cab = 90- E-O ='P L acb = 180-(-& -p +'I')

Eq _ sin (-&-p) - sin Gq

From this triang le we ohtain

!180"-t"'-P + 'II')I

w herefrom

E = G
q q

sin sin t<t+' -p)

< "'- p)

(2.1)

This expressio n cannot be used as yet for tho determination of Lhc active pressure Eq for H contains the angle it made by the cleavage plane with t he horizontal wh ich remains unknown as well as tho dead weight of tho wedge G and the magnitude of the su r charge Q. both depen ding on the angle just meu tioned. When the angl e -o made by t he c.lcavage plane with t h e h orizontal varies it enta ils a cor resp onding variation i n the value of th o pressuro E 1 this variation, if represented graphically, havi ng t he shape of a c.urvc shown in Fig. 3. 7c. when -tr = p, s in (-o - p} = = 0 and Eq = 0 ; for {} 90 e the c.leavage plano BC will coincide with tho back of tho wall A B and both E 11 a nd tho resultant Gq will also reduce to zero. l t is obvious t hat t h e maxi mu m value of the acti ve pressuro Eq will correspond to so me intermediate valuo of <)> = -a- 0

4_7. Gmphic1tl Drtrrminatiott o.f }frf a:cimiU/t Actiue PrP.,sure.

2k7

When designing a retaining wall this maximum val ue oE tlw active pressuto should be lakcn into consideration, for if the stnmgth and stability of the wall are insured under these mos t adverst.~ conditions, the wall will remain standing for any other direction of tho c.leavage plane. The valne of the angle '1'}- 0 corresponding to tho ma xi mum of Eq may be determined from the equation
dEq

dtt -

-O

The sign of the second derivat.ivc shows that the pressure thus oh- tained by Coulomb 's wedge theory is indeed the maximum one. ltb actual praclicc the maximum active pressure developed hy tho earth against the bac.k of a retaining wall may be somewhat smaller than Eq max determined as abovo. However, in cer tain cases whon the displ acement of t he wall becomes extremely small (Eor instaneP. , when the wall is founded on solid rock) the pressure it will sustain may exceed substantially the maximum pressure computed on t.hobasis of the aforesaid theory. When the surface of the earth is of irregular shape, the equation ~ = 0 may be solved only hy graphical methods. Tf !.he surface is pl ane, di rect computation becomes possible.
4.7. GHAPH ICAL DETEHMINATION OF PRESSUR E
MAXIMU~-1

ACTIVE

Let us determine t,he direction o( the cleavage plane corresponding to tl1e maximum pt'essure developed against the hnck of a retainiug wall AB when lhe surface of the earth is irregular in shape but n o .surcharge is applied thoreto. Adopti ng an oblique system or coordinates IIBD we shall ftrst C<l nstruct the graph of the variation of: t.he active pressure En in terms of lhe direction of the clcavag~ plane (Fig. 4. 7}. Fol' this purpose let us measure to some scale thodead weight of the wedges along the axis BD and the pressures E,1 along the axis BH. It may bo sbown that the Jength of the litte K,.F... will repre~o nt the amount of tho pressure corresponding to the direction of cl eavage line BC,~. Indeed , tho weight G,. of the corres ponding A.BCn will equ al G.. = v '< (area of t riangle ABCn) Assume that BFn represents to scale this weight . The line F,J(.,. parallel to the axis of coordinates .BH will meet tho line BC,. at point Kn. T he angles of the triangl e BFnKn aro equal to L KnBFn = ~n-P L KnFnB = o. = (O<Y - e) + p- (p -1- ~) = 90 - e-8 = lp

288

Retaining W alls and Earth

Pre.~Sltrt'

Compu.tatirm

L ot us now co nstruct the trianglo of forc.e.s abc in which the ray = G,. = BF11 a n d the ray ac = E,.. Comparing tlu~ triangles abc and FnBKn we remark immediaLely that tht:Jy are identical and therefore En = KnFn 'J'hus, in ordcr to determine the prossure dovcJopcd by a grannh~t lntllt,rial against the f~ce AB for any given direr.tion of the deavagc plane BC,1 we must l;~y off a long the axis BD tho dead weight of l.ht' wedge ABC" (rcprese o Lod Ly Lhc length B.F,1) and then trace t hrough the poi nt Pn a li ue parallel to the o lher axis B ll u n t:il its
(Lb

c.,

0 1 2 3 4
Scare fOr 6 and E

.JI'ig. 4. 7

Th<.~

iutersoction with the corresponding cleavage liM B Cn at point K,. Jcngt.h of tho line K,,Jr'n mc1um red to seale will rep resent. t.lw magnitude of the pressure En. H we repeat the construction just describe(] for a number of couvcoiontly c.hosen directions or tlw dcavage planus B(. \ , JJC 3 , etc.., ...ve shall lincl a series of poinls .K, K. 3 , elc. Conuect,ing the~o point;r>. by a Sill<>(>Lh curve we shall obtai n tho r equ ired graph showing Lite variation o[ E(l. in t erms of L he angl e{~ ~xactly in Lho snm~ way as the gmph sc.hcmatica lly represented in Fig. 3.7c. ln o rder to fwd lhc maxinnun of En we may now trace a t<.lllgeut. 1.0 the curve p:u:allel l o the ax is BD and th rough tht! point of taugun<:y K. we nrust. tracc the line KP parallel t1> the other coordin ate axis BH. The l ength of. this line (always rneasurccl to scale) will give us tho Inaxiruu m value ol' the activo pressure E which will ho developed nguius t thehackohhewaH ABwhile the line BKC will i ndicate the inclinal.ion of lhe cleavage pl a ne. Thu graphical method de.sc.ribed above romHin f:\ valid when a snn:.ha1'gc is applied to the s urface of the earth. I 11 t.hnt ease the

~J . 7.

Graphical Determlnalion of Maximum Active Pressure

289

dea d weight of each wedge should be increased by the amount of the lond which it carries.
Prohlf:'m. Determine graphic.allv tho maximum active pressure developed by a grannl11 t material against the surlaco AB ( Fig. 5.7), provided p = 40, b = 5 and v = l .U tOll!; pe.r cubic metre. Solution. 1. Stnrt with tracing the coordinato axes !JD and BH. 2..<\.dopt a number of dtavage plane directions givon by I:JC~> BC 2 , etc. For t.his purpose divide the line A C~ into five segmon~s oach ono metre long anll solec.t vornb Ca. C; ... , C10 equally at one metre mtervals.

10

15

20

Ut

Scal e (or G and E

F tg. 5.7
::i. Compute the dead weight of the wedges. For tho wedge ABCt tl1is weight
Otplll\S

G1
~ 11 rn e.

=;

X 5.35 X 1 X 1.6=4.28 tons

T ho weights of the other wedges abutthtg to the line A C5 will be exactly the The woight of the wedge C~C 6 and of all the othor wedge:. abutting to the IHwizont al CsC, o be equal t o 1 Ge - G5 =2X 7. 8 X 1 X 1.6=6.24 tons

wm

4. Set out to scale along the axis BD the dead weights of the wadges G1 , Gz, ... , G10 which are a.s follows nFt = Gt =4. 28 tons lJFo =Ga = 27.64 tons BF2=G2 =8.S6 tons DF7 =G7 =33.88 tons BF3 =G 3 =12. 84 tons JJF8 = G8 =40 . 12 tons BF 4 =G4 =i1 .12 tons lJF 9 =Go=46.36 t ons BF 5 = G5 = 21.40 tons BFto=G 10 = 52.60 t ons
19- 85:1

290

Retaining W1dlR aud Earth Pressu.re Computa.ticm

5. Through the points 1\, F 2 , . , F 10 trace t he lines F 1 K1 , F~K 2 , .. ., F1oKto p,uull~l to the axis l:J II. 6. Connect the points B, K 1 . , !( 10 by n smooth cunt t.lm~ ohlaini ng tho graph showing the varintion of the pressure E developed agai nst the surface AB. 7 . Trace tile line 1' T tangent to the graph and parallel to the axis B D. 8. Conne<~L the point of ta11gency K and the foot of the wall B by a stl'aight lino B KC which will constitute the cleavage lino. 9. Through tho same point of tangency trace a line li'.F parallel to the axis BH a nd mea!!mc to sc.ale the length of this line which will represent t.h~m aximnm activo pres~um developed ngainst tho surface AB E = KF=13 tons

5.7.
sud~c c

P ONCEL~'l''S METHOD

I 11 nlJ eases when the s u rfu.ce of the granular Ill !\ tcria 1 and the AB are plane, the d etermination of the m axirn nm aclive pres1:'tue may be carried out by a graphical method dcvi~ed by Poucolet. \Vithoul eutering into tho theoretical dernons t.t'Hlio n of this nwthod (based equally on Cou lomb's wedge theory) we shall describe h ereunder t.he procedure to be followed when a uniformly dist.tibutcb surcharge q acts on the s urface of the earl;b. Star t wHh repla.dn~ this surcharge hy an equi yalen t. l ayer of ear-th , the th iekness o which is given by

ho = .i. y
This being done, the posil.ion of the cleavage plane correspon ding to t:he maximum of the active pressure Eq is determined as follows. The line AB is eon tin ned until its intersection at point A 1 with the up per surface of the equivalent layer (Fig. f.i. 7). Thereafter: (1) through the point B trace a line B1 making an angle p with the horizon lal and meeti11g the upper surface of t}L e equivalent layer aL L 1 ; (2) through the point A 1 trac.e the line A 1M making a n aogle (p + 6) with the s urface A 1B until its intersection with L he line BL 1 nt point M; (:~) using the line .BL1 as a diameter, traee a scmic.irc.le; (4) nt point ilf erec.t n pe 1 pendicular lo the line .B 1 unlil it!'! intersection at point N with t he semicircle just mMtioncd; (5) fro m point B swing an arc with a radius equa.l to .BN c.ut.ting tho line /3 D1 at point 0 (BN = BO); (G) from point 0 traco line OC1 parallel to A 1it! uulil its interscct io n at point Ct with A1L1; (7) the line BC1 connecling t he foot of the wall with poiul C 1 constitutes the projection on the paper of the clea"Vage plaue.

5.7. Ponctlt t's Method

291

This being done, procl~ed with the determination of the magni tude of the pressure Eq developed against the suriace AB; (I>) from point 0 trace an arc using OC1 as radius until its intersection wil,h line BL1 at point P;

Horitonlal line

---- --Fig. 6.7

trian~le

(9) connect poin ts C 1 and P by a straight. line thus

oLL.a i ll l llg'

tho

OC1P;

(10) through point C draw the line CRS parallel lo HL 1 The area of the trapezoid P RSO multiplied by 1 and by th1: clmsity of the granular material y will give the magnitude of Eq ,,,,.:c developed again.~t th~ surface AB. H the surcharge q wore uil, it would suflk.~ to take h 0 = 0 iu which case the line A 1 C 1L, of Fig. 6. 7 would coincide with tho lint' J1 CL ancl tlw point C, would coincide with the point ( '. T he ()ircction of the cleavage plane wHl remain unchanged, as for the rA ngnitude of the maximum pressure it will be given by !.he arcn o[ triangle POC (see Fig. 7.7) multiplied by 1 and by y

E =i' X (area of triangle POC)

l't()blem . Roquired to determine graphically lhc active pnlssure de\ulope41 njlainst 1.he .bAck of the wall A/J (Fig. 7.7), provided h = 5 mo~rE\5, p = 40, 6 = 5, e""' 20, ex= 10", 1' = t.6 ~ons per ,cubic metre. 19

:.!.\!2

f< p.t.aintng W11lls and Earth Pressure Compulat. iuu

Sol1.tivn. L Oetcrminc as just explaiuod Lho pusiti(lu of the point.s A, lf, N, 0, C, P. Z. Determine the position of the cleavage plane BC. 3. :\feasurc to scale the base anrl the height of the tl'iangle POC equal. respecti vcly, to 3.4 metr~s anrl 3.08 me.tr'cs.

Fig. 7.7

4. Compute the:>

tll'(\i\

of the triangle POC

F=

3.4 X 3.08=5.24 SfJU.are meMes

5. Dl<tormiuc tltc magnitudo of tho act.ivc pressur() I'Njuired ll'=1.6 X 5.Z4 .= 8. 38 tons
().7. METHOD OF DIRECT COMPUTATION OF THE EARTH l'HESSUHE
.T n orucr to compute directly the eart. ~t pressure we must ll:rst J'l'dnr.o Conlomh's formula (2.7) to the following form Eq =Cf (-lt) where C is n certain factor independent of 1'}. Thereafter using the fxpre..'!.'-1ion d:~q providing for t.he maximum of E<i determine the JlOSiLiou o[ t.he r.lMvage plane (llngle 11' 0) . Having found this angle, :-:nbsti tute il.s value in the expression of Eq thus obtaining the maximum prcssue rcqnirl'd

6 .7. Method of Direct Computation vf tht. Barth Pressu,re

293

Due to purely mathematical difficulties, this method may b!.' only in some particular cases. Let us Lake up the most simple case when it is required to fllld the pressure exerted ~gainst a smooth vertical surfuee AB sltowH in Fig. 8.7 (<'! = 0 and & = 0), when the surface of the granular mass is horizontal and loaded with a uniformly distributed SUJ'('hu1ge q Lons per square metre. Lot BC represent the direction of some cleavage plane. In that c.u~e Lhe dead weight of the wedge ABC will be given h)' G =
::~pplied

A,

Fig. 8.7

= 0.5 AB AC 1 y and lhe rtlsultant of tl1e surchar~c acting on

this wedge hy Q =A C 1 q. The resultant of G and Q wlll be

G9 =G+Q=

~ ABAC"(+ACq=fACy (AB+2f)

Substituting in this expression h for AB, by h cot{} for AC an1l ho for ~ (whe,e h0 is the thickness of tile equivalent layer) we obtain

Gq =2 '}'h(h+ 2h0 ) cot{}

90~,

H.evertiug to the expression (2. 7) and replacing 'lj> = 90<>- e- 6 by the Iractioua I part of this expression becomes cqua I to
sin (~-f.>) sin (i}+'ljl-p) sin (~-p) cos(~-p)

t (~ ) .an -p

After the above transformations, the expression (2.7) becomes

E9 = ~ ')lh(h+2ho)cot~tan('l'l--p)=Cf(\l-}
whl'J'O

C=; yh(h+21z0 ); /(ofr)=cot~tan('l'l--p)

294

Rt!tairtin~

Walls and Earth Pressure. Computation

Ill i n(.\d

The angle of the cleavage plane and the horizontal will be deternsi ng the equation

dgq

dtl-

=0

or

:6- (Cf (-fr)] =

=C [ - 8 i! 2 ,tan (~-P} + cot-&cosz(~-p)] =0

Reducing both terms in brackets to the same denominator and dividing the equation by

c
sin2 ~ cos2
(~ - p)

we obtain sin ,j- . cos-&= sin (~-p) cos ('~-p)

or sin 2'1'}= sin 2 (1't - p) The roots of this equation are 1't =n 90 + (-1t ('fr-p) whero n = 0, 1. 2, 3, . . . lf n = 0, we obtain ~ = '(} - p Leading to p = 0. This solution is ineompatible with the physical properties of the granular malerials for which we always have p =fo 0. When n = 1, we obtain -& = 90~ - (''} - p) leading to 'fr 0 = - 45-',-- .. 2' F or ''<~lut!S of n greater than one we obtain again a seties of solutions ineornpatible with the terms of the problem. Therefore, the only toot of the equation to be retained corresponds to n = 1 in which c:nse the angle formed by the cleavage plane with the horizon equals (3.7) Substituting this value of wo _oJ>tain
1') 0

in the expression of the pressure

X

Eq = C f (1't0) = C cot (t~0 ) tan (-{} 0 -p) = C cot ( 45 + ~)

X tan (45-

~)

Heplacing in this expression cot ( (l5 ~ by tan ( 45- ~ ) and suhst.Hul:ing its value for C we finally obtain

+ )

Eq

7yh (h + 2ho} tan~ ( 45 -t)

(4.7)

6.7. Method of Direct Cumputatton of the Earth

Preuur~

295

If th~ surface AH hacl a batt~r (e 0) and were rough (6 0) and the surface of the earth s loped towards the wall (Fig. 9.7) , lhe 111agnitude of the active pressure would be given Ly the followIng l'otmula. (5.7) Eq = ~ yh (h '2-ftoKq) l(

ho = .!!..
'I
}'

\.q

K
l

= CtlS (e-o:) = sin (p - a.)

COS f:COS a;

cos (e - a)

(6.7)

K - }l/siu(p 1 b)cos(e-a)
o-

cos (e,O) sin ( p-a.)

1
COS(f-+ 6) 0 1

J
deterroin ~d

K[ (1+ cos(p-e) ] ' K K ) cose

whme h 1 = c:~ 8 (see Fig. 9.7). The determination of the point of application of tho acti ve pre.ssure requires that the distribution of the unit pressures along tlu~ surface of the wall bo known. Tn order t.() obtain t his distribut.ion let us first consider the vnriation of the active pressure Eq i n terms of the depthy (Fig.10.7a). For this purpose we may use expression (5.7) replacing in the laUcr h by the ordina te y, thus obta ining
t ' Eq 11 = 2 yy (y + 2h0 Kq) K

The posiLion of the cleavage plane wouldJbe , x 0 =K0 h1

hy

(7 .7)

This expression permits us to construct the graph just mentioned (shown in Pig. 10. 7b) which represents t he increase of the pressure E q11 with t he increase Ftg. 9.7 of the depth of the foot of the wall. It is easily soon that this graph is a coni c parabola. When the depth y is increased b y dy the active pressure Eq 11 is increased by dEqrJ '!'his increment dE 911 is distributed over an

296

Retaining Wa1lg and Earth Prusure

Computatio1~

elementary area, the vertical project ion of which is equal to dy mul L iplied by 1 (as the depth of the s tructure in the direcUon nor~ mal to the sul'fac.a of the drawing is considered equf\1 to nn it.y).

Ftg. 10.7

Thus. t he unit pressure t'eferred to the .vorUcal proj.>ction of t he

surl'ac.e it acts upon equals

dEqv Pqv = dV
or , in oth er words, i t. equals the first derivative of the resultant pressure in terms of y. Differentiating Eq11 as ind icated we obtain

P9 y=-y( y +h0 K9 )K

(8.7)

This expression shows t hat the un it pressura varies along the su~: face AB linearly. In order to construct the correspond ing graph it will suffice therefore to dot.ermine the unit pressures nt any two points, sa y, at A and at B (Fig. 10. 7c) PA =YhoKq[(; Pn = y(h+hoKq)K

Let us now determine the vertical distance from the centroid of t his graph to the Ioot of the wall, using for th is purpose the well~l<rwwn expression giving the position of the centr(! of grnviLy of a l.npezoid h 2PA+ Ps 97

Zo=g PA+Ps

( . )

If we now trace a horizonlalline through the centroid of tho graph unLil its intersection nt point 0 with the rear face of lhe wall Al:J we shall. find the point of application of the activ(.> pressure Eq

6.7. ;\:(ethod of Direct Computatton of the Earth Pressure

297

(Fig. 10. 7a). The direction along which the pressure Eq acts will form with the normal to the surface AB an angle equal to the angle of ftiction B. Thus, the magnitlLde. oj the active pressure developed by a granular material agMnst some surface may be calculated using e:J:presston (5. 7); its point of application will be situated at the same level as the centroid of the nntt pressure graph, the position of the point may be calcula,ted using expression (9. 7), rmd the direction of the active pres.~ltre will form an angle o with the normal to the surface u.nder comide.ration. The magnitude of the ac.t.ive pressure may also be. dot.t>nuin()d with the aid of the unit pressure graph. Indeed, from Pq., = di1 !.,1V. ' I!/ it follows that dEqu = P qy dy, Upon integration of both pill'\.~ of this equation we obtain

The right-hand part of this equation represents t he aren of the nnit pressure graph Fig, (10.7c). I n other words

(10.7)
The laltor expression is more convenienl for actual than the expression (5.7),
computa~iou

l'r obl em. lt i:~ r!lquired to c:ompute the active pressure dtwcloped against t.lu.> lower par t BC of the rear faco of a retaining wall AB (Fig, 11.7) if p = 35, e.= s, a= 20", e = to. y = 1.6 tons per cubic metre and q = 0.8 ton per t>quarc metre. Ali the dimensions aro indicated in the figure, Solution. Using formulas (6.7) determine h0 as well as the factors of the K group ho =L =0.5 m '\'
_ cos cos 2o K 1 cos to K =sin1.5 = 0.259
1

w.

,, 0"4

cos1ll" ., /

0.985

= 0 , 263
y 2 . 72 = 1 ,05

.. /

o-=

K =

sin43" c.os ts xu .263

0 . 682 0.951 x0.263

c.os25 ' ]~ 1. -( 0 . 906 )2 1 _ ..1434 (H 1.1l5x0.263)costo> cos18 1.434x0.984 0. 951. - l ,

298

Retaining Walls and Earth Presmre Computation

This being done, dotermino the vnluos or the unit pressurcl; at points JJ 1tuol C using fol'mula (8.7)

P8 .., 1.6 (2. 5+0.5 X 0. 94) 0.4H4=2.06 tons pur sq m Pc = i.6 (6.5 +0.5 X 0.94) 0.434=4.84 t ons pur SIJ m
Thc:roafter compute t he nrea of the graph corresponding to \h e lower portion of the wall faco IJC, this arcn reprosenhng th<.' rnagnituc.ln nf the

Fig. 11.7

.1cti ve pressure req u ired

E -!
sion (9. 7}
L

(2.06+4 .8<1)4 = 13.8 tons

or tho graph will be given by the expres-

f 1 The ord tnate or tho centroi d

4 2 X 2.06 + 1t.84 zo- 3 X 2 _06 4 . 84

1.73i metres

The point of application of E will lie at tho i ntl'rsection of the horizontal thTough. this centroid and the fnce of the wa ll A C. The directi on of ll will form an 11ngle 6 = 8 wi th the normal U to this surface.
JH'I~~ing

7.7. PARTI CULAR I CASESJ OF PRESSURE COMPUTATION

(a) Pressure developed by an unsurcharged granular material (Fig. 12.7). Substituting h 0 = 0 in the expressions (5.7), (6.7), (8.7) nnd (9.7) we obtain

E= 2 yh2K
P~=yyK;

(11 .7)
I zo=a
(12 . 7)

PA=O;

Ps = vhK;

7. 7. P4rtU:ular

Ca..~es

o/ Prusur1 Computatum

29!1

The direction of the cleavage plane will romain unaltered as the factor K 0 is independent of the intensity of the surcharge q acting on tlle surface of the eatth. (b) Pressure developed against a. vertical smooth surface by a uniformly surcharged granular matertal having a horizontal surface. This case was already considered above (see expression (tl. 7) I.
D

Fig. 12.7

Fig. 19.7

l lereunder we sho.ll use the more genera l expressions (.'5. 7} and (6.i) for the same case. Putting s = o =a. = 0 (Fig. 1:-3.7) in lhe <:>~ prcssions (5. 7) and (6. 7) we obtain
K = sin(p-")=sin. K=cosecos"= i
I CO S(E - a:} p, q COS(E- a ) K _., / sin (p+6) cos (e- ex) _

oI ( = [ (1 +K0K 1)cose

cos(p - E)

]2

cos(e+o) = (1 +sinp)~=(1+sin p)2 = = f -s~n P tan2 (45~t+sw p

cos (e+ 6) sin (p-a:) - 1 cos?.p t-ain2p

P) 2

With these va lues of the K factors , the expressions (5. 7), (8.7) and (9. 7) become

E,l =

(45--%) P 11q = y(y+h0)tan~ (45l I P ;. = Yl!o tan~ ( 45-f) t P8 =y(h+~)tan2 (45-~) J

~ yh(h+2h0)tan 2

(4.7)

(1.'3. 7)

Zo = 3 h+2h0

h+3h0

(14. 7)

300

Retaintng Walls and Earth Prel$ure Compu.ta.tiOil

The posit ion of the cleavage plane will be determined by laying off ns heretofore the length x0 along the x-axis [see expression (7. 7)} where xo = Koht = 1 X h The lir1e conuecting point D with the foot of the. wall repl'e::;ou ls the cleavage line required. T he angle ~0 made by this line

o,
Pig. 11.7
Fig. 15.7

with L.he horizontal is equal to

~0 = 900- L ABD =

ooo- 1800 -2L BAD =

= goo_ 180" - ~0"' + ")

= 45o + ~

which coincides with Hs value giYen by the ex. pression (3. 7) fonnd previously. (c.) The same case as in (b) bu.t without surcharge (Fig. i 4.. 7). Substituting in the expressions obtained above h 0 = 0 we obtai11
E=

~ yh2tan 2 { 45-

(15.7)

P11 = "(Ytan 2 (45- f ); PA=O;

PB = j>htan 2

{45--f)

(16.7}

Zo=:r

"

'!'he posit ion of tho cleavage plane remains the same as in cas~ {b) when a uniform load was a cting on the surface of the eart "~ j. c.,

7.7. Partl.cular Cases of Pre11urt Com.putatton

30t

(d) Pressure developed against a polygonally shaped surfctee (.Fig. 15.7). '1'110 pl'essUI'e E q developed against the upper portion AD of t he pol y~onn l surface ABB 1 will be dotermined as he1etofore nsing forrnnlns (f,. 7) t hrough (10.7). The pressure developM against the lower portion BB 1 may be cornputed approximately assuming tha t this pressure will he the snmc as th at acting on a n equivalent pottion of a p lane surface A 2 8B 1 I n order to compute this pressure, trace lhrough poin t B lb<' line BD p:uRllel to the surface o[ the earth and consider the weight ot the overlaying portion of the material as a uniformly dist.ribt1ted. surch arge of intensity q = yh0. The depth of this layer ho will be taken equal to the sum of th e thickness of the layer h 0 , tl1t vertical projection of AA' equal to h0 and the ver ~ical projcc.t ion of A 8 equal to h. Computing as usual the fac LoriS oi the K gronp 11nd s ubstituting them in th e usual formulas in which the h l\t lcr of the wall is taken equal to e 1 we obtain

E~ = ~ yh'(h'+2h;K9 ).K
P~ 11 = y(y+h~l(q)

P81 = y (h'

Pn=yh~K 9 K

The nnit prcssnrc graph for tho case under consideration ill re.presen ted in Fig. 15. 7b. Fig. 16.7a represen ts a more complicated case which mny he met with in the design of reinforced concrete retaining walls provided wi t.h a spm. The pressure developed against a wall of this type will be detcrmin l'd separately for each of the plane surfaces constituting its rear face. Thus, the pressures exerted against the portions AD and CD will be c.omputed using expressions (1.2.7) in which t he ordinates .'18 nnd Yc {corresponding to points B and C, respectively) will bo takon equal to hand th e ordinat.e Yr> of the point D equal to (h+ + h 1). The fa ctors of the K group will be computed using Iormu.las (0. 7) in whkh a. = e = 0; the unit pressure gra ph for both parts will be ,given by one common straight line ab (Fig. 16. 7b}. T he magnitude of the pressures developed against AB and CD will he provid<'d by the corresponding areas of the abovo graph

z,=a h' + 2h'K " q

h~ Kq) K h ' h' +3hoKq

E!=zhPb
E2= 2h1(Pc+P<>)
1

30:.!

Retaining Wall.' and Earth Pru &ure Cotnpu,tation

The horizontal surface BC is subjected to the action of a vertical load G equal to t he dead weight of the material cont-ained in the prism ABCC1 and equal to G=hb-v There is uo load applied to the horizontal surface FD. As for the portion PH it should he subdivided into two parts FG 11nd GH. point G being determined by the iot~rsec tion with

F'tg. 16.7

the face of the wall of a line parallel to the cleavage plane a nd' through point D. The position of the cleavage plane is dctorminNI using formula (7.7) xo=FK=CFK0 The fac.tor K 0 entecing this expression will be computed using formulas {6.7) putting a= 0 and e = - 1 , p, ll. The portion FD will he subjected to tho pressure developed by the layer h 2 (Fig. 16.7} nlono, t.hiR pressnre being independent of the weight of the overlaying material. Tho corresponding unit pressure graph will bo rcprelmnted by a strai~ht line cd, the slope of which is steeper than t hat of line ab. AL point G the unit pressure will be computed uiing formulA. (12.7) for Yo = h 2 The pressure acting on the port.ion of the wall eonsiderod will equal
pns..~ ing

Es=2h2Po

 7 .7 . Pnrllwlnr

Ca~s

of Pressurt ComputnUo"

303

As for the pressure sustained by the wa ll below G it is already dependent on the weight of t he whole granular m:~ss. T hereforo, when unit pressures are determined at points G a nd H we must adopt

y(; =h+h1 +h2; Yu=h + h1+h2+ha

The corresponding graph will consist o[ a straigllt line ef parallel to cd and i ntersec ting the graph axis at point a. The resu ltant 11resRure sustained hy portion GH will tlloreforo be

E, =

~ h3 (P(; +Pn)

(e) Pressun del/eloped by water saturated earth (Fig. 17.7). In the case under r,onsideration the rear face of the wall A8 mn y bo regard

Ptg. n .7

ed as s ubjected scparatoly tn the hydrostatic pressure W and to tlw pressure of the enrth whose weight is reduced by the amoun t of Wl\ter expellorl. The hydrostatic pressure W cun be found usi ng CX}}I'8Ssions (6.7) through (10.7) on the assumption that p = ct = c5 = 0 and ho = 0 We obtai n K1 = 0; Ko = -o ; K ---10 CO.'H~
W = .!_...,
2
TfZ

rB'

_1_ cos e

T he indetorminalo val ue of factor K 0 indicates thn~ Lhe h yd1osLn Lie pressure is completely independent of the position o the cleavage :mrfac.e. Ro(erred to tho vertical projeclion of Lb.e rear face of the wa ll. the hydrostatic pressure at point B will equal
W=)'0 l f - -

cos ~

~-I(M

Retaining Walls cwd Earth Pressure ComputaliCJn

The point of application of W will Le at the same level with the centroid of the unit p1essure graph

Zo=s
In Uw computations rela tive , to the active pressure of tho earth
il'.1'tJif, it.<> weight per c.Ltbir. metre must be taken eqnal to y0 instead

l:l

Fig, 18.7

of y lsco expression (1.7)1 owing to the pre.sence of water. In that case expressions (11 . 7) and (12. 7) will give

E=2YrNK P 11 =yoyK
PBI=O

PB=yohK zo= 3
The total ptessure sustained by the wall will be lhus composed by the hydrostatic pressure W and the earth pressure E computed '13gatd to the alteration of its weight per cubic metre wit.h due 1 caused by the water. (} Pressure exerted by a layer of irnpervious soil surrnounted by wa.ter (Fig. 18. 7). Pressure computations are very approximate in this case and arc caniecl out assuming that t.he water acts on the upper part of the wall situated above the surface of the soil alone, whilo the lower l)art of the wall is subjected to the pressure of the earth on which the water act~ as a surcharge. The hydrostatic pressure W will b~ computed as heretofore and will amount to
2 W=-"Ys(H-h) z cos e

8.7. Passive Pressure of Granular Materials

305

Its point of application being given hy

Zo = - 3 -

n-h

T he vertical pre~;suro dovolopeu by tho layer of wat er ou the s urface of the eart h amounts to

q=yn(H- h)

t.he

d~Ith

h-o of

tl tl:'

cquiva leHt layet of

h
0

c~HLh

hcing

Vn (IJ - h)
y

As Lh o su aracc of Llae cai'Lh is assu med horizonLal (a = 0)

K
q

Ct)SP.

cos a

cos te- a)

= i

The value of the active pr~:ssuru Eq. the values of the unit pressures and t he point of application of Eq may be now found using cxprcggions (5 .7) Lo (f!.7)

Eq .,.~ ~ yh (h+ 2ho) K

P,n, = V(y
P 11 ,

+ fto)K
2Pn, + Pn Prh+P 11

~"" yh0 K

Pn ~ -v (h -l- h0)f(

zo '" "' - . - - -- -

h 3

8.7.

PASSIVE J)HESSUHf.: OF GHA N ULAH MATER I ALS

The team passive pressr.Lre refers to the r~s ultant Jlle.c;sure do velopo<1 by a g ranular material againsL some surface when the lnLter ~<hiits o\'cr a very small d istanc-e towards this rnat.crial. The magn i I. uclc of I. he passive pressure may be dotei'Jati uou us i n~,r

the same wedge tlH~ory of Coulomb (sec Art. 3.7), a ll the m;sumplions made in the development: of L his ihcoty remai ning valid. When Lhc surf~1cc AB of Fi.g. 19. 7a i ~do rr.od towards the g ra nular materia l a wedge ABC is formed again, t his wo.Jgo bchavi ug as H solid body and slidiug upwards along the s11 rfueo AB and the c.leavagc plane JJ C. T h o forc.es of fricLion which develop within t.he wedge along the two surfaces just monLioncd are directed upwards. f1; will he rcmcrnbued that in the case of the active pressure Lhc wedge moves downwards, and the foroes of: f a iclion a(~t in the sa me
20- 853

306

Retatnlng Walls and Earth Pres$ure Computation

direction. When a state of limit equilibrium is reached lhe passive pressure E~ (which is the resultant of the normal earth pressure and of the forces of friction) will be deviated clockwise from the normal U to t he surface of the wall by an angle <'5. Similarly, the resultant pressure Rq is deviated from the normal V to the cleavage plane BC countcrclockwis~ tluough an angle p equal to t he angle

Fig. 19.7

of internal friction of the material. The resultant of the two pressures E~ and R~ will be equal to the dead weight G1 of. the wedge ABC. The triangle of forces abc' for the case of the passive pressure is represented in Fig. 19. 7b. For comparison the ttiangle of forces corresponding to the case of active pressure is represented in the same figure in dash lines. It is clearly seen that for one and the samo position of the cleavage plane the pasf;ive pressure is t~onsid erably greater than the active pressure. From tho tria ngle abc' we can determine the magnitude of the passi vo pressure E~
( 17 . 7)

where
1j>' = 90-

e.+ 6

Comparing expressions (17. 7) and (2. 7), wo come to the conclusion that the magnitude of the passive pressure can ho computed using the expression for the active pressure, provided the angles p and 6 are replaced by (-p) and (-6). which is c11sily understood if we remember that the forces of friction act in the two cases in opposite directions.

.~. 7.

Passi~-e

Pre~.,ur-.

of Gnmular M atertals

307

T he angle {} of the cleavage plane BC with the horizunL!Il will be agniu doLermined using the expression
~=

dE~

The sign of the second dcrivalivo indicates that lhe valuo of the pa!!sive p ressure obtained with the aid of the ll hove expression correspon<ls to a minimum. Tho general exp,essions for Lhc computation oi the passive p re~" Sill'S obtained by replacing p ~t n d 6 in expressions (5 .7) nnd (6. 7) by ( - p) and ( -o) are

E~=-}yh(h + 2h 0 K,1 )K'

P~q =v(h +ho K'~)K'

(18.7)
(19.7)

T he fact or!' of the K group entering these exprcl'Sions a ro 1\' _ sin C -r- et) 1

K _

1-

cose.~a

~~-~

q-

t:os lil-a)

l
I
J

K' _ .. /s -:i-n7(p -+ -:-rll:-lc::-::.o-:-s-:-: (e-a~)

o-

(20.7)

/\.'=( lt-rKoil'i c<>s<r +el ]2 )COSII

:S

cos(e-liJsi u(p +o.)

llOS(& - 6)

The ordinaLe of the }Joint of application of t he passive pre!'Sure will be derived from

. = -h . --'--:-:-.:.---i:o... 2P.A + Pn z0
P_A+P~

(21. 7)

Ju case the renr fac.e of the wall ill vertical and smooth and tho surfnce of th e carlh is h orizontal , the mo.gnilude of t he passive pressmc cnn be c.a.lculated using formulas (4.7), (1 3.7) anti (14.7) nftcr roplaci ng in these formu las p by (-p)

E~=; vh(h+2h0 ) tan2 (45-i- ~)

P~q=y(y+ho)tan 2 (45"+ n
PA=yhotun 2 (45' +~ )
Pi,=y(h +h 0 ) tan 2 (45"+
,
Zo

(22. 7)

1
>
(23. 7)

n1

= 3 .

h + 3h0
!t+ lho

(24.7)

308

Trelai11l11g

Wall$ and B11rlh P re$.tllri! Comp1ttat1or.

[n the above expressions h 0 is as usual the t.h.ickne:ss of the layer of earth equivalen t to the s urcharge of ittlensily q. T he r.urrospondi ng position Cl[ the clea vagc plane will bo obtained hy lrar.i ng through the top of
:1:'

l:ho wa 11 A (Fig. 20. 7) tho 11.xis rnaking an angle -r wilh the

horizontal anrl by laying off along lbi~ l ine a lon~:,rth AD'= x~ =

= K oh = h. The. tina BD' will ruprosent t.hc ]>rojedion of tho c:loavng..,

or slip plrllle on the plane of the dl'awing. t<'o r Lhe sake of compudson ;c' we give again in t.he samo figure the ,p osi tiun of the clcnvage plane ED

corresponding to tho cnse oC

at~. li ve

formod

pres:;ure. Fig. 20.7 The Lrinugle ABD' permits lhu determinalion of I be angle \}' by the deavage plant) BD' with the horizon -"-' J.ro p (27) v ='1) -~ ,),

ods ptlrroil Li ng lhc

Jn r.onc lusion it is worth mentioning that all the graphical rneLhdol~rmi nation of the activo pi'!!SSure l'Cmain

F t~: .

2.1 .7

8.7.

Passi~~ Pr~ssu r~

of Granrtlar llt[atuials

30!1

npplicnblo to the case (If tho pns~ive pressure, provided the angle$ p ancl 6 are replaced L'verywhcro by (-()) and (-6).
PJoblcm. It i!:' required to <lotcrminc gruphi<'ally the pal'~ivc pri'S..'!ure dtVtl thl\ surface An of Fig. 21.7, if J1 = 5 m, p =- 40, f> = r,o, f - :wo, a = 11) 0 , y = t.G t.ons per cuhic metrt. Solu tl011. 1. Start with determining the positiorc of points A, M, N, 0, D, C nnd P in a way Qxa<ltly sirnihcl' to tha one nSl'<l al1ovc (sLe Fig. tl.7) but replaciliR everywhere the an~:les & and p loy -& and -p. 2. DotcHnrinc the position elf tho dr.ava8e plane BDC. :~. Mc!ISUT(I t.o ~.nlo the b11SO and tho hcrgbt of Lhn Lri:wglc.> OPC, which a'l' equ11l. rCSJIL'C.thc.>ly, to H.O ru and 10. 7 m. 4. Comput~ lht an~a of triangle OPC
OJll'cl~:~gainst

I Jl =21 1.0 X 1.0. 7 -=5!!.85 sq m

5. Detnmiuo lho passive prt>ssuro oxort.cd against the surfaco AD E' = 1.6 X 58.85-94..2 tons
6. Compare tlw value of the passive pn,ssuro thus obtained with that of thl! act1ve pressure compu ted [or an identic.1l caso in Art. 5.7.

E' I?

= U.'J.2

8.38""'

11 2 .

8.

STRAIN ENERGY THEORY AND GENERAL METHODS OF DISPLACEMENT COMPUTATION

t.8. GENERAL
The stress analysis of redundant structures tequircs that usc should be made of displacement equations in addition to tho usual equilibrium equations. It becomes therefore necessary to delermine the deformat ions and strains in different par.ts of the structure. Moreover, the deFlections of stulically determinate structures must he also frequently determined, such Rtructures having to fulfil cor~ tain requirements concerning both their strength nnd thoil' rigidity, in order to avoid excessive deformations under service loads. For this reason the study of variorLs methods of strain and deflection compulatiorL for clastic systems acquires the greatest importance in lhe theory of structures. This chapter will be devoted to lite study of general methods permitting tho determination of the strains and deflections o[ various framed structures, arches, rigid frames, otc. Vle shall start with reviewing certain questions concerning the work accomplished by the oxternal forces and tho potential or strain energy nccumulaled in various elastic systems during their deformation.

5.8, ':'!01\K OF FXTf.IP\AL FOitCC:S

During t.he loading of a ny system its clements uro p11t iulo rnotion, acquiring certain velocities and accelerations. It is clcnr that. the rate of growth of the deformations will increase proportionally to the rat-e of loading, and if Lhc latter becomes very small, the rnomonLum acquired by the system when passing from one state to another will become quite negligible. Hereafter thi!l latLct type of loading will he reforrod to ns stlltical loading. In order to determine Lho work of any external load P applied gradually to any elastic syste m (Fig. 1.8) we shall make use of MaxwolJ's JH:inciple of superposition, ptovided the material follows Hooke's law. Consequently, the displacorncnts suffered by different points of an clastic. syslcm will be in direct proportion

2.8. Work of

Ex~rnal

Forces

311

to the loads which have caused them. In its most general form this may be expressed by the following equation
6.=aP

(1.8)

In this expression fl is the deformation sustained by the system along the line of aetion of force P, and a is a factor depending on the material itself, on the pattern and the dimensions of the structure and ort the point of application of the load P. Let force P increase by dP; this will immediately cause a corresponding increase of 6. by dfl. The work performed by the load

Fig. 1.8

P along the displacement d6., neglecting as usual t.he infmitesimals of the higher orders, will be dA=(P+dP) dfl= P dfl

Replacing dfl by its value adP (1.8) we obtain

dA=Pclfl=aPdP Integrating this expression from zero to the final value of tho external load, we obtain the expression of the work accomplished by this load during its statical application
p

A=a

SPdP=T
0

a.P'-

As fl = aP, this may be equally written A= 2 Pfl It should be noted that the direction of the displacement caused by a load P may differ from that of the load. As the work accomplished by a load is always expressed by the product of a force by the length of the displacement measured along the line of action of this force, the displacement fl will always represent the projection of the total displacement of the load point on the direction of the load. Thus, for instance, if a load P acts at an angle j:'l to the axis of a
1

3i2

S1r11fn Energy Thl'org and Methods oj IJtBpl!lcein.ertt Compttlctton

hcnm (Fig. 2.8), the displacement 1!1 will be givun uy th e lengt.h of tho line ab, th is length being equal to the projection of the total dunoction aa1 on the line of action or load P. The work accomplish ed lly a ('oup1c or moment.~ can h e found in the su mu way provided the displacement A wrro:-!ponds to that

Pig. 2.8

typo of loading. Tt will be readily seen that in this case t:. must rl.'pru.'le nL the angular rotation of the cross section to whic.h the nforoso id momont is appl ied.

~\m
Fig. 8. 8

Lo the beam of :Fig.

Thus, the work accomplished by a moment 3.8 will he given by

m applied

statically

A='2 rot~
whtml ,') is tl1c angu lar rotation (in radians) of the ctoss section to which tho momen t rot is directly applied . Thus, the work accomplished by any extema.Lforce applied gradually to an cdastic system. will be always given by half the product of this force by the length of the di.~placcm.ent measured in the direction of this jorce. 'Ihe tt>rrn force applies in this c~'lse to any external action including moments, distriuu ted loads, etc. As ror the ter m displacement, it will mean the defonna tiou corresponding to the type of action whose work is being studiod. 'l'hus, a linear displacement will correspond to a coocontrated load P, an angular rotation to a moment IDl and the area of the displacoment graph of a loaded st reteb to distributed loads. When a. xystem of loads ts gradually applied to a structure, the work accomplished by each of these loads will equal half the product of its

2.8. Work of Ert.entfll Forcr.s

magnitude by the displacement corresponding to this load but caused by a.ll the loads in question. Thus, in tho case of the bca m of Fig. 4.8 which carries two concentratld loads P 1 and P 2 and which is suhjectcd at the same time to the action of two moments ID'l 1 nnd IDl:>.. the work of the external forces will equal

A= P,.t-.,_;.. P2,\2 -I- \JJ/ 1f1 1_

.2 .

\>)12~2

The negative sign of the last term of this equation indkatos that. the angular rotation of the cross section to which moment ~m2:
Q

a
dx
Fig. 1.8

Fig. 5.8

is applied is opposite in direction to tho said moment. Thus,

A= L: P~!!.; + L: SJJI~{);

(2.8)

The work pcl'formed by the external forces along tho displacements caused by these forces can bo equally expressed in lerms of the stresses (bending moments, normal forces and shears) which are developed in the cross sections of the structure under consider.aLion. Let us take the bar represented in Fig. 5.8 and let us consider an infinitely small length d;1; bounded by two pianos normal to the bar axis. Tho whole bar will comprise an infinite numbor. of such sections. If all the loads act in the plane of the lJar axis, the elenar.nt dx will be subjected to a normal forc.c N. a ben eli ug moment. M and a shearing force Q. F or a har as a whole these actions constit11te internal forces while for the element dx they may be regarded as external loads whose work will then be expressed by the products of N, M and Q by the corrcspondirg rlisplaccments sustained by the said element. Hereunder let us study separately the work porformed by each of those actions. An element d.x subjected solely to a normal force N appears in Fig. 6.8. H we admit that its left exttemity is held fast, the righthand ono will move a long the direction of force N towards the

.314

Strain Energy Theory and M cthods of D isplacemertt Computation

eight over a length equa l to

A -

ux -

Nd:t

EF

where EF is the tensile or compressive rigidity of the bar under -consideration. The work performed by the stress N along the displacement ~x will he therefore expressed by
dA,,=-:zN~x=zN EF
1 1
N dx

An element dx acted upon solely by a bending moment is represented in Fig. 7.8. Once again let us assumo that its left-hand extreA~

Met
~.

\
dX

.r
\

.~:...- - - - - - 4 - ~
Fig. 6.8
Fi~.

7.8

mity remains fix.ed in which case the angular rotation of the righthand one will bo given by
~il- = EJ
Mdx

.EJ being the flexural rigidity of the bar section under consideration. During its statical application the bt>nding moment wil l :therefore accomplish the work given by

dA,v=fML\~= ~ M~jx
Let us further examine the element dx of Fig. 8.8a acted upon by a shearing force Q. If we fix again the left end face (Fig. 8.8b) we must apply to the right-hand face transversal stresses -rdF of which the shearing force Q is the resultant. In the case of pure hend.i ng those transversal stresses will he given by Zhuravsky's formula

-rdF=

QS Jb

dF

where dF is the area of a horizontal elementary strip situated a (Jistance y from the neutral axis, while S is the statical moment

2.8. Work of Eztunal Forces

315

of that part of the cross section above (or bel ow} this strip a bout the same axis (Fig. 8.8c). The magnitude of the mutual displacomen t of two identical strips, one belonging to the left end face and the other to the right one, will be equal to the displacement

Q
dx

(a)

(b)
Fig. 8.8

y dx of the right end (the left one being assumed fixed) and will therefore be given by the expression

ydx =Gdx where y is the angle of shear. Honce, the work of nn elementary transversal stress dP along the displaeement y dx will be given by

"t

.1.-r; dP y dx 2
Integrating this expr ession over the whole area of the cross sec.tion F we obtain the work of all the shearing stresses acting across this section

dAQ = .) 2:ydxdF =
P

\' 1

1:lldz

20 dF=

J
F

~ Q2S3

dz J'b 2 2C dF=

In this expression GF is the t r ansversal rigidity of tho cross section considered, while '11 = :2 s~: dF is nondimensional factor
p

depending solely on tho shape and size of the cross section. Qdz Denoting TJ Gil by L\ 11 , the elementary work dA Q will be expressed by

31(;

Slraln Energy Theory ond M clfllld, of Dtsplacement Compulallou

l n this expression ~Y may bo regarded as the mutual ''OtLical dL'iplacomont of tho two cross sections bounding the e lement dr (see l~ig. 8.tsb}. Fot rectangular cross sections t he value of factor 11 will bo o btained replacing in tho corresponding expression F
by bh, J hybh~ , and S by b ( h'l. T 12 2

y2 ) wh ich leads to rt

1.2. Fot

cifc.ular secLion t he same procedure will y ield 11

= f

whibt fol'

H- or fo r !-shaped section tho app1oximate val ue of 11 = : may 10 ho ndopted, Fw being the cross section of the web. If tho ele ments
under consideration are acted upon simultaneously by a normal stress N, a bending moment M and a shear Q, the wOt'k nccompl ishcd by each of these ac.tions along the di.s placemonts caused by the two other oue!l will remain 11il. Consequently, the total work will be expressed by

dA= dA.v+dAAr-f- dAQ =z N

t (

N dz AI dx Q d.x EF +M E J +QGF

'1

I ntegra ting the expression of dA ovor t he whole length l of each bnr constitu ting t he structure and summing u p the results, we obtain tho fo llowing expression which petmits the computation of the work of external forces expre~ed i n terms of tlle internal ones for t he who le structure

A = _!_(~ ~ MM d.x + .E {' NN dz

2 .)
0

EJ

EF

+ l:

s
l

QQ dx ) CF 'I')

(3.8)

which mny he written as follows

(lt.8)

I n Lhe extnession (3.8) the letters M, N, and Q represent the internal for(es acting over a cross section situated a distance x from 'l o th e t erms Md:r . . o [ coor d' t he ong1n mates, wh 1 EJ , Ndx EF an d Qd:r 1 30 11 are the corresponding displacements of tl10 clement dx of the bar. Tho above two expressions permit thr, computation of tho wOl'k a1;co mplished by the loads in terms of tbe i nternal stresses developed ulldcr the action of these londs. Expression (4.8) shows that tho work of the external loadR will bo a lways positive.

3.8. Strain l!ncrgy

3.8.

STRA iN ENEri.GY
fl

During tho loacliug o[

body the external

fore(~:;

accomplish

.a certai1t amollllt of work part or which may he used to overc.ome

the internal friet.ion, to alte.r the temperature or the magnetic properties of the matctial, etc. ln the materials u,o;ually considered as elastic thi~ part of the work is negligible and therefore we nJi'IY a(lmit. thal a ll tho work of external force~ is transformed iu that c ;ase into potential or strai n Qnergy. The !aLter is acwmulatcd in the body uuder consideration during the period of increasing strains and deformations caused by thel:-c forces. When thc,l body is l.IJl londed, this enclgy is roslituted as work ac.complishcd by the internal stre~ses . As no energy is over lost, we may say thnt all the work A acGomplished by the external forctlS is transforuwd into strain onorgy W or, in other words, that

A=W
in this equation the value of A given hy Uw expression (4.8) we obtain
Substi~utiug

. f W = :I;~
0

Jlf2 dx

2E.T ~~.) 'u~p

1

:V2 dx

+ "' ,)
0

"

Q2 dx 2GF 11

(5.8)

The analysis of this expregsion leads to the following conclusions: 1. The strain energy is alwa~'S positive, for the above exprossion contains tho values of the internal Iorces Jl![, N and Q in the second 1Jower. 2. The strain energy is expres:sod by a homogeneous func.l.ion or the stresses or strain~ in t.he sec.ond power, the strains being directly proportiona I to the sl.rcssM. 3. The strain energy tu;c.urnulatcd under the action of a cert-ain system of forct!S is not. equal to the sum of strain energies due to <tlach of those forc.es separately and therefore the principle oi superposition is no longc1: valid. This follows from t.hl' fact that the strain onetgy is a function of Lite second power of the stre.sses 1l'l, N and Q and !;hal. the square of a sum is never equal Lo Lho snm of l.hc squares. 4. Tho s t!'ain energy ac.c.umulated i n a body is indepenrl(~nt; of the :sequouce in whic;h l.he external forces are applil:ld, the final vnlues of the stresses Jf, JV and Q being independent of this scquoncc. Consequl'ntly, the sLrai n energy cloponds only on the 1i nal state {>f an elastic body. Stalt~mont. :~ can Le confrrnwd by Lhe following example. LoL us consiuer throe different ways of load application to the !)lastic bar showu in r'ig. !J.8a, viz.:

318

8trair~ Er~rgy

TMory a11d Meihods of Dtsplcuement Computation

(1) loading by a .single force P 1 (l"ig. 9.8b), {2) loading by a singlo force P 2 (Fig. 9.8c), (3) simultaneous loading by both forces P 1 and P 2 (Fig. 9.8d). Tho strain energy accumulated in tho flrst two cases as given by oxprossion (5.8) amounts to W P~l W PU
1

=2EF;

=2EF

ln tho third cast> it will be given by

= Ptl -1- Paz + P,P2t W 3 = (P,+,P2)2l 21!' 2EF 2EF Ef.'

Comparing W 3 with the sum (W1 + W 2) we note that the sum of strain energies due to each of the forces separately is not equal

P,

ra>

( b)

(C)

tdJ

Pz

Pig. 9.8

to tho strain energy due to the simultaneous action of the same fot'('O~. Indeed

W :~= W t +W a+PEF 1P2l

For A better understanding of the above equation let us imagine t.ha t at first load P 1 is increased gradually from zero to its final value and then remains constant while load P 2 slowly reaches its full value in the same way. It is clear that the application of load P 2 will cause the end of the bar to move downwards au arnount :~, anc:.l that during that time the loac:.l P 1 (assumed consLant) will perform the work equal to ~/ . Thm:, the last term of the ex pres:;ion for W 3 gives the value of the work performed by the load P 1 when its point of application is shifted by fol'ce P2 (ol' vico versa, H the sequence of londiug is invotlcd). '!'he above example shows clearly that the princ.iplo of superposilion docs not, apply to tho computation of the stmin energy accup p l

.1.8. Strain

Bn~rgy

319

mula ted in an elastic body for otherwise the terms of the oquation. taking care of the work accomplished by one part of the loads along the displacement caused by t he other part of the loads, would bo complct.oly lost .
Problem I . Required to determine tl.lo s train energy accwnulnt.cd by an nndsupported benm of rectangular cross suction (i ts width and depth equalling

IO) t~~
I

m:\
I

r
I
1
1

1
1

grapl

tblt~m
:
(c>

(/graph

IJIII\1 1 1 1 11 !IIIIII iil l00 11 1 1 1 1 111111 1 1 1 1 1 \1 1 1

Fig. JO.S

band h, respectively), tho beam being loaded by a couple ~Jl acting nt its rightband oxtremity(Fig. 10.8a). Solution. Draw the bending moment and the shearing force diagrams as shown in Fig. IO.Sb and c (norJDal strcS-c:es in this particular easo hoing nil). The mngnitude of thcso stres...ooes in any cross soction will he given by

M= Tz

ro~

and

Ox = -l-

srn

lntr<>ducing these values in the expression for the strain energy (5.1:!) wt obtain
t
l I

(' M2 dx W- ,) 2EJ
0

+ ,)
0

(' QZ dx 9)12 (' 2 2GF 'I]= 2l2EJ ,) dx +

0

+ 2l2GF TJ ,)
0

rol~

<))(2 (

d:r=212

3JU + GF

zs

1jl )

=21

9Jl2 (

12

1J )

3EJ + GF'

Let us compare nc>w the magnitudes of tho strain energies due , on tho one hand, to the shearing forces and, on tho other, to the bending moments. For tWs purpose let us replaco G, P, J and TJ by their values corre~onding to a cross section of rectangular shapt!
G ~ OAE,

F =bh,

1 = 12'

bh3

and

11 = 1.2

:320 Strain Energy Throry a.ncl Mrthorls of Displacem.r.nt Computation

rh is lends to
~t
,

~R2 ( =u

:~Ebh;1 +<i:"-'i"EM
t2

l~

1.2 )

2~JI2l [

Ebha

t+4 T

3 ( h )2]

Thl' :>ct,uu<lt-<.>nn in l>rack<-ts l'l>JH't>stuts tin rolative ""<hw nf tho st.rnin cn<'rgy ~luL' tu Llw shou ring fortloS. This tl'I'Ul is dirocllr Jlroportional to the mtio wl-u.c h is tho depth uf thu cross section and l is tho sp:m o( tlto boam. Henco, till' iufltonce of tho shearing forces will drop rapidly with tho <l<l<reso ,.,[ this ratio. When tlw rntio iRequu I to (beams with n groator rat.io 111'0 l'l:'ldom

!
ij

met.)

It follow!! thnt in tltl> cu~t' n nd~t con~idtH'<\tiua tht ~tmin enorgy duo to the -shParing fmces con~tlt.ute.;; about 3 por cont o[ tho total ontlrgy accumulatefl . 1 lu lito c<ll:'O o[ boams rnol with in act.u.al practice fo1 wlrich L he ratio ; i:; u~:~ually

much sma.Jiot, t.hc

<ll
Fi~.

iutlutnu~o

of tlw slw:.ring

[on~es ])flL'.Olnt !:'

quito n<:>gligihle.

Problem 2. \equinHl to <htol'lnine tho : > LI'ain mwrgy accumulated in tho tn ss U .8, all t.lto ei<Hn<:nts o[ this truss haviug lite samll c.r'O"'-'> st>c.tion F.

F ig. 11. 8

Solulinn. A!; tho hllftdilJg mom~nts anl shcn!'ing fon:c)S remain Joil iu all tho ]>Ill'S ol' the tru~li an<l as t.hc normal stoo~~:; N un<l th<) r igiditiO!' EP relllain c.onstaut OV<)r tho whole length of t>ac.lt hnr, cxpl'nssioll (5.8) giving t.ho amount of

tho

!!ll'll i ll

"neogy

ac.cum11lat.~ol hocornr~
(

,, N2 ~ N2l W =~ 2EF ~ r.l:c=~ 2EF 0

lG.8)

ln this cxprt-s.~ion N .... t.ot.:ol dirn<:-1. stress in eac.h v tiro bars cau:<<-.<1 hy the sy~t~lll of loads applied l = (.,ngtiL of lhll hn.

f. S . T lttorem of .llr.ciprre~zl lVorkR ( 1'heorcm o.f B elly)

321

The s ign l: 3hows t hat the s ummation of the energies ntUSt be c11rri~d over all tho hars of Uto trus."'. Of course, those bars wbioh remain idle may be neglected , th ~ prod uct N'l r~maining alway s nll when N = 0. In th<' case of trn "-. ~$ and similar structures strain energy computati on~ bou ld .bl~ carried ou~ in tabular form ns indknted hereunder.
Tabl ~

1.8

Dar No .

')'otal

:V* , tons

str~ss

1,

N21

1-2; C-R

- ~P
2

~p2
4

Tp2
12S p z tl
I (}/ ,z

125

2-4;

4-()

_ 3_['
3
2P

~p2
{I

5
4

1-:J : 3-5 5-7 : 7-S

t,Jn

23; li-7 2-5; 60

4-6

0 25 /'2 :-Ill '

jl2

3
5

(I

_ !!_,
(\

125 p2

3H
ijpZ

T he las t column of the Table contains t.h e va lues of N2l for each llar nf the 'J.EFJE boing exprcssl'd in t ons per sq m and F in sq m) wo shall ohtain the \'aluc nf ll' s traiu eneq ,ry li<'Cumulatr d in the wholt> of th<' truss 125 125 U' = ( 2 pz + 2 P2+11iP:I X 4 +0 X 2 + 2 ~ Pt + GP2) _t_ ,"C 83 !_! I'~
trul!~. Summ ing utt all these values nml di\'iding the result by

'

36

2/ ?F

i S EP

4.8.

TH~:OHE:\1 OF RECPROCAJ.. WORKS (THEOBEM 01'' BETTY)

L1~ t us consider two dHfer:ent stales of the. same elastic system in r..q nil ihrium and let us assume t ha t. in the Jhst sta le the system is n<:.tcd upon by a single st-a tically nppliNl load P 1 and i n th e second hy a s tatically applied load P 2 (Fig. 12.8). We shall denote by ~mn the daflection sustained by any point of t.he system, the first of the index letters m indicati ng t he direction of the den~ction and the second n the num ber o f tho load which has ca used this deflec-tion. T hus, d mn wil1 indicate the dt.flectton along the line nf action of load m caused by thR load n . When the body is acted upon by a moment, 6 ,.m will rep resent an angular rotatio n ex pressed in radians. The a ction n may consist also of several concentrated loads, momen ts or combinations of distrihu tctl load:; .

Tho compn t.ation of

21-8 ~ 3

~;tressos

N has not JJcen inclu<lerl in t.he ahovo Tuhlo.

322 Slrain Enugv Theory and

Method.~

of

Displare~Mnt

Computation
.1mn

J n the caf>c

und~r

considerat ion the various displnccments

uro:

defled ion along the d iroction of lond P 1 duo to the snme load .11 2 = deflection along the direclion of load P 1 due to the loarl. P 2 ~ 21 = deflection along the tliret;tinn of load P 2 due to t he load P 1 j 22 = deflection along the d irection of load P 2 duo to the same load. These foUl' deflections are dearly shown in Fig. 12.8. Lel All he tho work perfo rmed by load P 1 a}l)og tho direction of this same lotul (in other words, t he work co rre~po ndiug l n

~ 11

(aJ~
I
I I I I I I I I
I

r
"'
I I
I I I I
I

State I

I A 11 1 1.

b~ : "t.z ~1 ' I
I

1
I
I

I I
I
I I

Pz

State II

( b)

sLate l). Lot a lso A 22 be the work performed by the load P 2 along the

dci'Jcctions correspond ing to sla~e I I. Expr'Cssion (2.8) leads to t he following values of the work corresponding to each of these gtatcs, provided the loads are applied gradually

T his work couLd also be expressed in terms of the internal forc.es acting in the beam !see exp1ession (4.8)1

~ ~ Mt dx "1t = L..) 2/U

0
I
J

+~ (' Nr dx + ~ f Q~ dx ~ j2i!F ~.) 2CP 'I']

0
I
I "'"

')

I
J

122 = ~.) 2EJ

(J

,, (' llf'i d:r . "" ~ N~ d:r

j
0

2EP

+.,.. ('
0

( 7 .8)

"'".) 'l.CP 1]

Qi d:r

1.1?. 1'/I'.Orl!m of R n l{'ror:al Works

(Th~urt>m

of /)l'lly)

323

Lot us assume that the same ~y~te m is loaded in tho fo llowing sequence: fir.~t. load P 1 (Fig. 13.8) is increased gradually from zero to its final value; the deflections sustained by the sysLom and the stresses developed in that case wi1l be exactly the same as those corresponding to s tate I of Fig. J2.8a. In particular, tho deflection under load P 1 will equal .l 11 and the work porformod by this load d\tring i ts application will amount to Au = P 1~' 11 After tha.t let load P 2 increAse in the F;amo way. This will ontail the development o[ additional slrl'sses and deflections, these 8tresses and dofloetions hring equal to those sustniued by t.hesysl.('m in l'late TI of Fig. 12}~b;

~"'=--_:;_:: -_-:-+a i, -:-'-;-- --,---L::;-Jr.

_ _ _ __
flast.r. l':tlve due to P, and P2
/

P,

------""flasuc curve
due to P1

thlL" the additinnal deJtccliou at Llw poi nt of applic.'\tio n of load P 1 will equal ~\t:~ As Lho load P 1 d id nol. va1y during tho npplicnl.ion of loa~l P 2 it will travel downwnrrls n distanct' equal to tho addit-ional dtllection ~ 12 p(~rformin g Lhn work A 12 = P 1.:.\ 12 ; at the same time

A 23 = \_"~ 22 . It foll()WS that tht totaJ work accomplished during tho loadiug of tho system first by load P 1 ntHi next hy load Pz will equal

load P 2 will perform the

WOJ'k

(8.8) At tho same time the work pel'formed hy loads l-'.1 nnd P 2 m ay be exp ..essed (see !::q. 2.8) by llalf tho procluct of ~ach or l;hese loads by the total d.,flection alon~ the direction of this load (Fig. 1/..8).

A= P, {~'k+~ ,z)

P2 {.12~..J..~zz)

Equatiug the above two l'Xprt1ssions we obtai u

P~~~~ -1- P j

112

+ P2622=

p, C ~ u-I- L\ t2)+ P2(u21 + 622)

whererrom
21

324

Strain.

11~rgy

Tlteory and Mtthods of n tsplat:erntn.l CMIIfJUltttlon

The product P 1A 17, r~proscn ls the work A 12 perfol'm<d by load P, (<:on cspond i ng to state I of Fig. 12.8a) a lo ng the deflection causod by load P 2 following tbe direction o f load P, (state IT of
P,

. ----- -- --- -------- ':.Ll z,-

F fg. 11.R

-~

'

.1 n

Fig. ! 2.811). 1n lh} samo way P 2 ~ 21 rcpresonts t h<> work A :-.1 performed hy load P2 of state JJ aloug the d~flcction following t he linn of aclinn of this Jond c.n\Jsecl by load P of slate I. Coscquontly
' t:'hu su mo rosul L woul1 l l1o ohtain(<d if the body under. co usideru tion W!.w acted upon by !l ilY uumbor of c.onccntrat.cd o r rlislrihutod loads or moments, Thus, the work performed by lhe actions of state I alon.g tlw d('flections caused by the actions ct>rm~pon.ding to state II is equ11.l to the work performed bu tll.e actions of statl' 1 I along tke deflections due to th" -ac/ion.s of stale 1, all tke deflections being meast;,red in l/tP direction of the saul actions. Let us exprN;s now the work A 12 in terms of the bcnchng moments, norma l slre:;~ and shears dl!vcloped in tho first nnd iu I he Sl'co nd

slate. From

ex prc~sion

{8.8) wt obtoi n A12= A - A, . --A2z

(HJ}l)

H ere A repr esents the t()Lnl work produced by luaus f) 1 aud P 2 a long the displn.c.emont!\ due Lo these same loads. lJ8ing expression (4.8), t his work may ho expre$sCd by
A

= .)
0

~('( ....f , -!-;l-12l2 d-l', L('(Nt , N2l 2 dx , ~ (" (Q 1 +Q2l!!tlr 21 T .) 2/:: F I"-'' 2GP T)
I)

( '1'1 .8)

I n t his expression 11{1 _N 1 anrl Q 1 are rcspectivlly l.hc henning rnorrwuts, the normal 1-1l.rcc:scs and the shears devdopod in Lhe rn~mh~:~r~ of the sysle m undo r consi de1a tion due to th e application or load 1' 1 while il1 2 , N ~ nnd Q2 arc those due to tho ap plical.ion of l oad P 2

5 .8. Tlteorl!m of R rctprocal f)Up lo.temenl$

3~5

The sums (M1 -, M 2), (N1 +N 2) and (Q 1 +Q 2) represent the total1esultant stresses in CI'Osll sec lions duo to the combined action of both loads P1 nnd P 2 Introducing the value of A g iven by expression (11.8) intv cxpressi<)n (10.8) and using the values of 11 11 and A 22 derived from equation (7.8) we obtain
' 1 12 -

"s
L
""

(Mt+ M2)2 - Mi-M~ dx+:E ~ (.'V 1 + N 2 )Z-Ni- Ni d 'L.EJ .} lEI' X 0 0

IJ.
.lc

1!!-

-L ~M Mzdx+ :E\ N2d.!._ + "-SQ _Q2 dz

J
0

EJ

.} I

~F

~.

Gf'

T)

(12.8)

l n this expres~i o n each of the terms prl\CCclod by the integral ::!ign may bo c.onsidcre!l as the produet of a total s tress (say, tho bending moml)l\t M,) due to the actions of state I and the total strains of M 2dz the ekmcnt dx, say, I.>J , due to the nctions of :;tate U.

5.8.

THEOHEM OF JlECCPROCJ\L I) JSPL:\CEME NT S (THEO RI!!M OF MAXWELL)

Let us take up onee again two dilfcl'ent states of one attd th0 :-amo sys l.crn, the first s tate corresponding to the al>fllicatiou of a u11it load P j and the second to that of a unit load P 2 (Fig. 15.8) . to indicate tho displac.orncmLs H oreal'lo1 we ~hall usc the sign (:>traius, angulat rotations or dencctions) caused by unit loads P ....: 1 or unit moments 9n = 1, in order to distinguish thum from tho~ due to loads or moments of arbitrary magnitudes which shall bo drnoted by .: L Tbus, 0 21 will indicatu the displacemout duo to tho unit load P 1 a lo ug tho direction of load P 2 whilst 012 will indit:a le t.hc d isplacc m ~ nt al11ng t he 1i.ne of action of load P 1 due to the applic.otion of load unity P 2 T the pre.ccdiug article we have shown that P1on = P2621 As P 1 = Pa = 1, this cxpre8Sion becomes

~n=021

Goncralizing we rnay write for any uult y actions

Onm =

6,""

(1:1.8)

326 Strum Enr.rgy Theory and ,W.'t>tflods of D isplaummt CampululiOII

T he l>:>. : pression thus obtained is the algebraic e.xpression of Ma.rw1ll's theorem which rulls as follows: in any clastic system lite

-:.~ ~::::f;'
~
I I

stale I

7 , ---

---:PJm
8u
I I I

Slolf! Il
J

8n _ _ _...... ~~
Pig,
di.~placements cau..~ed
15.,~

~ ~I
>-:

by a load w~uy alonf! ike line of actton of another load l.t nity are always e.qual to the displacement due to this second load unity along the line of action oj the first one. Eq11a t.ion (13.8) will obviously ramain t r1w even when loads !' 1 anu P 2 have arhil rlti'Y but equal values. In this case t he said expression will become ~~~=~~. (14.8) An illustration of .M axwell's t hcororn is afforded by the example of Fig. 1u.8. fn state I the boam with a built-in end is at~tcd upon by n unit load P 1 while in t he second ono by a unit moment m. 'fho rotation '"" duo to the unit load P 1 must bo munorically cquo l Lo L hc doflccLion Yt due to the moruent m, i.t., t}a = Yt Lc~t us < ;omputo now the valu('.:; of ''~-u and of y, using on~:~ of t ho prowclurcs developed in the treatises on the strength or matel'iaJs. Jn sL11 \.c I (Fig. 1G.8a)

fra = ,;, (-Pta +

p;t) =
2 ]

-~~ (z- ~ )

nnd i n stale If

~Fit:.

16.8&)

y, =~~ [ -IDl ~ +im (t-;a' = -~~ (t- ~ )

Sirrre ID1 ._ p = 1

f}a=-- ;,(t-f)
which con firms that

nnd

y,= -;,(z-;)

6.8. MethJJds of Dlsplar.r.ment Cnmptttatton

327

The strain!; and displacements caused by llondiman~ional l.lflit loads p = 1 and moment:; = 1 differ in their dimension from Lhe usual strains and deflections. I ndeed, the dimension of a di11placemeot cau!;od by a unit load is given by the ratio of a displacement to the aclion which has caused it. Thus, in the previous example the angle of rotalion -<ta produced by a nondimcnsioual load unity P = 1 (which is entirely different fL orn n load equal to 1 ton or 1 kg) will bo expressed

(a J Stai.Q I

(b) Slutt! II

Fig. 16. 8

in kg-. Similarly the detlcction produced hy the unit moment j)J~ = 1 will also be expressed in c.m per kgcm or kg-; in other word s, its dimensionality will be exactly the same as tbat of an a ngular rotation duo to a :u nit l oad.

6.8.

:'.ffi1'liODS OF DISPLACEMENT COMPUTATION

Let us consider two different states of one and the same system. ln its first state the system is acted upon by any number of loads and moments whose values mny be chosen at will (Fig. 17.8a) nnd in the second state by one single load unity P1. (Fig. 17.8b). Let us compute the work A 2 1 produced by the load unity P 2 along tho displacement ~ 21 due to all the actions of state I

Azt = P2/'J.at = 1L\tt = 62t

328

Strr~fn F.n~rgy

1'hrory and

Af~thods

of Displaument Computation

This S<trne work is exprc.s~>11d in terms <>f tlw interna l stresses using formulas (9.8) and (12.8) becomes
I I
l

2f

=k{' M 2 .M,~~..J..r<' N 2 N,dz+~('Q-2

.)

EJ

,)

EF

,)
0

Q,dx OF 'I')

(15.8)

(The dashes ploc"d over M 2 , N 2 and Q1 indicate that tho~ slrosscs are due to a load unHy.) Thus the displacement caused by any combination of loads way be exprosscd in Lerms of the stresses developed by tho !:'aid comhinaliou and by those duo to a load unity. The line of action of tllis
Ia/ ActunL slnlc (stale I J

~" Ill~
I
I

Ftg. 17.8

load unity must coincide with the direction of the displactc>meot u ndcr <'onsideration. When a linear displacement is required (say, a defiection at any point of the system) the load unity must bo a concentrated nondimensionnl load acting at this partictdar point. If, on the other hand , it is required to find tho angular r<>tation of a certain cross ser.liou , toe unit action must be a noudimonsional couc.eHtratcd moment applied to Lhis section. Hereafter we shall refer to that state when a .!Single load uuiLy is applied to tho system as the imaginary or unity state, while the c.age when t}ae sarnt~ system is acted upon by the com bination of action~ effectively applied will be referred to as the real or actual state. ln the ~ame way the term unit graph or unit diagram will refer to the graphs of the stres~s developed under the action of a

6.8. Mtthods of

Displacc~M11l Compufaii011

32't

load unity , these stresses being denot.ad by M, N and Q,whi lc tho diagrams of stresses due to the actions crfectively applied will be termed actual ot rP.al graphs and the corresponding stresses will 1 be def'ignated by 1 1 1P N P and Qp. In certain ca~;es it bcc.omes more cortvenient to use alpbabcti<:aT indic.os i n expression (15.8) instead of tho numerical ones (say,' m and n, or p and k). The expression becomes in t hi.s cnso I t I '<'~ . 1 , M 11 d:t 1 ~~N- N,.d:&+"<'('Q - Q,.dr '-'mn="-.)mm EJ ' "" .) m-EF"".) mcrl1
A

(lfl.c')
o

where t1m 71 is the displacement along the line of action o load unity Pm due to the actions applied iu reality and b~Jonging L<> the group n. When t he cross sections of a ll thll members remain constant., the expression 16.8 may be rewri tten as follows
I I

l
11

t1mn

= ~ ; , ~ MmMn dx+~ ~I'~ NmN,. dx+~ G~ ~ QmQ

0 0 0

dx

(17.8)

'fhe three expressions (15.8), (16.8) and (17 .8) arll frequently reened to as the general displacement equations or Mohr's equatt0/1$. For the c.oruputation of displacemont.s with the hlllp of the~ expressions the Iollowing sequence will be adopted: 1. In t he first place det.ermine the stresses Mn . N,. and Q,. due to the applied loads for an arbitrary cross section in terms of i LS abscissa x. 2. Apply a unity action at the cross section whose defiection or angular rotation is t'fl Q uirtJd, a concentrated load < :orrespond ing to a deflectiort or any other translation and a morncnt to au a ngular rotation. 3. Compute the stresses M m N m and Qm due to lhis uni t action for tho same cross sec.:tiou siLuat.ed a distance x from the origin of coordinates. 4. I uLroduce the values of the stresse~ Jf,., Nn and Q"' as well as those of M m, Nm. and flm in one of the t hree expre-ssions (15.8), (16.8) or (17.8) aud integrate along all t ho clements of tbe entire structure. When the dis]Jlacemcnt ilmn th us obtained is po~it i vc, its direction coincides with that adopted for the unit actioH and when it is negative, it is opposito to the one adopted for the uoit action. In the design of the redundant structure it is some ti mes required to find the mutual d isplacement o: two preselected points. In that case n syste-m of two unit loads of opposite direction should be applied along tl1 o direc.tion of tho displace ment roquirod, tht>so

1'130

Sll'ain /'Jne.rgy

'l'IUJIITI/ and .l-fethods of Displacement Computation

uuil: loads being roplac.ed by unit moments when the displacement in question is an angular rotation. Thus, if it were required, fol' instnnce, to find the increase in tho d istance between points C and D ol' the portal frame appearing in Fig. 18.8a, unit loads ac.ting along tlw li nc CD ~hould be applied to both of these points as i ndicate.d in Fig. 18.8b. All the comptHations will be carried out thoreaH~r

.... f

(G)

(b)

{C)

Fig. 18.8

using Mohr's formula in the sequence mentioned abovo, keeping in mind that the stresses M ,., Ivm and Qm will be those developed under the simult.aneuos action of both load unities jusl mentioned. If the displacement obtained is positive, i t!l direction coincides with the one adopted for the load unities, in other words, the distance bet:ween points C and D will increase . If, on tho contrary, the displacement obtainod werP- negative, it would me.an that points C and D are brought closer together. The relative angular rotation of two cro~s sec tion!; ()f some structun~ may bo calculated in exactly tho same way. Iu the oxnmple just montionod two unit moments should bo applied in that case to points C and D. these moments acting in opposite direction3 as shown in }?ig. 18.8c. As for the computations themselves, they will not differ in aoy respect from those just described for tho case of a linear translation. Jn the majority of cases, only one term of Mohr's formu la has to be retained . Thus, if t he structure works mainly in bending (thi~ heing generally t he case for rectilinear. beams, portal and building ftames as well as for flat arches) it will suffice to use only the term containing bending moment!>. Similarly when the members of the structure work mainly in direc.t tension or compression, as is the ease for all the hinged systems. both terms depending on the bending moments ar1d shoats may be negleclecl witllouL any appre

6 .8. Met/tl)dS of Displacement Computation

3iH

eiable rcrluttion in the accuracy of the result:s obtained. In all t ha t. follows, with the excepLion of a few specifuld c.ase~;, UN! shall a.lways neglect the influence of normal stresses and shears on the dcfl.:ction of rectiltru'ar beams and rigtd frames. If Lhc clement uuder consideration is a curved bat whose radius of curvature is at leasl. t.en times as great as the dept.h of it~ ttoss :-sect;ioa, Mohr's formula for rectilincnr bnrs may be u:;ed, JJrovided the length of the straight element dx is repl nc.ed by the length or the arch ds. 1'hc influence o[ normal sLrcsscs nnd shears may ho
wmally IH!.glectcd.
~~ross

Problem t. Dewnnine t.lw doflec.t ion of an end-<>npportod IJonm C)[ CCJMtan1 St!CLion acted upon by a concentrated load P,. at midspan (Fig. 19.8,,). All tl\(l t.h t(lo term~ of Mollr's [ormulu should he used. s olu.tton. T hll imaginary stat.e or this hct1m w'ill correspond to ~ho aprllicatirm of a c.onc.ont.ral.ed load HTtity in tho diro1~tiou uf tho defll'i:tion roquired {Fig. 19.8b). 'l'hll normal strei'Sc:>$ will rmnain ~~onstantly nil mHi thoroforo :\fohr' ~ Iormuln will llecomeo
l
t.~.mn=~
A "

l
l 'lnvYJfl

1 \' EJ ..)
0

" jf

>4

..J_ "r 1) \' Q Q d < ..11 A Q z' ., GF (') m 11 .X~.\m.nTLlmn

()
l

1 \' '1 !\<{ d "'mn-'- Ef ~,. "" " !\! ,,

is t.h(' deflection in puro bonding (i. l' duo so)LI)y to Lho hcmling u1omonts) whil$1.

/:...,.." - :r GF ~ Q111Q,. dx
0

Q -

1)

l \'-

b tho Jlnrt o[ tho lotal deflection caused sololy by the shearing forces. For all tho 1:ross sections of the be~m to the left of !>Oint C the ben~ing monumts Mn and jifm and tho S!Joaring forces Qn und Om arc given by . P,. 1 M~=z-x Mm=y:t

'l'ltc cortt'sponding grapl1s are giv1'n in Fig. 19.8c, d, e anti f. Introduciug these valu~s jnLo the expressions giving tlte two differt>nt parts o( Lite to ta l deflection, we obtain

2 ~ x Pn. P 11 l3 ~mn= EJ.) ;rz-xdx= 48EJ

M

1.'2

0
I:2

.lmn- GF .) 2
0

. Q -~ ~

.!___ P,

2 d:t- 4GF

__ Pnlll

332 Strain

Hu~rgy

Theory and Methods o/ Dt6placeTM-nl Computation

The boam being symmetrical about a vurtiCitl axis. wo may integrate only nlong one haLC o[ its length, sny, the left one. 'l'he lota\ ilcll!clion will be given by M Q Pnl 8 Prt"ll ~mn = Amn ~mn = 4BE / 4CF

(a)

I I
I I I

Unit stal.e
I

(b)

J;
~

r,= l
I

cl

+.
I
I I
I

z \

(C)

(d)

!~!
~.j ~M, graph
1
I

I\

l /t;

I I I

(e)

1 I I

.&

(fj

' I!II!! U>"11J IIIII 1

'

I I

l' ! rllte ! l~

a, grapiT

'I ~

Fig. 19. 8

6 .8 . ;'vflh.Qds

of Di..<f l acem.l'nt Computation.

3!13

th'-" hoiUll is tl)flec~ tc:d in thll opposite dirl'-etion). Let. us now ilet.crmiuo the relat.ive importance of hoth pnrt.s of Lh<.' tolal dofiQct.inn, t.lw orw duo to the bending moment and the othOJ' du~ to the slu,ars. r.ct. t.ht' c.ros.'l-s~rUonal dimensions of the beam he band h with h ~ 0.1 l.

t.lw~

\Y ium tho value of this lo OecLiOJl is positi\'(~, il.s direction will coincid(l with ol thol<l<ld unity (i( a uogtlt.ive val ue were ohtainnd, it wcmlcl inclicate thut

Jlcplacing in Llw above

cxpu>s~ion

J, F, 11 and G hy the followiug values

bl

l=i'f=
WI!

Mt~

, , 12 000

bl!l

F =bh=

10

1)=1.2 and G=OA.E

olltaio

~~" 12 X 1.2 X Eh/3 X 1(1 :S l!.'ll = 12,000 X t X U.l!~ol = 100

m.n
lt. follows that the deflection produc-ed by tlte shear.'! amount$ t.fJ 3 per cent onb o[ Lhat part of the deflection produc.ed by the bending moments. Tlw influmtce of th&
It

~hears will decrease tog&thE.>r with

t.he ratio

, rtflil for

= 2i) .!:.. wo

have already

it. is obvious that in the great majol'ity or casc:s the tc. nn ~~" JOllY be cnrnplet&ly negh1r..ted by r,omparison with tloo tttrm L\'~ 11 Thus we~ ohtain t l Jt' wQH-known cx.prc)ssion

Pruhlem 2. Compnto thEI vt>rtical deflection L\c of point C of a unif<mnly loadt'il hl:lam built-in at its ldt <.m d (Fig. 20.8a). Solution. Tho htndin~ moment curve duo to tlu.1 unlfomly disttihut.~.>d load i~ rcttmsontcd in J?ig. 20. b. Tlu~ magnit.udo of the> lmndiug rn omen~ at nny cross 1wetion a dist.auco :r fl'om therigh~-hand ond of the beam equals _IJ~ . Tlui',imagi nary ~tate will cmrespond to the application of a coneentrated load tm iLl' 11t point C, its direction coinr,iding with that of the dP.Oec.tion tequire<l. i.e., lleing vertical ( Fig. 20.8c) . Tho diagram of the bending moments Mm incl ucf.'d hy t.lie )f)ad unity P,. is I'Oprosentod in Fig. 20.8ci. It is c..Jear t.hat l.hi~ moment will difillr from zoro only 11t the cross scr;lions of ~he bC~um situated to lhe loft of

p11illt

C{at ;
from

.~:;; :z: .<, l)

~
to l

where its amount will h~! givc>n by constantly nil to

Mm.=

( .r

-~)

Neglecti ng the ~l1ears and integrating the- torm deponding on ~h() heuding

moment,~

U~i m remaining

llu~

rig hi, uf

~ncl.ion

C)

(b)

(C)

i~graph
(d)
Fig. 20. 8

,. ,/, .- --- - _tf,._ .(bl

- - 'JA /.
/(jl '-..../

Fig. 27. lJ

6.8. Jfclhods of !Jlsplaumcnt Com.puta.liort

w~

obt.ain, using expr<>ssilon ('17 .81,

~c= L~ Jl:lmll,.dx=d, ~ (x-f) IJ~2 d.r=

l 2 l
~

= 2;~, ~
L 2

(:ra_:t) dx= ziJ (~'- ~l):::

=-q- [!:_ - ~ _ (l i 2)~ .J- (1!2'! 3l] 2E I 1 6 lr ' ti

= 17q/4. .~13Hc J

\.if. l' roblcm 3. D<.'!te.min(> t.ho maximum tran$lat.ion of point. A holonging t.n tho neut.ral a~is of a l'.Hrnd bowm 8!' wdl a." t.ho angu lnr I'Otutjon of lh~: c;r(l.~S S('<~ti(.'n pa!:<sing througl1 this same point ( Fig. 2Uln). Solution. 'rho in.!luomo;c of the shears aud uort. n al forcl''> 1Je.iog ue.gligiblo mul the d inction of t.h() tran~la.tion tcmnin ing unknown, wo ~hull cmput(\ $e}Jarnhly its horizontalt and vertical c.oroponl'nt8 indltce.d hy t.ho hcnrling nt<mJcnts. The totnl valun of tho displacement will be found theroaflol' in t.ht usunl wny. 'l'ho magnitude of tho bending moment induced at any se.ction by tl1e load /' is given by Mp=PRsin <p
Tho vn\uo u[ tho bl'nding mvmont induc.ed in thi~ case by t.h<; load uuit.y will. constitute for ~tny section M 1 = f R sin q>=R sin <p Remembering that ds = R tlcp, )<fohr's formula ('16.8'1 b!lcotn(lS
:It

IE't u::; apply at point A a ]l(ll'izontal load unity as indicated in l<'ig. 21 .!lb.

[n onler to dl'tl111nino th1.1 hor ize>ntal (;ornponont '.:\ jp of tho total diSJllrtl~'rncnt

(' PR sin cp R sin '4' R dcp

J
0

EJ
n

=
PR3 ( (('

= EJ Jsut2 'i' d<p= Rl

Pfl3 (' .

y - -4- o= ud -

ain21

):c

nJ>!(:I

o
Tho value of r.t.o displ.ncoment thus obtained boing positive, its direction will coincide with thnt adopted fol' the lon<l untty in Fig. 21.811. Let us comptttt' now the vettic.ill di ~plac.omont 1~1> of this smno point A .. For thi!.< pnrpo~o Wli' .shnll upJ)ly a verticallwd unity as inrlicatorl in Fig. 21.8c.

ln t.hat c11so tho bending

momont~ <>

induc<.'ll by t.ho lonrl unity hocomo

;l/2= -1.H (1- cos tp)=- R (( -COSCjl'l

Using once agnin expression (1ti.8) we obtain

n
0

.:t.

PR3 ((' . (> ) 2J>Ra. =u J -stnq>dq> 1-,\ S!n rreos<y tlq: = - EJ

0

336

Slrriln. F:nerr:u 1'/~ur!l a11d M ethods of f); splacM!~I/.l Comrmtttlion

oppo~ito

This lli.splnc.(>ment b<.>ing nt>gati"e, point A must travel ;n a dircel.ion to tlte ono selected for the loul uniLy, i.l' upwards. The total d t:splnc\rn cnt. o( 110int A will be given by z 2 l i t\tp ~A=. + l\ 2 p =
.,

/(nPR3) 2
2EJ

+ ( - '2PHa)2 EJ =

Jl}t3,

EJ

V 4+'

/~

~mid

Tho angular rot;tt.ion A3p of cross soction A will he obLained applying to the cross section an imaginary unit moment M 3 (Fig. 21.8d). fn that case the bending moments induced in the beam w~ll re111ain q constant and equal to unit y. Consoqucntly , tho ,....,...,.-,....,....,...,...,.....,.,."'1 anguJat rotation of ctoss sc<:tion A will bo given by
~ M 1,Mads - ~ PRsinfp1R d~ _ 2PRZ A3p- .) EJ -.) EJ - EJ
q>=:l'(
~

:t

'1'=0

The rlirt>ction of this rotation coincide with that of tho unit moment , which means thnt tho cross SliCHon will turn co,mtel'clockwise . Problem 4. Det.l.'rmiM the angular rotation or the free r:nd C of u kuoe fr1m1o appoal'ing in Fig. 22.8 Fig. 22.8. Soltt tton. Apply to scct.ion C of the knee fra:mo a unit moment .111 tending t.o turn this ~ection in the rlirt'c tion of the rotaliqn rcquir(ld. ln that cMe the n onnal forc es and the s hear!'< throughou t the structure will rt>main con~to.ntly nil and Mohr's formHla will c.IJmprise one Lcrm only depl.'nding on tho bending monwnts r}von if it w~r<! desired t() account fur all the stresses ind uced in t.ho snuc.t.urc. ...... ' ,,
Actual state Imogifllrry J'lale

. , .ill

Mm

Fig. 2.1.8

Draw the two bending moment c.urvc., one for tho di~trilmted loads q ciTccLivoly appliorl and one for tho imagina ry unit. moml'nt M. 1'lu~.~e t.wo c.unes are givon in l<'ig. '2:i .8<t and b, t'tJS()(Ictivt>l~' Analytically tlw vnlues of t.ho bending nHInP.Ill,<; for ltoth r. al!4ls will be givrn hy: f<ll' the upright

7 .$. Temperaturt: Straltu

for the uorizonlal
~IIlli

337

M,1

qx2 =--z and

Mm = -1

!utroducing t.he.se valul'S in expression (16.8} we obtnin o a

<p=6,.,1 =.)
0

2 . EJ dz+.) 2 . ~ 1 dx+ 3 EJ
0

1 qz2

1 qa2

2qa3

.4'

7.8.

TEMPEl\ATURE STnAINS
I I

.M ohr's fo rmula (16.8) may be wri lten ns follows

l

~mn = l: l] ~ M mt\pn + Z ~ Nm~xn +!. SQm~un

0 0 0

{ 18.~)

wlecrc ~~ =
::. \ xn =

111 d:r ,;1

= mulual angular rotation of the t wo cud faces of clement. dx induc.ed by lhe applied loads

'" ';;z = mutual linear displacenumt of the sa me faces along the axis of the element. 6.1,. = Q~~z 1}= lheir mutual displacement in the direction normal to tbe axis of lhe member (see Art. 2.8). In this lransc.ripLio u 1\lohr's formula may be utilized uot only when the displnc.emen ts t. ..,, 6."'" aud 6. un of an elemen t dx arc induced by Stl'esses themselves due to a system of exttm1nl loads, hut a lso in the event. t he strains arc duo to n change in tompera1.tue. Consequently, this expression may serve for the solution of problcms cOllnected with thermal expansions and contractions. Assume that t he tompel'n ture of the top fibres of element dx has been raised by t 1 nn~ liL'Il or the bottom ones by t 2 (Fig. 24.8). Asl:'ume nlso that within the bo~y il.selfthe temperature varies li nearly. The expansion of the top fibres of the element dx will equnl at1dx c\lld t.hat. of the bottom ftbres o.tz(l:.c where a is the coefficient of Lhcrm~tl expansion. I n the case of a symmetric.al cross section the expansion at midheight will equal half the sum of the expansions of the extreme fr brt>S
'->xnA

_ C't.(tt+t2)d X 2

The mutual angular rotation of t he two cross sections bounding this clement will be given by A _ A _ CX (lt- t2) d
'->qm '->q,t -

:t

2~-853

3:i8 Strain Energy Theory and Melhods of Displacement Computation

As Lhe rise of temperature will lcacl. to no vortical disp lace ments of the element dx Lhe term d 11n will romai n ni l. I ntroducing the a bove values into formula (1.8.8) we shall ohtain t he expression pormilting direct computation o( stntins and dtlflcctions arisiug hom l.e m pernturo ch anges

I Umt = ~atl ~tz SMmdx+~atttt2

sN,. dx .f
I

(HL8)

fa this expression th o sign ~ iodicalos t hat tho summation mus t be card e(l over a ll the members of the system.

dx
z
2
\
\
\

/'dx
z
I

- - - - - - i>?::~='"M"72- - - - - - 7 ~ .1s-t. I
\

tJ ill

\ _ _ 1!; %~/':~;i2l~

a~

Ftg. 24.8
(t is obvious tha t only those members wl1ich have been submitLed to n tompera turo change must be takert into considcral.ion. For rectilinear or polygona l bars of constant cross section the c.orrcsponcling integrals may be compu ted a~ the areas lHJunded by l he diag rams of uni t st.resses, which permi ts to reduce the above cxpmc;sio u to tho fol lowiug form which is exlromoly convenient for prarlical dosign

"'mt

= ...a - 1 h~

t -t~n

~'M

~ t, +tz Q + ..,a, -2- #

(20.8)

Hero Q;i nncl Q;y iuoicate tile areas bounded by the ;vl andY curv('S. \\'hen tho cross section is nonsymmetrical about its neulm l

a x is Lhc lt~rm - 2 mus t be re placed by t 2 1-~-y where y i ~ tltc distanee of the lower frhrc to thtl gravity axis.
'! 'his ~<tprossion will be valid cmly if the chnngo in tomperature and th<l lt~igh t of tho cros-s ~Lion do not vary within t.ho lon~h of <'nch particular

t,+tz

+ lt-t2

t <:3

memhur forming thc1 structure.

7.$. Tempt:ra.lure Stratn1

339

T he sign1> of all t.hc terms appoaring in th e a bove forro ul n will he as follo ws: when the strai ns of c lcml\nl. d:x i uduc.c!l both Ly t he variation in temperature and by the load urdly at'C of ~he snrn o d irection Lhe COTrl:lSJJOnding LN'III o[ t.hc cquatiou will be posWve; if it wcro ol.horwise, the Lcrm would be negative. In tho eomputntion of t hcrm rtl d i$p lac<'ments the .~trams and dRfle.cltOIZS produced by the shearing fo rces may no lonJJer be Ju.glected for tlu:ir relati ve ualue may be qu~te appreciable.
o h~ai n ed

Problem. H<Jqui rell tl1e vertical displl\c.emt~nl of point C of L ho knno frame apponl'ing in Fig. Z2.il, whon the Indoor tm nporo.turo risos by 10"C, llu~ Clutdoor tem peraturu mmnin ing constaul (Fig. 25.81.1).

.!:::.f
a
~

,.. +~c ...

(U)

-"00

T
A

~-'
.._

I;

(6)
Fig. 25.8

Sol ~tio11. Apply a lond uuity along the diroctinn of tho d ispl uc.lmen~ requirod llnd drnw the COITOSJlOIHling M and N curvN; (Fig. 25.kllnnd cj, Tloo areas bounded by t.h<!SO c.urvos will amount to
~~ -=1 a =a ltf

L<!t. us al:;o c<ompute the terms dopcuding llimdly on t.Jw cloauge t1 + tz = 0+10 _ 5

l.c~mpornturc

I lt-121=1 0-10izz10
in tornperoture mu~t he always taken in absolutr value regard lee!' of its sign .
liD

It sloouhl be ob:<erved that tho la:-t t<>nn rQ(lrcsentiug 1 h!' total ch.lngc

It shoulll abo be not.ecl that an incr('ase in lhu indoor templ'r:l~ti i'C leads to oxtcnsion of tho inner .fibres of tho knco fra!Tle wh ile the unit lunol showu in J<'ig. 25.8 cauS<~s th<Jil' contraction. Conscrtuently, that. term of tho e<tuntion which acc.ounts for Lloo b~nding mmocnls will bt- negative. The sn mo willnpply

22*

340 Strain

Er~rgy

Theory a11d Methods of Dl.~placcmellt Comprttatiort

to the tcnn ac.c.ounling for the normal strcssos. for an increase i11 tcmpllrnturc leads to au extension or the upright while ~lte load unity adoplell entails its contraction. Consequently
t>m t =

:x.t4-

t5cx h

a'l

8.8.

DISPl.ACEMENT COMPUTATION TECHNIQUES

In a lllllllher n case~ displacement computations may be simplified very consid~rnbly by tho introdnct.ion o a special t.ec.hniquo

- l~ I forth~ ca lculation ot lhe inlegrals belonging to the type ~ }\[mM.,dx .

\;\'o shall name t.his l,cchniqtte the graph multiplication method for it is lnlsed on the ract that the expre~sion preccdcrl by the sign of the inlcgral <Jont:\in.'! lite product of two ordinates to the Ji," and M,1 curves. This technique will apply. provideu at least ouc of the curves (say. t!Jat. of J\.fm) reduces l.o a straight line. The other diag,am may be bounded by nny cu,ve or br.oken liue. 'fhe ordinate to any straight line may be always expressed by iiim = = x t..'\rl a; the meaning x and a being clearly shown in
0

Fig. 26.8.

or

Introducing this value of ration, we obtain

L

Mm
I

into the integral under conside-

~ MmM,. dx =tan 0: ~ xMn dx =

0
0

tan

as
0

an,.
Q,

where Mnd:x = dQ11 represents the differential o( the aren bounded by the 11:1"11 c.unc (Fig. 26.8). Conl!ccpleutly, tho expression

SxdQ,..
0

represents the statical

momont o[ the gr/\ph area about the 0-0' axis (Fig. 2().8). It is well knowu that t.his l'ttatical motncnl may be expressed by
l

~ xdQ,= Q,.x~
0

*'fhe samE' l'C.hnique will ap)lly t,o

l

~huilar

intogr:d.s
OmQn dx

~ lfmNn d:r
()

nnd

S
0

8.8.

/)iSplau~nt

Computation T t!chniqlcs

341

:r0 representing t he abscissa of the graph centroid. It follows t hat

I

SMmMn dx = Xc tau a~2n,

0 I

but sinee

Xe

tan a = Yc we obtai 11 finally

~ M rn!l1,.dx =9.nYc
0

(21.8)

Hence, the product of the multlplicatiM of two graph.~. oru> of which at tca.~t is bounded by a straight line, equals the area bounded by the graph of arbitrary ot~tline multiplied by the ordinate Yr. to tha first
Gravr:ty

c<:ntre of M11 graph

o'

r-- ----+'--------+ - - - - --.:::::::: .. t--- ----1-l_ _ - -+--- -l

--- -c;r--

Fig. 26.8

graph mt~asured along the vertical passing through the ceutroid of the second one. This product will he reckoned posit ive when the grnph of arbitrary ou tline aod the ordi nate to the rectilinear grn ph are both of the same sign and negative when the two aro of opposi te sign. This procedure has been suggestl\rl in 1925 by Prof. A. VcreshchD,gin when he wos still a student of the Mosc.ow Railway Transport Institute and lherefore in tho U.S.S.R. lhis method is known also as Vereshchagin's method. It sllould be noted that the IcH part of expression (21.8) differs t from Mohr 's in teg ral by the a bsenc.e of lhc fac.tor EJ . H ence t he result of the graph multiplication <:.ar ried out by Vere~hchagin's method must be later divided by EJ. It should be always kept in mind that the ordinatu Yc must be measuT'cd on the graph bounded by a straight line . Tf both of the

342 S trai11 Energy Theory ond M tthods of Displacement Corn.putlll ion graphs were bounded by straight lines the ordinate Ye r.ould l!o moasurco on any one of the two. Thus, if iL were required lo f111d the prod uct of the gra phs for M 1 and M" of Fig. 27.8a one could either mull.iply the area Q 1 , bouudcd by tho ll-1 1 curve, l>y the ordinnte y,. measn~d a long tho vertical pa~ing through tho centroid

a
(b) : f

-:_
......

' .....
:
I

c~d

(c)

Ftg . 27.8

o( 1 .his area to t ho JVh curvt>, or else one (' ,oul d mu ltiply t he a1ea Q,., bouruled by the Mk curve, by the ordinate y,. measured to the M 1 curve nlong the vertical passing through the Q" <:.entroid. When n lrapozoidal graph has to be nml tiplied by anotht>r grat>h of t ho same shape, it is convenient to suhdivido one of tho two into lwo triaugles as indic.alttd in Pig. 27.8b and to multiply thereafter tht aren of each of these triangles by the ordinat-e to I he o~her gnt ph me<Jsured along Lha vertical pas~ i ng through the c.ontroid of OllCh Of lhCSQ triilng l e~. T it us, in the case just nteulioned we would ohtaiu
al ul al (2c d ) bl ( r 2d) =6 l 2YG+zYb=z 3+3 +2 3+3 (2ac+2 bd +ad + bc)

8.8. Displacement Computation Techniques

343

'l'hc Stlmc proc~n ure could be followed if each of the t.wo graphs consist.ed of two triangles or opposite sign (Fig. 27.8c). One or the two gr.nphs could be replaced by two triangles ABC nnd ABD Lhe ordin ALOS Lo which would remain of the same sign along the whole length of Lhe graph. 'fhe introduction of two additional trinnglos CBK nnd AKD would hnvc no effect ou the fmal resuiLs for thei1 ordinates arc equal in value and OpJlosite in sign. Multiplying the graphs of Fig. 27 .8c we would obtain
aL

2Ya + - 2 (-Yb}=2Ya+2Yb
When one of tho graphs is bounded by a conic parabola , t lte araa of this gtaph should be subdivided into two triangles and n parabolic segment. I t will be remembered that a parabolic graph is

bl)

al

bl

{0)~
I I I I

(b)~2
Fig. 28.8

peculiar to Lhe uniformly distributed loads and that the ordinate to the centre of the parabolic segment is always equal to g~z It 11111y h11ppcn that both graphs are irregular in :>hapc but one of the two is bounded by a broken line. In this ca~e both graphs shou ld Le subdivided into a number oE portions so that in each of thern at l.east one of the graphs should be bounded by a . stro.igh t line. Thus, if it; wore neeossnry to multiply the two graphs represented ir1 I<'ig. 28.8a and b, both should be subdivided into two pa1ts, the result of their multiplication being given by tllo sum OtYt !J:!Ya One could also subdivide these graphs in three portions as indicated in Fig. 28.& and d. In that case the msuh of their multiplic.ation would be given by Q,ys + QzY2 + !JsYa Vcrcshchagin's method requires the r11pid evaluation of graph areas of different shnpe ~tnd the deter mination of the position of their cen troid. Table 2.8 represents the areas and the centl'oid positions for various graphs and is intended to facilitate these c.om pula lious.

Table 3.8 gives the values of Mohr's integrals ~ Jl:f1Mhdx eomputed for V}Jrious graphs of clifieren t outline. This table will be of considerable help in the computation of di!':placements. Vcreshehagin's method is particularly well iii, for the computation of the deflections of beams and framed structures, tho different spans or members of which do not vary in their tigidity. Should this rigidity vary along an element, t he product EJ would have

9.8. Examples oj

Di.~plarr.ment

Computation

to remain under the inlegr1d sign which would make Vereshchagirt's method inapplicable. 1t would then become necess<~ry to cnlculate analytically Mohr's integrals or , if an approximate solut ion were deem od sufficien L, all tho mem hers of the structure cou Id be f1cti tiously replaced by other ones whose rigidity would vary by jncrernents. The deflections of hinged structures are computed using only that term of Mohr's equation which takes into account the normal stress{\s. It will be remembered that lJending momen ts and shears remain nil in all the members of this c lass of structures. Con& quently, Mohr's formula refluccs to
A

L.\mn

~~;;;:
~

Hm

Nndx -gp

The integtals must be calculated separately fo1 the whole length of each member of the structure whereafter all of the values of Lhese integrals must be summed up. In t he great majority of cases the normal stresses Nm N no the cross-sectional area F and Young's modulus E wi ll remain constant wilhin the limits of each member in which case tho above expression becomes
'-'mn - ~

,,

~ N ,.,.N ~ d
Et;
11

x-~

Nm N n l
EF

(22.8)

Thus th e computation of the deflections of t russes and similar

structures reduces to the !'urnming up of the products l calculated separately for each bar. These compulaLious should be carried out in tabular for m.

N:"

9.8.

EXA!\IPLES OF DSPLACEMEl\T COMPUTAT0N USI NG VEHESHCHAGIN'S METHOD

P roblem 1. Required the deflection of point C of the heam appearing in Fig. 19.~tl. Tho effect or ,bpth bending moments and slwai'SSbunll ho accounted for. ; .. ''' "' ... . Solution.._ The imaginal')~tatc of tho IHwm ns well as the graphs of t.hc strosses induced by the load P,. and by the unit load P,. arc roprestmte<l in l~ig. HUlb, c, d, e nncl f. Using Vereshchngin's method we find 2 Pnl l 1 Z l 2'1 Pn l 1 P,.ts P,.r,l O.mn=E/42234+ GF'2'2'2= 48EJ + 4.GF This result coincidos exactly wi th tllo one obtained in Art. 6.8 by dinJCt integration. Problem 2. Rcquirod the horizontal displncoment of point C of lhG portal

frame :;hown in Fig. 29.&. The mom<mts of incrtin of all the members of the

Vn luc of Mohr's I ntegral s ~

M.'1'11h dJ< ( tbe

~~ i grapll Mk gr~pll

~lz

"JGJ
-~L

]h q

~h, '
h~r---__

-3-

lht h2

lht 6

(2ho-.!t~)

'

u
~~

Ihi

:, 11 2 (2h5 +h6 )

/if-+ ::r
1

"I

}.

h2 (2h4+ 113)

{ 12 ( h:,h;, + h~h6 ) +

-1- h 3 k 6 + h,,h~ l
l

c~cz
-y f(Jttic poratml o

(i hz(2c:a-c 1)

-/; 12 ( - c 1h 5

+ c<!ke) -

- c ,ho+ czh51
lfth2

r,~
C..lflt~ / \'i.... {}/i~.i/.,'! ,.,

'"12
lj2h2

!~

(3h5 +hs)

__________ ...

. -Jr,z

- 4-

liz 12 t3he +
lf S

h5)

C.iJ .. (."!." ).!~ ''1

CJ ~
C'!flltpara~ . ...
A

--y

lfhz

(h~-1-IJ-o)

r -;t___ _ 1J
.

h 2 (2h' -t A.)

(h 5 h + 4eh'

+h6'-)

1--i- -l

Tfl bl e S.S

base Jcnglh o <'11Ch gr3ph hl'J ng cqunl tu

l)
OJn~ ptJrol-.1/.o

"~z
S

ft~

t'lmlc paru!Jt!la

U:nk {Jt1/'171Jclo

/n
- 3Wh,

-d r ~~---- ,. ..,.

--

J -t-l
lht (21lo-:-A ') S

"

lh ,

(2r 4 -c3)

l
I

lf2h l

12
lf2h 2
-~,-

o't2(-2c3 +(.)

l f ' h2 - 3-

~ h~ (k' + ~

'=!hol

:, f2(-hac3 +
+h~c4 )-l-h3c~ - h~c3 1

lh 12 (3ha+h,)

r -T

(h3;-h,)

(h3k' -;-t,hho+

+11.1.' }

:, [2 (ctl'3+ c~,- c2c3-c 1c 4)[

12 ( -3(',+ ('2)

ll2

lf'

( - l', +c2l

:. (- c1 k' 1-1 4e1hd- l'z1.' )

'

12 (li2

lf 1

3c,d -c

4)

-5-

l f tfz

I( tf '

lf, I" (3k' + liO ;).

+ i.')-l- 12z'J

12 (3c~ - cz)

lf~

30

-s
!zw 15
lf' 1 5 (k . ) -<. "15 . J.. . t.
+8zf

lf2i'

15 (31.' + k').J...
+ 12~' 1

lf , + \-CJ

C4

l/12

T
li2

:; 15(k' + 1. ')+
L8z'l

~~

( - c3k+tie0 h.'--l-

1~ 1- f5(31c+ l.)-!+ 12:1

~ [2kk' +

2/.A.' +

+c,A.)

+ lei.' +.i..k ' + 2z X X (k' +A.')+ , 2&' (k+ A.)+ + :3.2::' 1

348

Slrttitt E11ergy Tluory and Methods oj J)/SplacemMt Comput<ltion

frame am indicatt>d in Lh<) same figure, Young'.:; modulus E remaining const.aut throughout. Solutloll. The h~nding mnment dingram corres ponding 1.<1 the actual loading i s given iu Fig. 2!l.8b. The imaginary loading c<ltt!!i!'ts of uno horizontal load unity actirtg 11t point C. Tho corresponding bending 111omont graph is given in l<'ig. 29J:k. The signs of the llondi ng p Jz = ~ moments npp oa1 ing in these graph:; u1ay b~ omitted if desired for theSt> graphs are always dawn on the s ido or the extended fihres. Tho displaccmont of poi.nt C will be obtained by multiplying nil t.heo ordinutel; to tho J1 .fa ..t:: bending monent grnph col'l'OSP<IIlrling to tlte

(a J

I~ ast
(c)

,( 111\,[lllll',,, jr'
(d)

Plg. 29 .:>

F ig. ,10.8

nctual Joncling hy tho ordinatl.'s Lo thE> graph rlue t.o Llw lirtitious load unity. Using Vm t'sh chagin ' s ml>thocl and Lllking into acc(lunt the dilT(u(tnt rigicliLlcs of the colu mn an<! of the cnos.<> heam we find

9.8. Examples of

Displa~cment

ComplLalio tl

31\!)

Tho displacement thus fow1d will be negative for the Jl1p aud M graphs are situated on difTenwt sides of each member of the iramu thus iudic.uLiug that the hen ding moments Mp and M Ul't' of opposi te signs. Htnc:e the nctuul di::;phlc.t,.. .rn(lnt uf J!Oint C will ocelli' in a direction opposito to tho onr~ ad~>pte(l for the loud unity, i.e., towards the right.

f{

l:'roblem 3. Hequiretl the deflection fi 1 and tho angular rotntiuu 8 2 of t.ht> ht-am with a built-in end llppearing in ~'ig. 30.8a, thoso two di spl ncommts hcing due respcc.tively to the application of a concentrated load P and of a uwmcut ~Jl. The hen ding moment graphs corresponding to the act ua l loading are> indic.at(!.I iu Fig. :-!0.8b. Solution . Apply along tho directions of the displacement-s 1equircd a unit load ( l''ig. 30.8c) m1d a unit momont (Fig. 30.8d) and traco t.he cormsponding bendi ng moment di11grams ( Fig. 30.8c and d). The deflections and angular ro~a tions will be con1puted using Mohr's fQrmuln togel.htlr with Vcreshclulgin's method. Tho lvfp graph will be first multiplied by thl\ ~~~graph and then hy the .11-12 graph.
h., "=

1 [ o.5Pt x 0.5!x; x; x0.5l +

0 51

e,

X ( -2 X 0.3P! X 0.5!+2 X 0.2.Pl X l-0.3PlX l+0.2Pl x 0.5l)

J= S~;J
Pl = ,,QEJ
2

1 ( 0.3Pl x 0.5! x 1 x 1-0.2Plx 0.5! x 1 x 1 ) t. 2 = EJ 2 2

)*'Proble m 4. Hequired the horizon tal displacement t)f point D helongiug to t'hc struc-ture repre~entotl in Fig. il1.8a. Solution. Tho bending u1oment graph c.orlesponding t.o t.ho actual loading appears in Fig. 31.8b. Let us apply a load unity a long tho dircct.ion of the di ~ placcment required. The graph of the hcnding moments induced by this load j;; given in Fig. 31.8c. Multiplying tho two graphs Ollt> hy another Ulling Vt>reslldtagin's method a11<1 rememhol'ing that the separate mombers of t.he> structure are of different rigidity, we obtain

T he aroa o f the M P graph pertaining to elemenl CD is bounded by a concnw parabolic curve and theruforo i ts area is equal to one thi rd of tho profhlct of its base lengt.h by tho maximum ordinate, i.e-, 1 qa2 qa3

QcD=s --za=6

The centroid of this graph is situated a distance

as

mea~ured from point

C (see Table 2..8). Honco the corresponding ordinaw to the

M g raph

equnls ~ .

350 Strain E nt<rJ:y Th,ory 'lnd .Method$ oj Di8plocement Co mptLlaUon

(1

J,

c
't)
I

J ~

- :.:
-

0:::.
N

Jz :2J,

~}5-

r::
{a)

(b)

II
I I

I
(C)
l.

~ .

~
. y
I
I I

Jl

I I

(d)

(e)

Fig. 91 . 8

Fig tJ2. 8

9.S.

E.rnmp~s

of Dtsplaccmtnt

Computatlot~

351

Problem 5. llcquired the deflection <l 0 of a beam built in at its loft oxtromitv and .carrying a . Ul~iformly distdbutcl load (Fi~. 3f.8a). . Solution . Havmg dr11Wn tho M 11 graph {F~g. 32.86} apply a vertJcal luad unity at point C and draw the corrl!spondiog bending moment diagram (Fi~. 32.8c). The vnhw of the deflection L\ 0 will be obt.ained ruultiplying tho ordmatos to the parabolic graph by these of the oue houndod by a ~trnight line. Thill operation may }JO carried out in two dHferent ways: L Tho M 11 graph for the left-hand part of the beam will be regarded as consisting of a trapezoid 12-G-3-4-1 with negative ordinates and a pa.rabolic segment 2-G-3-5-2 with positive ordin~ttcs ( Fig. 32.86). Th(> maximum ordiuat.c to tbe parabolic graph will equal
q(

- 8 - =32
Multiplying tho M P graph by tho

v ql~

'51

graph wo oht11in

t!.c=..!....

EJ

[.i.. ..!....2.. (~ ql" + :!.__ql2) _'ll'l . .!....~ ..:!.. . ..] ~ 11ql~ 2 2 2 3 2 3 8 32 2 1S 2 2 384./?J
bend111g momllnt JW'

2. Isolate tht' left half of tJto bOillll replacing the ac~ion exerted hy thl' righthand part by a
~2 =B
1111d

a shearwg forc:e Q =

(l''ig. 32.8tl). 'l'he graph of tho benc'l ing womcnt Mp actitag across tho Sol:t.ilml' of the lcft-hao cl portton of the< bomn Is shown in F ig. 32.8e. As will tm rcadil seen this graph and the gra ph 1-2-5-8-4-1 of Fig. 32.8b nrc ~tb!\Ointel)' idPntcal. lt can be snbdividod into t hree parts :t:'l in<licat.!ld in Fig. 32.8e, eacl1 of these parts r(,p rcgcnting rP.Spcctivoly: (a) a

reetangul~tr

grnph having for ordinat.e

q~

duu t~ the bending moment

M =

IJ! applied
2

t.o section C; 1 1 equally o pplioil to

11

(b) n triangular gl'aph due to tho shearing forc.e Q = section C. The n111Ximmn nrdi uale to thi s graph equals

~ ;
2

(c) a paraboli1: graph due to the uuiformly di~tribnted loads upplicd to the loft hnH of the beam. 'fho maximtm ord inate to this graph t.otnls

q~~

.\Lu.lliplying each or those three graphs by tlltl hcnding moment grnJih 1lue to thl' load unity we ohtnin

!!.( ...!_ (qtz, .!... . .!_+ ql2.1...L.i_+ qlZ_..!.._..!._ilL ) _ 17ql'

- EJ

2 2 3

:t 3 8

- 384EJ

Jf

P roblem 6. {{equired th<' deflection of tho structure appearing in Fig. 33.& at load point. Tho left end or the horiZOJLtlll bar is bingc-suppottcd whi le its right extremity is suspended to a ficxihle wire. Th(> moment or inertia of the beam equals/, the cro$5 section of tho wire F, Young's modulus or tbo material of both being . Solution. ln the structure under consicleration the boam will work only in bending :md t.he wir() in diruct ten~>ion. Hence ~\lohr's formula for the beam will reduce to one term which contains the product o( bending mom ent.s. For llu w il'Q

35~

StrCiin Ertl'rgy Th~ory and ll!ctltods of Dtsplact!men' Computattoll

\lulu's fonnula will consist of tho term containing normal stres.'!es. Tho total di~plac<lment of tho Load point will he the1.efore given by

f t.\= J
o

M pM dx
EJ

+ J ---:er0
,,~

~ N JJlV dx

<I

Lfl us apply w the oonm a uuit load acting along the dircctiou of tht> <hsfllaro(lment required. Th o corresponding bending moment graph appears in

~
(a) A
J~.

r
0 '

J_ I,
__ .f., _ __ J
' I

I I I

i
I

i~'
@
El
.r, )

I
I

Fig. 88.8
gin':~

Pig. 33.Sb. Computing the first term of the ex pression given above by Vereshchamethod we obtain

f J
0

M pM dx
/J /

t ( 1 .PI L ) 2 l Pl9 2 2' T'2 3"4= 4.8EJ EJ '

Tht lotal:t.cnsilc strt>sses N P and

N in this ht1oger due to load P and to the

~r~ultiplication

unit load will amount to ;

and { , respective ly. The correspouding graphs of these graphs gives

arc 'givPu in Pig . 33.8a and b. The

9.8. Excw1ples of Di$plar.t>mcnt Computation

:-!53

The total dt>.flection will be given l>y

Pa. _ Pl3 0 - 48EJ+ 4EF

Pruhlcm 7. Requimd the augular rotation of cross soction 6 8 o[ the threchiugocl frame appt>nring in Fig. 34 .Sa . 'fht~ Oe.xmal rigidity E/ of all tho ele.ments of this frmnr) ronu1ins c<>nstant and cQIIal lo 25 X 104 t.nns sq m.

( a}

Fig. !Jd.8
SGlr~tion. T lw rMc.t. ion~ at t ho supports
u~ual

tho

equilibrium

r~qunt.ion~;

( Fig. :K8b).

of this frame will ho leriV(>d from

wherefrom

411A - 1.5VA=16

(a)

~Mu = -If.-. X 2-VA X 3 + q x 4 ( ~ + 6-4) =-2H,..-3V..t+2X4XIo=O

wh~roftom
2f!A +3VA=32 _ry = - VA+ V R = 0 :EX= -HA-lf8 + q X4= -HA -H11 +2X 4=0

(b)
(c)

wherefrom
(d)

From ~quotions (a) and (Ill we o'htain 1r A = ll.4 tons an<l H,\ = 6.4 t.om:. Equation (c) gives V 8 = 6.'\ tons and equatiun (d) gives H 11 = 1.6 tons. Knowing Lhm;e reacLions WI.' c.an draw the bonding moment diagram nPJlO<lring in 1:-'ig. 34. 8b. Th is being don() , let us apply a unit moment nt ~cction which will turn this soc.t.ion in t.ho <lirec.tion o[ the :mgula1 rotation requirod.

2.3-R5~

354 Strain Energy Theory

ar~d

Me-thuds of Displacetnelll Computation

'l'J1e reaction :~t the supports induced by this action will be obtained as follows (Fig. 34.8c): ~Mc=flAx-i-VAx1.5 = 0 (e)
[,

"ZMB=-lf,,X2-V.aX3 -I-1 =0

.EY=-V.a+V11 =0 .EX=-HA-1-HJr=O

~~qua lions
give V D ~

(e) llnd (f) yield VA = ; :rud UA = 1

fo while equa!.ions

(f) (g) (h)

(g) and {h)

I5

tlllU

HD =

Knowiug these reactions we may draw tho be.uding moment gr;~plt due to
Ll111 unit mmn!!nt (Fig. 34.8c).

Fig. 35.8

tao

The valut> of. the nngular rot.aLi(HI will ho obtaiue.~l mult.ipl ~ing t.lw !ir:<t o[ gmph~; uht.:unod as !losc.\'ll>ocl ahovo by the ~cco11<l one _ ..!... [ !Ui X 4 3_ 2 ..:... 4 X 4 X 2 ~ 3_ : \[l - Ef 2 X :! X 5 I 3 X 2 X 5

1-

!U; x1.5

+9.6 x 6 (2 2. t . )] x 3x5x 2 - 2 - 3x 5 +3x 1 =

2 2

1 (76.8+32 57.6 2.'5!),2) =25 x 10' 15 15 + 15 +---:j5

\(

10-~ = 1.1 3 X

ra Hlns

d'

Pruhlem 8. Hequired tht vorli!~lll doflcction ~ 5 of joint ;i o( n stot>l truss rep~ resented in Fig. 35.8a. The cross scr.tions of all the members of this truss remain constant and equal to F = 125 SII em and Young's modulus F. = 2 X 108 kg/sq em.

10.11. Slratn Erwrgy M r.thotl Clj Dtsplarcm.P.nl C(IITiflltlaltlllt

355

Solution . Tlu.> d~flection A5 wiH hu given by the exprcssiMl

L\a ~ l:ET

.YrN

c.omputations aro tahu late<l IH!r(.'unckr (sco 'Iahlo lo .8). The Mlri~?s 1 '11 the la~t c.olurnn tJf this lahk g ivo t.hc value.<> of tho p1oduct. N,Nl ior t>ach ]Jar in t.Qn metres. Summing up all these e111 .rie8 nnd dividing the total hy /iF we ;,:.h3ll ohtain tho tlir,;placenH> nt rotJu inul
65

All the

ncm~s~:rry

~ zx 107 ~ O.OI25(156.2.1 X 2+'10'..17 X 2+80 X 4 + !JO X I)=

= :i.72 x 10- a m=3.72 mm
Ttlble. 1.8
Sl.r<~ sscs

lltJ(I' to

Dar ::\c..

llar

I, m

l~nt:"th

HCtual Jil:l.

ding Np. tons

lcoa unity

,y

NpF;"t , lnn !Mli'C~

1-2; fi~~ 2-1.; 4-G

1-3 ; -~-{> j-7; 7-8

5
;)

--37.5 -25

-0.833 -O.!l33
O.liH7

156.25 104 .17

ao I

81)

I
0
(!

2-3; 6-7 2-5; 5-6

'~

5
6

!i-5

0 -12.5 15

0 0

90

t0.8. STRAIN ENEHGY METHOD OF DISPLACEMENT

COMI?tiTA'riON

The strai n llnergy 1110t.hod of llisplac-emcnt c.omputatiou is based Castillia.no .~ theorem which states lhaL the' partial derivative of the slratn energy tn terms of the unit actton is equal to the displacement induced by the ac.tua} loading along the direction of the said unit action. In order to simplify the demonstration of this Lheorom we shall rcLain in J\.1oht''s f.ormuln only one term which cout.ains Lhe bc11ding m fwumts (~ee Art. 3.8)
01 1

lf=''f~ "'.) 2EJ

0

356 Strtttn

E~rcy

Theory and M4tliods oj Dl$pla~e.ment Comprttatton

Let us l'Xt)ress the bcndiug moment as follows

M =M,Pd-M2Pz+ ... +MhPh + ... +M,.P.,.

In th is expression jiji lVl 2 , , ]jijli . .. , }rln are the bending due to unit forces P 1 = 1, Pz = 1, . . . , f>h = i, P., = 1 whose linos of action. coinc.ide with t hose of the c01responding applied londR. Tho partial derivalive o[ W in tlrms of Pk will be
moman~s
cJW

CJP11
iJM -

= iJP11 ~ j

~M2d;e)
2ifT
(I

SM iJl't dx =~ BJ
0
l_
..;.~ M~t,"<fd:r

uM

lut 8Pit =M" and consequently

iJP" = -" j -~
0

aw

As ~hown iu Arl. 0.8, the right-hand part. of this exp1cssion nprei!ents i..\ J,p and lbf:lrcforc

ow
i}}J"

= ilJ<p

Tn actual d~!>i gn pra~.:. ticc Caf\Wliano's theotem i::~ seldomly used, its inlerl!:-t being mainly the01:etic. H it were desired however to use it the sequence or opcratiorlS would be as fo\lows: 1. A cerluin action should bu a pplied Lo the sy:-;tem unclcr considera Lion a long the direc.tion of the d i~placcmenL requir<?d. 2. The strain energy due to the adual loading and Lo this unit nction should be calc.ulatod. 3. The llX.prcssion o[ the ~lrtt in energy should be difetentiatod in lcnns of Llw sniJ unit a('.tiott. Tho magnitude or the displacement will uc t hP-n obt;aincd from thi~ expression r~ducing to zero L ho mngniL11de of the unit action for in reality Lhi~ nr..tion is nonex istent. ln the PHI'.icular N\SC when one or tho load poin\.s eoinc.idcs with the t.ross st!c.l ion the dollcction uf which is sought, it will be Lhc value o t.his patLic.nlar load that will be int.roduced iul.o the JH.Ll'tlal derivative.
l'roblcm. t:lcquirod the angulnr rotation the reo end of a uniformly loullctl bcnm with n builkin end tFig. 311.&). Solc~tton. Ld us npply to the free oud o the beam a couplo ~ 1 15 ~hown 10 Fig. 36.Xb. 'l'hr value of tho hen<ling momont nt n cross !'i~C~ion sit.ua L cd a dist<nH:e :~: frutn the il'o;c end will be given by

,,r

J1.8. The Elastic. Loads Mt>thoil

'l'bo corresponding strain eMrgy will amount t,o

W = \' M2 dz = .) 2E J 0 0
I

s q- -t-m
l (
.:t2.

) 2.

2l!.J

dx

whic-h givt>s after iniA...gtation

W=EJ

-w+-G-+2

q2jS

ql3!1J!

9JI2t)

Differentiating W in terms of Wl and reducing thereaftlr its valut> to zero we obtnin

q>=

1 (qt3 ) ql3 (&W) ON/ ro?=o= EJ s-f-ro?L =sEJ

As alrMdY

.~tated,

vihen one oi the lo11ds is actually applied 11t t!Je point

the olisplac<:uient of ;..-hich is desired to determitte tbero i:.< no need to apply imaginnry loath. Assume, for instanc.t, that it is required t() ilot<H'mintl th<' maximum

i-l ~lUI l U:~t!~!~.~ll_l ~I ll! q

(al

< :.,
~ - '""" --...,-_)'<p

.lf trrrrrnoni1 Hnqcu)~ l... . ~

~:1

(b)
Fig. 36.8

ddlcciion of a br.am huilt in at one end and c.arrying a CtlllCI?ntmted load at tht! other. ln that ca.~c
M=-Pir

\' p2z2 p2za l+ = .) 2EJ dx= 61!:1 .

0

iiW Pl3 b.= aP=3EJ

l1.8.

THE ELASTIC LOADS METHOD

Tho method described hereunder permits tho determination of deflections and angular rotations at a certain number of isolated points of the structure. Increasing their nu1nber, the clastic curve of the deilected system will be obtained with a precision increasing

358 S t rain Energ11 Theory an.d Methods of Displacement Cornptdatton

iu direc.t proportion to the numher of point$ COI1$:idNed. 'flat! c.urve !io olttilinod Jnighl ho also tcrme(l the tHsplacoment graph of Uw
l'.'y!>tom.

Itulecd . if the vah1es of the <lefJections detel'IItiued at a certa in nnmbet of points Wlll'C set. m.1t along the Vl-)rtic.a l ~ pa;,:sing thtough these points, t.h.o broken line connecting the ordinate:; so obtained would c.onstilutr an approximalion of t.ho elastic. c.nrve. 'JhC:' defluc.tion1; nf all tho inl.ermcdiatc points might be obtained with a eerLaiu fl cgl't\e of approximation hy mt>n.!!lH'ing the ordinates to thif<
" "
,. !!

Y~-

Vi:rt..:ecr: aisplureme":ts ~;raph

Fif . 17.11

hrokon line. for in reality tho elastic line of a member will be 11 s mooth curve. The above doe~ not apply to hinged structures s uch ns trusses, fo1 as long as the loads act at the joints all the bars n.Hllllin stmight and couscqttcJLtly the de(ol'med axis of the lowel' (or upper} chord will. follow a broken line connecting the deOected joints. Tf the axi:; of the displacclllcllt graph is normal to the uirection o[ thll dclloclious, sudt a graph will resemble very clof'cly a hcndrng moment curve of an end-SUJ>pod ed beam acted upon by Yeornl cotH~onl:rated l.oads. It is this resemblance which forms the has is of the method de~cri bed hel'euuder. Fig. ;~7.K 1epresents R part of some structnro for whic.h it is required to f'r nd the del1cctious at. a ('f~rlain number of points. Assn me that the broken line of Fig. 38.8a repre~ents t.he bending moment ~.traph. Each apex. of this gl'aph wil l. lio in the vertical pas!>iug lhrougll one or t:he load points. Let llS find the maguilaliles of these loads. For thi::; purpose we sha ll compute the shearing forces Qn and Qn+t acting at Lho exLromities of t;hc st.retches f., anrl /.....+t U~ing the theorem of Zhur::~vsky we may wrilo

11 .$. The Elastic Loads Method

359

Let us pass two sections through the beam one immediately to the l'ight and t,hc other immediately lo the left of point n. The element isolated by these two sections is rcpreBen ted in Fig. 38.8b. The end faces of t.his element aro acted upon by the shearing forces

Mn-1

Bendtng mome11t grop/J

Fig. 98.8
Q.,. and Q,+ 1

J'eckoned positive. Projecting all the forces applied to this element on a vertical we obtain
~Y = Qn-Pn -Qnt-1

=0

P,. =Q,.- On+l

The latter exptession shows t hat the load acting at point n IS equal to tho difference between the shearing forces Q,. and On+t I t is oloar therefore thnt the concentrated loads acting at points (n 1) and (n - 1) will also amount to

Pn- 1= Qn-1-Qn Pn+ l = Ont-1- Qn+2

llltroduc.ing into these expres!\ions the values of the shearing forces in terms of the bending moments we obtain

_lJ.!n-il'fn - 1

Mn+t - Mn. ..- - M

'' --

An

An+t

_1_+
n-1 ;?.n

+M,.

1' ) -M,.+t ;-1 1 + ,-:;"'" "n+l

"'"+'

(23.8)

It fo llows that if the heam is subjected to the a<:tion of th e concentrated loads Pn calculated as above, its bonding moment g;\pb will coincide exactly with the deflection graph of the structure u nder consideration. Since the two curves given in Figs. 37.8 and

3GO Stra lu

E~rgy

Thtory and Mtthods of Di>plaument Comp11lalitm

38.8a ae identical , l ot us replace in the expression of Pn t ho values of M,_ 11 .Mn and lvln+t by the corresponding deflections Yn-lt
Yn and lln+t

W., which will in(]uct> i n a n end-supported benm a bcuding rno-

Wo shall thus obtain the e-xpression of the so-called tllastic loads

ment curve c-oinciding with the np pl'oximatc dellecLion graph of tho ac.tual stncture. T he value of Lhese elastic Joads will l>e thus given by

W,. = - Yn- J +y,. + J...LJ-y,..IAr~+t (24.8) At. n.st sight this ex.prcssion appears t)lOfOllghly unfit for practica l usc. lnclcod the values of tho clastic loads give11 by this expressio1\ depend on the uoknown ~-n'~'" ' dcflec.tions. However, it is possible to olltain nn expression of the clastic loads in t.crrns of the oxt.ernal forces actin~ on the structure. The procedure is as fo llows. Let us designate by tho term actual .~tate the st:ale of tlw struct\ll'e c.hnractel'izcd n -1 by the nct11al Ol' existing loading and let us apply at points (n - 1), n <llld (rt 1) two couples both equal to unity but of opposite sign . Let \JS a~-su mc also t hat each of tl1e o couples is consLi L nled f /JJ by two vertical forces amounting t.o

L (L

for the first one and to .,.-- fur t e An ., t second. '!'he corre!>poncling state of the structure (Fig. 3:1.8a) will b~ designated by tho term imaginary state. Taking up oxpre.ssi on (24.8) we no te th ul its right.-hand p11rt. ropresent.s the work performed b y the imaginary loads a long tlu~ lleOecLions caused by the act.ual o nes. Indeed, the product of the vertical load-)..... acting at poirlL (n - 1) 11.,1 by th e deJ1cction l/r1-1 (Fig. 39.8a and b) represents tire work accom p lished by this load a long t he dofledion of this point (.'.ausod by tho actual loading. The negative v alue of this term is due to the
Fig. :19.9
" "'n

fac.t that the forte ~-;; is direcl"'d upwards whilst the deflection of point (n - 1) is ditectcd downwal'ds. Similarly, the produ<:t I 1 ) y,. ( T,;" + A7HI ropresenls tho work produced by the forces 1 and

rn

"'n+l

of the iruaginary state acting at point n along the uoflection

71.8. Tke E lastic Loadg Method

361

y,. due to t,he acLnal loads. The third term of expression (24.8) 1s
again equal to the work performed by the force ~ along the deflec"<HI tion Yn +t the minus sign slwwing that the directions of the fore~ and of this deflection are directly opposed. Let us now express the work accomplished by the forces which form the imagina1y couples along the actual displacements in terms of the slrasses M, N and Q induced hy these unit couples a nd of lhe stre~ses M 1}, Np and Qp due to the applied loads. Using expression (12.8) Wtl may write
-~ 1/n- 1
i

1 1 ' 1 + ( > .,. + An-t-t) Yn- 'n+l Yn+1 =

=.Z ~MET+~ .) JV EF +'1~.) Q~

0 0
~-N 1) dx
0
I

~ - !tf11 dx

~ "T N 1, dx

, ~ - Q P dx
0

and consequently

W,.= .Z .) M -EJ +~.) N

0

~:-M 1,dx

~-Qpdx
0

EF +112: ,)

QGF

(25.8)

'J.'his latter expression constitutes the general equation gtvmg lite clastic loads in terms of the internal streSS()S. When used for the computation of deflections of beams and rigid frames, t.his expression is considerably simplified as only the term containing the bending moments must be relained. In the c.as.o of flat arc.hcs, the normal stresses must be also accounted for, while the sheal'ing forces are taken into consideration only in a few particulal' caseR. The deflections of trusses and other hinge-connected structures ar& compuled using only the term containing direct stresses. The values of t he elastic loads correspot1ding to different points of the structure are obtained through the application o.f imaginary unit couples successively to two neighbouring elements of thestruclure. Onc.e the values of these elast.ic loads are known, th0 deflecUons are readi ly calculated using the rollowing proced urc. The loads just mentioned are applied to an i mnginary beam of appropriate length and rigidity and the bending moment curv(} is drawn in the usual way. The ordinates to this curve will ho numerically equal Lo Lhc deflections required. Tl1o choice of tho 1H!am mentioned above is governed by the following considerations: 1. To each point of the real structure which remains fixed theremust correspond a point in tho beam where the bending moment induced by the elastic loads is nil. On tbe other hand, to any deflected point of Lhe structure there must correspond a cross secLion. of the beam where the bending moment differs from zero.

362

Strain Enagy Theory <Wet Methods of Oi~placemw& Compr< ttUion

2. 'Wherever the slope of the deflected a:x is of the real strudure varies or, in othor word~. wherever two adjacent cro~s sections of t ho beam rotate one with rofer(lnGe to the o t he-r, the C.Qrresponding cto~<~ sodions of Lho imaginary Learn must he act~d upon by shearing forc.e.<; induc-ed by t:h Q clastic. loads. Thus, in the case of a beam built in nt one of its cnile. (Ya. = 0 nnrl tpo: = 0) and free at the other end (y b =F 0, <Pb 0) we must have in the i magiua ry hearn

Jlf~= 0 and Q~ = 0

At the. other ond of the imaginary beam t ho valul's of the bending moment M~ anrl of the shearing force Q(; must he on the conITary differon L from zmo. Table 5.8 contains the schematic drawing:> of conjugate i maginnty beams eorresponding to the struc~ures represcn l;ed in the lefthand c-ol umn.
Table IJ.B
L'io.
Rc~;~J

structure

Jm. --2
- -- --- -- - - --1-

.. - -4

--- -- -

- - -- ..- -. .. --5

J));; ;;;;;,

7?lm

.. .

72}; J.;

The followi.ng sequence should be adopted for the construction Of tho disp lacement gtaphs usiug tlu~ nwthod under consideration: j . B egin with the. detorminatiort of the i~fp , Np and Q 1, grnphs induc;od in the real strncture by tho actual Io~ding. 2. Choose stwh points of the strueture whoso deflections will 'be chatacteristic for tho 8tructure as a whole. 3. Apply successively to the adjacent poinl~ c; chosen as abov(\ two uni t cotlples, the direction of forces const.ituting those couple~ being parall el to those of the derJec tions required.

12.i3. Simpli{l.ed

Expre.~.tqn

qj Elastic

Load~

for BMrn.

ill33

4. Draw l.ho

(Fig. 39.8).

M,

Nand

Q graphs induced by

Lho said unit couples

5. Com.p nte the values of the elastic. loads ciLh cr hy dii'(!CL integraLion or usiug Veroshchagin's method descriht!d prtwiou:;ly. 6. Choose an imaginary l1eam in c.onformity with the r.harader of the defotmations of Lhe real stl'Ucl.urc. 7. Trac.e the cliagrams of the bending moments induced in thi~ henm by the olnstic loads. These loads will bo reckoned po!!itive when they arc of the same direction as the adjacent fotces forming two neighb01J1'ing unit couples and the bonding momt1nt graph will be a 1ways traced on the side of the ~xtendecl ftbres. Th e ordinates t.() the l1ending moment. diagram thus obtained will be equal both in amount and in direc.tion to tho deflections of the real slnicture. The elasLk load:s ac.ting on tile imaginary bc:un at its $Upports have no inll u.enr.e orr the corresponding ]lending moment graph and therefore t.hcir computation becomE"s unnecessary.
12.8. Sl.'IIPLIFIED EXPRESSION OF ELASTIC LOADS FOR :BEAMS AND lUGID FB AMES

The dctcrmi11ation o[ the deflection line for solid web structural members is carried out by subdividing the total length of such members iTt a series of s hort stretc.hes, for which iL muy he admitted that th e unit strl'sses remain constant. Let us consider L\VO adjac.ent stretches meeting at p()int n (Fig. 40.8a). The l1ending moment curves due to the applied lo11ils are as Ul>ual drawn on the side of the extended fibres.. Normal st.re,sses are c.onsidcrcd constant and positive wiLhin the boundaries of each stretc.h. In order to find the elastic load W,.. let us apply to the system two couples consisting of vertical forces ,J- and ~ (Fig. 4.0.8b). Incir...n. dentally this means that the elastic load will be also dircetod Vl\rLic.ally. The direc.tion in which each of tho two couples Lenos l.o ro tate lhc corresponding stretch must prud.uce un extension in the member on the same side as produced by the ar,tnnl Joadil1g. '.l'he forces c.onstituting t.hese unit COUJl les will lead to the appearance in each strott~h of normal fon>es equal to: (1) within the stretch between points (n ...,.- 1) and n
~n..t

Nn = - i..n sm ~n
0

where

364

Strain Energy Theory and Methods of Displacement Computation

and consequently

N,.= _

s,. cos~..
llon+J

sin~,.

=_

tnn 6,. 8,.

(2) withiu the stretch bctwee11 points n and (n-f- 1)

1 . Nnt-1 =;;-----Sin ~IH-1

where wherefrom

n H - Sn+t COS BtHI- ~

siuBn+ t

__ t!tlll$n+t

The mul~iplication of the bending moment graph due to th~ actual loading (Fig. 40.8a) by the bending moment graph due t.()

Actual state

(a)

Imaginary state

{b)

Ftg. 40.8

the unit couples (Fig. 40.8b) carried out by Vereshchagin's method provides the following expression for the elastic loads

W~[ = ~ ~ MM :~ =
0

%;,. (M11-t + 2M,.)+ 6~~:: 1 (2M"-I-Mn+l)(26.8)

12.1/. Slmpllflcd E:xprt'S$ion of Elastic Loads for llt'anu

305

The above e:cprt>ssion aceounts only for bending moments.

ln order to take care of the normal stresses Jet us compute lhc value of the integral

Nn+tSn +t

EF,.+ t

N,. t A EF,. au ~""

+ EF"'+ Nn+l , , .an t'n+t -=

A

= - en tan ~n -r e,.+t tan ~...,. 1 In this expresf'ion en and Bn+t nro the unit strai ns of elements S,. and Sn+l eauRed by the norrnttl forces N" and Nn+t Thus, t h e total vnlue of the elastic load taking i nto acc.ount both bending moments and normal st.resses will be given hy
W,. =

6~;,.

(.M,._1

+ 2M,.} + 6:;:~,

(2.Mn + Mn+t}-

~;r. tan~,. +
(2"' 8)
'

Nn+l t A + IJFn+l an I'R+t

Tl. will be obsotvod Lhat it is nwc.lt easier to compute the elasti c load using cx.pressi(HL (27.8) as it becomes possible t.o disptnse with a number of intermediate opt't'at.ions. Thus, theru will be no longer any need to apply to the ~tructuro lhe unit couples, lo traC<' the diagrams of the r..orrcsponding ~>tresses and t.o cany out the multiplication the graphs due to the actual loading and to the said unit couples.

or

The elastic load '~ornputcd as just described will havtl tho snme dirccl:ion as the adjal~ent forces of two neighbouring unit couples as long as the value of this lolld remains positive. If the 11ormnl stresses may he neglected and provided the bending moment graph due to tho actual loading does not c.hange sign within the l on~Lh Qf elemenls Sn and Sn+lr tlw clastic load W n will bo direcled towards the bonding moment curve.
Problt>m. Hcquircrl the ci<'Occtiun line of the cantilever lo<Jam of F1g. 41.8 supporting at its frt><> and a c.onccntrated lond P. Solution . Subrlivillo tho beam i11 two oqunl pnrts choosing points 0. 7 nnd 2 at the ends n[ those parts. 'l'rac.e. tlw lmndin~ tuoment graph clue I.e. tho actual
loading e~n the sido of tile extowlo'l fibros. Uswg expressiun (26.8) dotormino the magnit.ttdc of tht' clastic l!lntls at points 0 and 1. lt will servo no usofu l purpo~() to det.ermin0 tho oln~tic load at point 2, thiR load hn vlng no influencl' <ln Lilc str<'s~s in the imaginary boum. In computing the mngnilud<: of the eln8tic load Ill JWin\ II il i!l asmmcl that the built-in enl i~ rl'Jllttr<!d by a stretc.h of inftnil~ rigidity.

Wo

- li;~o (M-t +

2Mol+

61~~ 1 (2M

! M1

J-.z :
+

(M_ 1

I 2M 0't I

l ( l'l) 12/;;] 2 ~' 1 ;- T

... 2410

5PtZ

.i(iG Stratn Energy Theory and M ethod. of Dt.~placcment Computation The olastic load corresponding to point .1 will bo

WJ =

0 ~~ 1 (!llo+2M J+ f:l~~ 2 (2.tt

1

1 +M2)

12~J

( Pl+2
l (

~l) +
Pl )

+ 12L-:J :tz-+O =

4.EJ

Pl2

. Tho values c;f the dn:~tic loall~ being CHkulatcll, apply t.he.Hl two loads at po!nts 0 and 1 of tlw Imaginary beam built in at: it.s right-lwn<l extrPmity (F 1~ . 42.8) ancl c.onst.rur-t the corresprmding bending moment diagnm1. Tho ordJJH\tos o[ this dingram will be rcc.koncrl positive wiHm ~ituatcd on the side

~---J..2t -i
Flg. !lJ)J

<

Ftg. 12.8

of tho oxtoudcd fibres. The elastic Jvads are directed upwards, in oUter words, ~owal'll$ the bending moment curve dut to the act\Jal Loading, and t.lwrofore the bending moments at points 0, 1 and 2 nf the imaginary bl!um will havo the following values
2 8 The gl'llp]l of the bending moments inducotl in tbB iwaginary bc:>am by tho clastic loads is given in Fig. 42.8. It represents at the same time tho deflection grnph of tho real beam. At points 0, 1 and 2 tho deflections of tl1e rcul l1eam will coint,iilo !!Xl\ctly with the dofleclions 1'epre8ent,(Jcl 1ry the ordinates to the abovo gruph , whilst. at interml~diate poinH there will he a sJigltt difl'erencv between the two. rf lho rt>al be~tlll were subdividE'!) into n greatet numher of part~. the doficction c.urvo of this beam would have bol'n obtainrJd with greater precision.
o-
Hc - (l .J.c _ ,., _l

' t-"

wl

=..!!,~ . Mc=W l+W I ..!.._ ~ -w2 X 0=~ 4. /!J 2 0 'dEJ

13.8. SlMPUFIED EXPfiESSION OF ELASTIC LOADS FOR

IflNCE-CONNEC'J'ED Sl'll UCTUH ES

When applied to hinge-connected structures expression (25.8) hecomes

(28.8}

Iu this expression N reprcseJII.S the normal stress due to the unit couples applied to Lhe bars meeting at the joint n for which t he

18.8. Sinlplified Ezpr'SStl!n of Ela..<tfc Loads for Stmcturts

361

value or Lhc clastic load is sought, while lllp repre...<l(lnts the totnl strain of these bars caused by tho actual loading. The application of the elnstic loads method to the deflection computation for a lruss is illustrated in the following example. Let us assume that it is required to determine tht>. d(1flection line of the lowet chord of a truss represented in Fig. 43.8a. TllO truss is nctcd upon by a single vertical load P = 1 tou acting at joint; 3 and directed upwards. The cross sections of all the members. of the truss aro the same. L et us l~ompute the values of the clastic.
it'

Fig. 49.8

loads which must be applied t.o the imaginary beam at points corresponding to joints 1, 2 , 3, 4 and 5 of the lower chord. For this purpose let us apply UJ'lit couples SUI:Cef'Sively t.o each two bar~ of the lower chord meeting at a joint. If it were desired to find the deilcc.tiou line of the upper chord th~;~ un i 1: couples should be applied to the hars of this chord. Simi- larly, tho construction o a displa<.'ernent groph for points si 1 '\latcd along tho broken line 0-1' -2-3' 4-5' -6 would necessitate the determination of t he elaslic loads acting at joints 1', 2, 3', 4 and 5'. Let us proceed with the determination of elastic lond W 1 Incidentally, this load represents the angular rotation of bar 0-1 wiLh reference to bar 1-2. In order to find the magnitude of this load let us apply to bars 0-1 and 1-2 unit couples consi~ting of for~os = (Fig. q3.8b) ann compute the normal stresses indund in

.j.

the bars by these couples. It is readily seen that all the bars <.>xc.epting bars0-.1, 0-.l', 1'-2, 1-2 and t-.1' will remain idle. The reactions at the end~ of the truss will also remain uil. Stresses in the loaded bars are given in Table 6.8.

368

Strain Erlerg!l Theory and Methods o/ Displacement Compttf<>tion.

Tabl1< 6.8
Bar No.

T OL-:>.1

str~ss

Dar NO.

Tota I stress

0-1 1-2
0-1 '

--r
-T
1

1' -2
1-1'

-:r

5 + . 12 2

+n

St.resses in all tho members of the truss due to the applicalion of tilL load P arc given in Table 7.8. This table contains also all tho necessary i11furmation rogarding the length and the eross-sectional areas of the !Jars.
. T able 7.8
J:lar No.

Langtll ot bar,
to

scc.ti on, Cross

Sol m

:s rtss, ~ j ttons /
3

Bar No.

of bao,

Length
m

s~ctfon.

Cross

sq m

0-.1; 5-6

3
3

--s
3 -8

2' -8'; 3'-4'

3
5

F
F

t-;r
1

. 3

1-2; 1-5
0-1';5'-(}

2-3'; 3' 4. 2-3; 3-4

3-3' ; 1-1'; 5-6' 2-2'; 4-4'

+{
5

''if

5
9

3
4
If

F
F F

-8
- 1

1' -2; 1-5'

1' -2' ; 4'-{/

F
F

:=;

-8
...j__

0
()

//

' 4

The data contained in Uwse two

of Lhe clastic. load W1

tabJ~~>
_

pcrrnit.s thl:l computation

Wt = l:.NNp
, i\T '\'

-1

HF =
, "

1-

EP

(No1Notlot +NuN12l12
,. l

+NoJNo,Not +
+ ( -;; 1)
X.

7HJ'2 1'2 1'2TlV11'"1 l ' ll ' = EF

1 [ --;;i ( -~ 3 ) .x . . 3

x(-f) x3+~x!x5+~(-:)x5+ (-~) x

X

0X 4] = + iu~JP

13.8. Stm{lli(ud

E~preRsion

of

Elastl~

r.oads for StrutlurtR

3G!l

Siucu the systt.<m is completely synunetrical, elastic load W 5 will have tho same value

W 5 =Wj =

+ 1 U~P

Tho value o[ Lhc olnst,ic; load acling Ill joint 2 will llc obtained npplyiug t.ho wlit couples lo bars 1-2 a.ud 2-3 (Fig. 44.8a) .

fal

"' "
{I

J'

q'

(b l
F ig. 1-1.$

lu this case s l,es!ies wi ll be devl,loped in bars 1' -2'. 2' -3', .l'-2, 2-3' .7-1' and 3-.'1', a ll lh c oLilOl' hal'S romaining icll l'. T ht- va lut.<S or those s lrosses ae g iven i n Tal)](' 8.8.
Table 8.8
D<\r )(o. SLtCS4

Ha t Ko.

Stress

11ar

No.I
i

S~ren

.1'-2
.7'-2'

- TI! +T.
1

2' 9'

+4

1-1'
.~-3'

+;r
-..11
1

2-3'

-12

All Lhe compulntions relative to clastic load W 2 are carried ou t in Table 9.8 usi ng c.lata contained iu Tables 7.8 and 8.8. The final val ue o[ W 2 will be obtained by summing up all t.lw

370

Stratn Energy Theory and Methods of Displacement Computation

Table 9.$

l:lar ?\'u.

I
I

7fi7

unit conplt's

Str~ss~s N ln<luce<l. by

Stfi:SS(IS N p

i n duced l>y actual IOit<llog

N.'l\.t]),

--r-JF
125 I.IURF
!)

1 ' -2 1'-2'
2' -3'
2-.tJ'

5
EP

- 12
1 +~,

-8

3
EF

+T,
+4
3

., .. lt\EF

:;

EF
5
EF
fo

+_t_
4

+--- H:EF
125
'Jiib.F

!)

5 -12

+~ 8
-I

3-3'

EF

' a-

31!:1'

'

en tl'ias of tho last c.olumn of Tuuh) 9./:l

W2=- 24.F
Owiug to the symmet.ry of the system, tho ela~t.il:- load W., wil l have t he same value. Nogalive values of Lhcso two loads illdkatc that tho mutual rotation of bars 1-2 and 2-3 occurs in a dirf.(t.ion opposite to the one of the unjt t~ottples. l'n olhcr words, b;H .1-2 will rota l:e <:.lockwisc with respect to hal' 2-3.
T1tble 10.(1
Stresses N fll(!uctd 'by
unit
COUJII~S

Uar No.

I
~:F'

Stress,,s
>iC-lual

,"\i 1'

lnducd by

~:\'.pl

tond inll

--;;:F"

2-3'

5 RF
!)

+n
+iz
5 I

+~ 8
-;.

4-3'
2-3
.~-4

eF
3
EF

'8
H
!J

.... 'JHJ::F J)::;

12:1

+ 'Jti'"_;;F
'.!.7
-)~

.. ,,

-1

-s

-1- il:d..J.:F

3-9'

Z:F 4
/;'F

-T
2
-::~

-8
-t

.!."-' I

H2EF

8
3EF

1.?.8. Simplified Ezprr.ssion of Elastic Loads for St~~telure.s

371

Tt remains l.o find tho value of the Jast elastic Joorl W 3 To t;h~ end let us appl y unit c.otples to bars 2-iJ and 8-4 (Fig. 44.8b) repeaLing all the computations in the .same order as heretofore. These c.ompntations appear in the appropriate columns of Tabln 10.8. Adding up all the entries of the last column of this tab le we obtain

a= 24EF

1117

Elas~ic loadg w .. and being jlOI"ilivc, these loa(h will be. directet.l upwards, that is in the same direction as thE> adjltt>ent
(a) Actu(Jl. ,, lruc (ut r.

w3

w5

~~
"

; f

7. ,

~ '

",

,, '

Fig. 1.5.8
force~ of neighbouring unit COHples. The negative elastic loads W 2 and W ,, will be directed downwards. The conjugate imaginary beam corn~sponding lo t.he truss under consideration a-ppears in Fig. 45.8b. lt represen ts a hori wntal end-supported beam carrying 5 symmetrical l oad~;. The ab11trnettt reac.Lious produced by these loads wi H be directed downwal'dS and will amount to

Ar = B

1 xE F Uu -~-1 2~: -2~ + 1~) =

1

r,;:F

The deflection Jin e of the lower chord will he given by t ho values of the bending moments at the poi nt of applic.at.ion of the elastic
24"

372 Stmln

l~IIPrgy

Thl!ory alld M'r.lhod.~ of Ot.~plac:crrunt Cnmputflt l rm

loads Lo this

inu~ginary
1

heam
X

r 23 .M. = Y-t= M$ = y~=- 6/tP

23 3 = - 2F.F
" :HJ X .:~ -- - 1 6EP

,,J )1fT 23 (j' m:~.=Y 2 = ' 4 =Y~ =- I'JEF X

M'
3

+ 16E/" 9
65

= !/:J

~-

6/i.'F X '

2.3

+ HiEF 9

2lt E F X '3 =

4$F

127

T ILes(! dnla heing ohl-ainod. we may ttnct the diagJam of the l>tJnding moment product>d by th ~ clastic loads. The o l'uinul cs to llti!$ di a~l'nm plotted on the sid~:~ of extended Jibrl\S will c.orrospond cxaclly both i n arnouut and dircctiorl t o those of lht lower chol'cf deflectiou line of the truss. T he load lwing dirocLcd 11pwartls, all the joints of tlc lowtr dtol'd wi ll deflect in t.he samt direaiou. All the nbovcJ tompu l at i on~ may be c hetckcd by dHf.l'J'tniuing wi1.h t.ht.> aid of :\Johr':; for:mula the rlell(ICI.ion of joint 3 inducod hy the nppliC~ItiOJI of Llrt vertical load P = 1 t.ou. The value oi t h is dentl~lion will hr gin~n by

.1,,J) .....,.

NN,,
[11

=!IF

N~l

l~i ng numoricnlJy equal in [.his pnrtic ular rnso to N,.. for the load P itllcH equals 1 t.on. All the datu uocossary Jor tht'so computat ions will he found in Tnble 7.8 given nbove

~l't = l>rw"= rs'r [ ({ X 3 X It,+ ( X !) ;<() -'r- (f ) ;<, 2 x 3 x 4 + ( ~) x:~ x 2 + 1 2 x 4]= E~ .;(
2

ir
'<

108 '-7fll1 +-:l:{:t 1 '.86+2.'ili

li4

tz; ...,, T,j'['p

It iS SHUll that [.110 cJcfltl!'( ion 01' po int, .'f 1:ompu ted hy lhe mot hod o[ elac;tic loads i~< cxac t.Jy th<' sa llie as that c.omputad using i\fol11's

formul a.

16.8. DEJo'OBMAT IONS 01-' STATICALLY DETEnMINATE

81'1\UCTUHES CJ\U$ED BY THR MOVBi\fF.Nl' OF SUPPOHTS

No stresses result from n displacement o[ ono or more support~ of a statically d ot orminate stfuct.nrc provided th e s upports t ravol a lo r1g tho 11i rt>ctio 11 of Lhc corrcspo11 rt i ng reactions . LeL us examine, for i nstance, the frame of Fig. ~(i.8. Assume thA t the r ight-hand supporL Sl'Ltles vertically 1111 amount ll duo to uude l'mining o1 any other. cause. Suc h a sottl e tn c nt will pJ'oduce no bending moment::; ot normal sLressl\s in Lho mem bers of t he s tructure.

14.8. !) ~formation of Staticflll!l Detr.rmin.11U! Structurr.s

373

In ode to determine tho d isplacement of p(1i ut; k along t he direc.tion i-i iuwgine that; a unit load X,= 1 ac.ts on the cr-ossbeam at point k aloug the direction of. the displacemont required (Fig. 47 .8). Let 1Z be the reaction caused by t.his unit load at the supporl whic-h

has set tied. l;'or the two sta tes teptosented in Figs. 40.8 nncl 47.8 in ouo of whic.h (the aelnal stale) the struct ure c:uticR no l<>ad at, all. we may
lmaqina,ry slote

c '\ r----:-'1-----iu
k
I I
I

....,
I I I
I I

I
I

I I

;'.
8
;'

A'

/.

R
Fig. 1fi.8

Fig. 47.8

write on Llw hasis o[

anti , i'ince X= 1

\fax.well'~

t:lwo rem o[ rociproe-nl works that.

X;~H - f l;_ \

=0

Bu-R~=O

and, consequoutly
~u=R~

mc:ulitlg LhaL the dif;p)ucemcn l: ut any point of t h e s tati ca lly del.ermiua te 8yst:cm caused by t he sett.lcmont (or any other movemcmt) ol' a support is equal l.o the product oi the amount of this settlement hy l;he l'eac.ti on R at Lhe cortegponding support induc.od l>y H IJiliL load ae.ling <llong Lhe llirec.l,ion or the displacement studied. This d i sr>lacemcn t. will he reckoned positi ve when the cJ irections or l'eact.ion R and of the displac.cment ~ arc opposed <lltd nl'giJt:ivt~ wlwn their directions coincide. The same result. could be obtaiucd from t he strain ttwrgy equation

~ X/Jt~ +XtAH-RL\ =+X1611

Tlw left part of this equalion represents the wotk accomplished hy all t he external forces (reactious included) act.iug on the statically determinate system of Fig. 48.8a in c.nso tho sott.Jenwnt of

374

Strain Energy 2'heory and Methods of /)isplacement Comp~tatit>n

support B takes place after the application of the load uuity X,. and the right part of the same equnlion represents tlle work ptoduced by these same forces in case the settlement would roaeh its final value before the application of this load (Fig. 48.8b). The two
X{'' I

1 1 I I I I I

---

-----

(a)

Fig. 48.8

parts of this equation must have exactly the same value bec.auso in both cases the total deforrualion of the system remains the same. It follows t hat the strain enegy accumulated in the first case (represented by tho left part. o( the equatiou) must be exnclly t.he same
(a) Actual state

(b) Imaginary state

0

Fig. 49.8

as tho ~tmi n energy acquired by the struct,re in the sec.ond case and represcntecl by the ri~ht-hand part of the equation. As X; = 1. t his equation leads imrnediat;oly to
~t.=R:)

which coincides with the result obtained on the basis of Lhe theorem o[ reciprocal works. Let ns take up a beam provided with an intermediate hinge as represonted in Fig. 49.8a. It is required to determine the verticnl

14.8 . DejtJrm.llion of Statically Determinate Structures

375

displac~nwnL 6. 11 of point C of this beum when the ii.xed end is rotated t,hrougl:t the angle 6.<~>. This may be done applying a unit load X;= 1 aL point C (Fig. 49.8b). On Lhe basis of Maxwell's theorem we may write

wheref1om

By+ 0.5Liuq> =- o
6.y = - 0.5lt6.q:

The negative value olltained for tho displacement indicates that point C will shift upwards in a direction opposite Lo the ooo adopted for the unit load xj. Let us consider now the more general case when several support constraints of a slatically determinate structure yield simultaneously. As an example, we shall study the fram~ appearing in

rn
D

Acl.ual state

(b)

Jmoginory stut.c
C

C
1D'' ,_ C'
I
I

:\

) Xi.=/

-<::1

I I
I
I

. Rz=.L VI

h,=y
Fig. 50.8

.,

Fig. 50.8a. 'fbe deformations o( this frame are due to a horizontal displacement and a vertic.al settlement of the right-hand support, :t the outc.omc of which the system will occupy the position indicat~d in dotted linos. ltl ordl'r to find the angular rotation of joint E let us apply at this point a unit morrHmt X 1 acting in the direc.tion of the rotation required (Fig. 50.8b). At the right-hand support this unit moment will give rise to a reac.tion whose vertical component R 1 will be equal to and the horizontal one R 2 to ~. Equating the work llCcomplishcd by the external forces in the case of the actual displacemcnL (Fig. 50.8a) and iu the imaginary one (Fig. 50.8b) we obtain

Xt~u,-R 1 a+R2b=0

376

SLr<,in Er1a::y

Tlu~ory

and ]l{ethods of

Displac~mcnt

Comp11/a/ion

and, since X; = 1 lltu =R1a-R9 b Iull'oducing in this expression the values of reactions R 1 aud R 2
a b ~~:>=T-2h
'J.' hu~. in order t:o determine the rHsplaccmonts inclncod at auy poinl: of a statica lly tlctcrminale sl,ructllre by tho movorncnt of its supports (l.hese supports being s hifted along tho dired.ion ~; ol' the existing eonstmint.s) we must: 1. Choose an imaginary st.atc of Lhe stnu:.ture for which the sup-

we find

port in question remains fixed. ::!. Apply to tho st:ructure a unit action Xi= 1 coi11c.idiug in direction with t.he displacoruent required. :L D et.crmine the roar~tion!' produced by the said unit action
a long those o the constraints which remaining stationary in tho i magi11ary stutc yield in the actual one. 4. Form 1111 equation cxprcssiug that t ho work accomplishtld by the loads and reactions of thtl imaginary state along the displacements of the real one equals zero. !:>. Ohtain the value of tho displncornent requiled solvi ng the aforesaid equalion.

15.8.

DEFORMATIONS OF A KJNEM1\TIC CHAlN CAUSED 13Y THE MUTUAL ROTATION OF TWO NElGHBOUIUNG LINKS

llel'enndcr tllC lel'rn kinematic chain shall apply to any system consisting of a number of hi ngc-conneclod rediliHOar eJcmcrr 1...<;,
forming a broken line. Let llil examine the displacement of any point C or such a sysl.em along the direction i-i when the angle formed by two neighbouring links n - 1, n and n , n 1 l~; modif1ed (Fig. 51.8). As..-;urne that this anglo has chauged an a moun L 6,(p11 nnd that the part of the system sila.t.ated to the left of joiul n remains frx~d- The angular rotation 6-<Pn will cause a displacement of poinL C which will occuPY a new position C'. It is clear tltat the angle C' nC will h~ equal lo 6-<ji" and sincn the rotation is supposed to be vf!ry small, Lhe circular arc CC' may be replaced by the normal to nC. Let .1 1 be the projection of CC' on the direction i - i and y l.he angle formed by line nC wilh Cd normal to i-i Wig. 51.fl). Tho similarity of trinnglcs CC' Ct and CnC' yields

C'C 1 =

~~

= C'C cosy =nC6.cp,. cosy

15.8. J)ejtumalions of a.

/{inemr~lic

Chain Causerl /Jy llotalion

;~77

As
nC cosy=Cd= r
we obtain finally
~i = OIPnf Thus, tim displacerneut. L\ 1 of a ny point of the syst.om pmilurc(l IJy a c hange of angle ~p,. by a u amouu t; .1\<pn is equal t.o t.ho produc.l. ol'

Fig. 51.8

01p" by the length r, wh ic.h repl'esents l.he projection of the nC segment; on H normal to t he displac.ement requii'NL Should we represent the angular rotation Ll<p,. hy a vector applied at, poinl. n and rlirec.ted parallel to the displacement Ll 1 requirod (f.<'ig. 51.8), t.his rlisplaecment 1 will be nnmerieally equal to t;he rno;~ ment (If _ lhis vec.tor a~>Out tl~e po.i~ 1t C 1 - - - _' ;;;" whose displacement 1 s stud1ed . I hus, 1 T : the disp lacement. 6 1 of some point of 1 J, ' the kinematic c hain al ong a direction -1 LJ.<p. 0 i-i caugcd by a c hange of the angle <Pn / formed b y two neighbouring links and a arnounting to L \ q>,. may be found as ' ~ follows: ,' LHP. ! 1. Hepresent the angular rotation orpn ' ' "' lJ y II V t'C tOr. I_ 1 --~~'----..,-2.. Apply this vector at poin t n of the Ryst em along the direction of the Fig. 52.8 dir--placement required. 3. Cornpute the moment of lhi~ vector abou t tho point whose displacement H is desired to obtain. The displacement D.t of any point of a kinernaLic chain resu lting from the alteration of several angles will be gi ven by the expression

~~ = .1<pirr

+~<p2r2 + ... + ~<PmTm = ~ .1q>r

I

(29.8)

378

Strain Energy Tluory and M ethods of D isploumeut Computation

Problem. Determiuo tho horizontal and vertical displacomonts of point C he longing to tfto knoe framu of Fig. 52..8 whun tho foundation CJf this fr111ne is rotntetl a!Jout point a clockwise throu~h au angle ACJ>a Snlution. Apply at point a ~ hor izontal vo1:to r 6<ra Its rnQment about point C will give imm~dlntoly the horizontnl di.s placorncnt roquircll 6;= 6q>nh The vertica l displacement of point C will be obtai ned in exactly t he same way
6~=6'fal

The total displacement of point C {the distance CC' ) will ho givon by

CC' ""' V(6~) 2 i- (L\~) 2 - Ma Vh 2 + l 2

Tho same rosult could be ob tainoo.l followi ng the procedure outlined in the provious article.

16.8. DEFLECTIONS OF THREE- DIM ENSION AL FnA.M ED

STRUCTUnES

In the most general case throe different $tresses M, N nnd Q act uc ross a section passed tluough a member ot any plane system, and therefore the general expression giving the deformations of such systems will contain three t er111s, each of which charllcterizes tho displace ment due to one of the three stresses mentioned. I n three-dimensional framed structure the cross sections or any member will lle acted upon by six stresses: two bending moments M u 111Hl M. about t he principal axes of ineLtia y and z of the seclion under considerntion , one torque moment jlft about the longituclina ~ axis x of tho bar. o11e normnl stress Nx and two shearing fo rces Q11 and Qz pa rallel to t he aforemon tioned axes y and z. Consequent ly, in this case tho general expres..'!ion of the displacements will consist of six terms, each of which will represent th e displacement due to one or the aforesaid stresses. Following exactly the same procedure as in Art. 6.8, we shall ob tain the e.xpre.~ion g iven here und er permitting the di splacement com ('Ill ta tion for three-dimensional framed structums
I

~mn = Z.) Mym --y--+1: .)M:m ~+

0
l
II

('-

M11nd~

~0

M:nd~

+Z SMtmM~~:z +1:S Nxm N~"p.dx + kSQII,. X

0 0 0 I

X ---aPl'lv + l:.)
0

Qll" d~

('

Q -

zm~ 'Yh

Qm ~

(30.8)

16 .8.

Defl~tions

of Three-Dimensional Framed Structures

379

Tn this expression M,,, and ]fizm represent the hending moment.s due to 1.1 nnit action (c.ou.:entrated load, when linear: displaceruent.s are studied. and unit mornont.s in the case of nngular rotations) whose direction coincides with that o[ the di~placement . Tn the same way M 1,.. represents the torque produced by lhe same unit action, and N"""' 0 11 m and Qzm are Uw normal stress and the s hears pro-du(~Cd thereby. At the same time M 11 n. ll4 zn Jl.f 1,,1Vf"'"' O"n and Ozn will indicate the strCS.<leS induced by the actual loHding. CoeHic.ienls 11 11 and fl z will be determined in rela tion with the shape of the e1oss section (see Art. 2.8) . The magnitude of J t appeMing in the expression of the torque rigidity may he approximat-ely taken equal to: for a squaro cros.o.; section

lt =0. 143a~
for an elongated rectangular c-ross section (at
J, =a (a-0.63b)
b3

a> b)

ror erOS$ sections consisting of several rect.lurg les of small width (such as the (ll'OSs sections of T-beams, H-lwarns. etc.) ~
Jr = }~ d3 l
(l being the length and a lhe width of the rectnngle) for a c.ircular cross section ft = f p =
nd4 32

= 2

nr4

and for an annular cross section

Jr = ~ (D4 - d4)= ~ (R4 - r '' )

(where D and R indicate the external and d and r lhc inlernal diamet.t~rs and radii of the ring) . \hen the cross sections of all the bars remain cons1ant., the rigiditi~:>s E.Tu, EJ z GJ t. EF and GP as well as the ~oefilcient.s '1] 11 and Tlz appearing in cxpn)RSion (30.8) ma y be plal~ed in front of the in tc.gra1 signs. Tlte computation of displacemeHts is c.arried out wit-h the aid ()f: expression (30.8) in exactly the same way ns in the case of plane st.ruc.tures described in Art. G.8. When co mputing the displai'HmMls of three-dimensional structures wi th rigid joints only the first three terms of t;he expre.ssion (a0.8) will be retained , while the inOucncc (If the normal and ~hea.rin~ stresses may be neglected. On the contrary, if it were desired to determine the defle~;lions of a th re(\-

380 Strnl" 8nergy 1'hoory ond Method6 of Dtsplaunwnt Computatio11

dilllt'nsional hi11ge-co nnccted struc.t urc o11e should take into consideration solely Lhe normal stresses .

.,l. Prohlem

1. Be<IUil'ecl llw v(lrtica l ddlcJcti un of t.be fJ"oe end C o[ o hol'izontnl ..k~~le f rumtl npJtearing 111 Fi g. 53.8a. The frarno is loalled with one Vlrticn l fotcL' P , i ts c:rn.!'.~ section is cic; ull r in shape 1111d romnin s c.on:'!lant th rough nul. Tlw va lu c.> of G shall ho Lakc.>n equal to O.li e. Solullon. Fig. 53.8b reprcsuots the diagram fur tl1o bending momln t s .M~ nc.ting m 11 vertical r> l ~tnl' normally to t he u:os of tho framl' member,., Llu~!!<

lr
(b)

~
{(')

Pl,

((/}

((J

F ig. l;.'l.R

nwmunts lcing inclucecl b y tlw nc.nallolld!<, and t'ig ..~:Uk rop1 e;;ents tho torque rurvc "Mt. No horiwutal hencl ing moments will .bu in <luc!J by Lbc YN iienl loacl P aetng at point C. ApJ)Iy a vot.irnlun it load as indic.a ted in Fi((. 53 . ~d und trace th" grnph~ of the! bonding murn(> llt M~ 1\IICI elf Lhc torqu& ;W1 ludut:ed hy this unit loo.tl 1111 !\hown in Fig. 5:l.8e and f. 'l'lw dclfl<>c.tion /::,. of point C will he ohtaincd 11pplyiug \'t!roshdwgirc 's rnct.hcul to ()'\ jlt'C~Siem (::10.8)
>

lit

11

u=

X 3 t, EJ

P l2

lz

X liJ

"lr Lz

-1- ~
tc 1 111

Pl2ltl2

Each Loml of righ l-huncl part of Lllis oxpr(IR<iun nrrosonls one o( the cuul pet-

nt'nt~ of

th o t otal VNLicul tlisplacc;m!!nls of pvint C. Thus, the lirsl

Figs. 5a.R nuJ 5-1.8 M 1 is d!!signat.cd by 111,,-T r

J,;:}

is

+ In

t.ht' v crt.ic~l dcflt)(~lilln tf Jlo inL B (:;t)~ Fig. iiiUln) rau~11d li y tht~ hmHliug t > f nll:mher A II. Thig deflection (lll t.a ils an idcntkal dt~Ocdi<UI of poiu t. C. The l"eeouclltmn

~::~~

is tho vorLic.al deflection of point C which rosu lt.s frorn Lh o ht!uding of the

clement .DC. Tlw torque kf 1 = Pl 2 eausod in

1~\orwml AIJ hy tho lmH1 P wt.atos . . . j\tf tl 1 Pl2t1 <".ross Sl~~:.tron 13 ahont the honzoutal ax1s through au auglc If ~ r .J =-;;--J .
,I

II

.fl

This rotation wi 11 caust~ po int C

1.0

t rav1l verticall y ovl'r n stn:t.~.h 1fl2 = GPJl,q

,T

lnt.roduc.iug in t.lul al)()v( OXJ>I'l'~sion f,u ~ t.hl) va l tw~ ol' J, 1 1 nnd G e(]uill 4 to :td~ 'J 0 ..', E , respct'\.IVtJ . I y, wo o IJt.run . !'JIHI IIy l:\.'t . .nd un1

32

:rr.d4E

(il,fJ

(.!l l~ . ltli) 3 + :3 1- 0 .8

l'robll'ID 2. 1\(Hinired t.lte JJorizontal di:-~placemNtL .:\ <d<mg <~ xis LIC ..r C J'< Jss sect,ion 1\. of n polygonal beam appearing in Fig. 54.~~~ as woll as t.lu~ ungular mlnlion o t.h o ~amo c.~os.~ ~ct.i11n in t.tw plano B CD. 'I'Jw ht> iun is buill in at. point A and is of dr<!ulur 1: ros.s Sl!cl.ion whkh rom a ins cmt:;l.ant. fcr a ll ol iL~ d tnrents . S olntton. Tho graphl.< n( t.h~ hending moments M (acting iu 11 vcrlir..:JI planc)J arul of Mf (acting in a hol'izont11l plam>) as wttll as the gl'llJlh of tho l<l'((lll' M 1 incl uc.ed by Lite adual Loads art!. showu in f'ig. 54.8b, c aud cl. Tlwsll gtaphs lll'l) drawn <Ill the side of t.he extended 1\brE''> of each memher of llw lu:m11 . T h1) sign of the l<lrquo is indirat.Nl in tl>o gnph, thi s t orqtuJ l111ing rt>c.kouPo po~iliv" when ~cc1 1 frc !lll that. Jla rl ol' tho strut:t.urn which h us been I'UL oft', it tcnd;j to I'<Jlit L1~ lhlt nmwiJJing part clockwise. Ju orclor to (let.ermine tht~ hod:wntnl 11i~placement .1. a uuit. load purall<d to elcnll'rtl. JJC JliU!;t he applied at poiut K. ( Fig. 54 .Re) . 'l'ho corresponding gmphs

1 of !.he bending moments 'Mi,. and of t.he torque.> M1 art~ rcpr(l&>ntet.l in Fig. 5<i.f!.f. {'~ing UJIC() again (~.'((Jfl:..~iOJ\ ca0.8) nnd currying out. the graph mull. ipli<:ntion by the methcJcl pl'!>po;;ed by Vems.hc.hngiu, WI~ oht;t in

Mt
1

a~.~

J < 'I (2

2 x ~t...,... 3 xz E:f---yr-+;r-x 3 x4 X f:'J 1-

. 1

, i. X 1 X 4

2X2

1X2 X 4 EJ .,.

The.> two li rst. t.e1 m.s of this exp.ression ac.count for tho ht\ntling nulrnPn !.~ nl'ting in the vertic.al planes, tl111 t:hhd for t.lwse! rct.ing in lloriwntal plaru~~ an d the )a!;t < tie takes cnre of t he torque, A II the rmdnct$ nro posi livo b(\(:IJI.ISE' tile graphs or thl" bending moments wllich am being multiplit!d one hy the otlu.n rcmnin all the t ime on onE' and the same side uf t.lu~ ('Ort'r)~Jlllnding 111emhers, and tlw torquc.o< nro 11lso of tho samll sign. Replac.ing iu tho ut.ov1~ P.XJII'ossion
Jp hy
'2f ( whtlto

Jd=

~~.)

we oht.ain finally

1 ( .-. E.T

s +a+"+a+'

16

)
=

15 EJ

The angular rct.at i1m q> <lf t.he eros." s ec.tion K will htl dt~l.ennino1l npplying at this point a unit bencli ng moment ac.ting ill the plane BCD (Fig. 51\ .8p). 'J'hl~ conesponding graphs of the bonding momont.s M~ and Iii:{ and of tho t.orquo

Mt

~~ro shCiwn in Fig. f>'I.Sk . It will he notPd that t.lw lmnding mom<.'ltts ft<)ting

i 11 the hori1.ont.nl plane will remain constantly nil.

382 S traln 8nergy Theor y and ,U etfwdl of D l;tplaceTMnt Computaliou

Expression (30.8) give.s 2+4 1 4X1X1 4X2 X i 1 " t. 11 q>= - r x 1 X 1 X I!J I::J P = ll'J t3+ 1+ *"'TJ Tho magnitude of th~ lm.1ds and tbe leng~h o( thll 'hcnm members luJing oxprl's~d in L < ms un<l in mHros, rc~p~c- tively, tlio value of Young's 111odulus E mu.~L

+-u-+

4tm

(d}

(II)

F ig. ii1.8

he oxprcsso.J in tons per sq uare metre and that of J in Ulol res in th e fourth power. The value of the horizontal dillplacemont ll will be then obtained in metres and that of the angular rotation cp in radians. Both tbese ''alues being positive, the directions of t1 anti 'I' will coincide with tho.oo cho~on for tho unit lund (~eo Fig. 54.8e) 11nd for tho unit moment soo }'ig. (54.8g).

9.

ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLER

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE

STRUCTURES BY THE METHOD

OF FORCES

1.9. GENEHAL
\:Vhilc taking his cou1:se in the strength of ma1,eria1!>, the reader has already met with structucs whida caunot be analyzed usi11g solely equilibrium equations. The c.omputation of s tresses set up in these structu res requi res tlw u:o;e of addit ional t-quntions, namely deformat.ion equations. Snch structures are c.alled statically indeterminate or redundant. The main difference between the redundant structures and tht statically determinate ones resides in tho fa ct that. the st.res~; distribution depends for tlu~ frrsl unes not only on t he loading but also on the relative dimensions of 1.hcit members. 1f these members are made of different materials the stress distribution will equally depend o.n the t'lasl.ic properties of. these materials. Statically indeterminate structures are also very sensible to such fa ctors as the settlement of Lheir supports, temperature variation, manufacturing and erection defects, etc.. , whic.h give .ri.c;e to additional stresses, while the same factors woulrl h ave no influcnc.c. whatsoever on stntically determinate st.tncl;ures. At present redundant stru ctures arc widely used in numerou~ branches of engineering activities. Their amllysis must always start with a c.loso examination of arra ngement: he primary goal of this examination being the of: their members, L detorminalion of the degree of redu.n.dancy .

the unknowns. \Ve prefer to translate lit.erally its namedrou.1 ll ussian and to call it method of forces. InMGd, in that way WI) are ~ure to avoid confuses with the slope and deft~ction method (see Chnptt>r 13) and moreover both metlH>ds will he consistently named in conformity with t.lll" nature of the unknowns.
" The method <'f :liHllysis dcscrih~d in the pre.sent Chapter is rcforroJd to hyvarious authors cilh()r as the method oi dellect.ions or tht> method of lellst wo1k. depending on the procedure adopted for the detcJmino.t.ion of tJ1e c.oeincients to

:i84
.straint.~

Annl11ls of the Stmpl1:r Statically lnd.etermtna/1: Slructure$

This degree of redundancy is eqlull to the nu.mber of tedundant CIJ/1 * whose elimination WOltld transform the given system into a statically determinate one without impe,cling its geometrica.l sta-bility. In Lho previous articles it hns beon alroady es. plaint~d that gecJmetrically stable systems are su.ch .~ystems whose shape cannot be altered without (t deformation of their element11. Thei'O suc uo red undan t coustmints in a stal.icallv determinnto system and the uliminat.ion of. u single c.onstraint. will. always lruusfcll'm Lhest.~ syst.ems in mechanisms whost~ elenumts are endowed
wi Lh a cortain froedom of movemc111..

Tlw bl~iun appearing in Fig. L!)a c.ons litute:> u structure, whoS(} .dugrul' of rednndanc.y is equal to Olll'. for one of the- suppul'l.ing

~ ~
~

l?
((I)

:l ::l

((t_l

(,)

7l

HA
(0)

(b)

Ptg. 1.9

Fig . 2.9

bats cons lilul~s a redundant coJuwction with t he ground . This beam will bccomt! sLaticnlly determinate as soon as one of these bar.s i$ t!liminatcd (as iu Fig. 1.9b) or t lll'ough t.hc inl.rodu(~ t.ion of an inlerhinge (a::; in Fig. 1 .9c). The frame np))e::~~iog in Fig. 2.9a. consl:itnt.es a stl'ltcttuc redundan l t.o the tl1i rd degree, its tran~forma.tion into a s tatically detel'lninnto system requiriug that at least one of its mernhors should be c.ut. in two Wig. 2.9b). We have seen previously thnt this opel'alion is t~quivalmll to the e lirniualion of three internal c.onstraints
m ocliat~

CCII'l'!!Sponding to three inl;ernal force.s acting across the section , namely, t.he llonding moment, the shear and the uo rma l stress. .rho e<JHilihrium oqua1;ions alone do not permit the detr.-nni11al.ion of these intoma I forees. Any oLher closed frame with rigid joints l ying in one plane will also fonu a sysl.em wiUl a degrec.> of redundancy equal to three.
nenmndr.r the leJ'Jll constraint. will signify everything c.apable of preventing the m1rtual displaCI!ll!tJnt of different points or cJoss Sl)ct.ion::; nf n s truc.ture.

'l'hl adjective redundant slltl11ld ntver hll regard~:>d as synonynJ(l\lil t-o super:fluous Ol' UN~le.v$ .

1.9.

General

385

Th e l wo framed ])Crtts appearing in Fig. 3.9 arc Lypical ex.nrnpLes of similar structurcs. In the frame il\ Fig. :t9b wl10se uprights are l'igidly Jhed in Lhc ground, Lhe laLLcr. may he regarded as constituting an additional member of infmite l'igidity. The slmctllre appearing in l?ig. 4.9a. is provided with a hinge at midspan of the top girder. If we pass a section through this hiugc, this section would IJe ad.ed 11pon hy two stresses N and Q only (Fig. 4.9b). Consequmrlly, the uppet fame has two degrees or redundancy while the whole structure is redundant Lo Lhe fifth degree,

....,l.: .."V''
r,.'.'tJ..f P tf

.::uJ.S'-'ii

IJ:mtour

(a )

(b)

Fig. 3.9

Fig. 4. 9

fo1 t ht>. lower framt) is comp leteL y closed and ther('lfore il:s degree ot reduudaucy equaLs three. Tho elimination of all the redundant eonstraint.s c.ould reduce this system to two columns built in at their lower ~nd::: and JHovided at their upper Jlats with two horizontaL hradwls as indicated in Fig. 4.9b. The lolal uumber of redundant constraints could also be obtained in the followiug W;ly. The top frame bei11g p rovidod with a hinge is redundant jn the secouit degree; in addition n built-in end is alway!> equivalent to t.hree cons~raints and therefore two fixed supports of t he fnune represent a total of six constraints . .'\.!:' the equilibrium equations will permit the <lctcrmi11aLion of three reac.tions only, the other three conslraints are redundan t . ThNc[ore the whole syslem will h ave a degree of redundaucy equal l.o live. II; should be noted that there are usual.ly several ways o[ eHminal.illg the reclandant constraints iu order to conve1t the given Stl'ucture into a s l;at.ically determinate one, but the number oE eliminated 1 ;onstraints will always remain Lhc same. Thu~;, the simple statieally cletermina.t.e strnclurt\s appearing in Fig. i.Hb ani! c have been. derived from one aud the same redundant sLructure of Fig. 1.9a, the firsL one hy the elimination of the iulerrnediate support. and t.he second one by the introduc-tion of a hinge. The laltor
2~ -853

386

Analysts of the Sttnp/.a Statically /ndetcrminal<! Structures

eliminat~s t he constraint preventing mutual rotation of two ~:.ross sections, one situaLed to its right and ono l.o its loft. 1'he introduction of a. hinge into one of tlw mem.ber11 of a. redundant structure or the replacement of a rigid joint formed by the meeting of two bars by a hinge is always equilJalent to the elimination of one constraint and will therefore lower by one degree the rcdttndancy of the whole stractttre. Herennder hinges of this type shall be referred to us ordinary hinges. In eliminati ng the l'edundant constn1int:s of some struct:urn caro should be taken not to d isturb it~ stability. From this point of view t.he elimination of one of the vet'l.kal supporling bars ol' t.he framed beut shown in Fig. 5.9b would be unnt~t~eptahle, for the

(a)

(6}
Fig. 5.9

(c)

three remaining bars would concur at ])Oint A and . consequently, the:;o bars would be uncapable of preventing the rotation of the whole system about this point. T he correc.t way of eliminating the redundant constraint of this st.ructare is shown in Fig. 5.9c. The degree of redundancy of complic.ated structures may be determined remernbering that each hinge int,oduccd instead of a rigid joint formed by the meeting of K bars reduces the degree of: redundancy of the system by (K- 1), for such a hinge replace.'$ (K- 1) ordinary hinges (Fig. 6.9a). IIence t he de~rcc of redundancy of. a st.r11cture ca n be obtained multiplying by t.hree the number of clos~d contours forming this ~t.rnr,.t,llt'e (rogardle~s of any hing~. whether within the stmcture itself ot at the supports) and then reducing the number so obtained by the number of all thl:l o1dinary hingr.s existing in the system. Hinges common to J( lHHS meeting at one point should be regardNl as t>quivalcnt to (K - 1) ordinary hinges. }[athematically thir; rule may be expressed by the followiag formula

n=3m-fl

(1.9)

In this expa essio11 n is the degree of redundancy, m is the numhor of do!led t~ontours which form the stt'ucturc, and H is tho numbo1

1 .9. GeneTill

387

of ordinary hinges. It will be remembered that we have agreed to use the term ordinary hinge for a bingo placed at the meeting of two hars, the term double h inge meaning a hinge introduc,ed at the meeUng of three bars and so forth. The structure appearing in Fig. 6.9b consists of eight c.losed contours (marked with Roman figures) and against each joint wo hav6 entererl the equivalent number of ordinary hinges. The horizontal and

Comman hinge

Ordinary hinge

Ordinary hinge (a)

Fig. 6.9

(b)

vertical bars meetiug at the outer joints of the system are regarded as a single knee shaped member, these bars being rigidly connected together. Consequently, m. = 8; H = 3 + 3 + 3 4 1 2 1 1 1 1 = 20 aud n = 3 X 8-20 = q, meaning t11at the strnc.Lure is slat.ir.ally indetenninale in the fourth degree. As already montionl'd , the elimination of any 011e of the constraints of a statically determinat.o system transforms immediately this system into a mechanism. showing thereby that the number of constraints in such systems c.onstitu tcs the absolute minimum. reqniro<l l;f> ensure their stability. Any additional constraint in excess of this minimum transforms the system into a redundant one. It is c.Jear that. in suc.h 11 syslom t here is at least one constraint that can be eliminated without prejudice to its stability. However, there may exist such constraints which cannot bo excluded without interfering with the stability of t ho strucLure. Hereundl'r wo shall designate .snd1 r-onstrnints hy the te1m necessary constraint.~. IL is interest.ing l.o note that the stre..ssos correspon ding to the necessary constraints cnn be always determined with the aid of statics alone. An example of a necessary constraint. is afforded by the vertical supporting bars of the framed bent represented in Fig. 5 .9a 25

+ + + + +

+ + +

3M

Analysis of Lht' Simpler Staticnllg l ruf,.ttrmlnau StruclurM

Neither of these two bars can be removed without rendering the syste m un s~abl e. The coust:raint~ which can be elimi nated without projudicing Lho sLability o( tho sys~om form lhe ordinary redundant constraints. T ho stres..e.'! corresponding t.o t.hcso conf'traints c.annot be derived from the equations of equilibrium alone. The lwrizont.al supporting bnrl! of t ho portal frame just mentioned (see Fig. 5.9a) constitute a n example of the latte r type of constrAints. We know thal for tnch system of copl~tnar forces iu cquilibrinm st.')tic.s provi(les t hree independent equations. Henc.c. if some sysl.cm is c.onuecLo!l to t he groul'td by means of Lhree supporting baT'S, the s tresses i n these bars may be <o mpnLtld using cqnilibrium equations alone irrespectively of the degee of rcduntlancy o[ tho whole ~ystem. A similar ~;tr.uc. t.nro may be there[Mc n1gurded as internally redun-

constitute a hnh1nc.ed syst11rn of fnrccs all. of which cnn be complct.ely determined with the F ig. 7 - 9 aid of sta tics alone. For such systems all t.he llxtemal (support) conslrailts belong to t he category of ne.cessary ones. If, on tho contraty, a structnrc is endowed with more than three exterual constmiuts such a strncture c.an n::suall y be considered both as c~ternally or inte m ally rorlw1dant. Indeeil, one ca n ch oo~e at will those o f the constraints wllich wi II ho regarded as tho red u ndauL ones. Thus, the fi:a me 11 f Fig. 5.9a may be r egarded ns extemally redundant if one rl ec.ides to elim inate o no of the ho1izontal supports i11 order to trausform it into the statically del;erminate system showu in Fig. 5.9c.. On the ot her hand, i{ one decides to consider as redundant t.hll couslrainL which prevents the rot~ttion of one part of the ccossbar about I he other, in other words. if one d('<.'idcs Lo t ransform Lhe frame inlo a stalic.ally determinate structure by the introduc.Lion o a h.iogc as shown in Fig. 7.9. t.his same fram(' l'hould he t~ousidcrcd as art internnlly redu ndan t. oue. 'Jho frame of F.il!- 8.9a whose degree of Todundancy equals six may he co nsidered: (a) as being Lhrcc Limes internally and three l:irncs externally redunda ul , H ils c.onvcrsion into a simple statically determinate "lnwture appearing in F ig. 8.9b is corricTI out by the removal of lhret> t>.xterual constrainLs (for which purpose one huilL-in end is set free) and of th ree internal constraints; (b) liS being four times internally and twire externally redundant, if it is dec.ided to t1an~fol'lll the given system into a statically determinate one as indicated in Fig. 8.9c;

n
_ -

dant. Externally this structure is statically determinate for the abutment reaction!' and the external loads

2.9. C11nonical Equntfon$ Deduced by tht Metltod of Fortu

389

(c.) Jinally th~ Si!lllO frarnc mny he regarded e~s b~ing six times intcmally rcdundnnt. if it:s co nv~rsion into t.wo scpnmt.o slatically deterrninnt.e part-" is carried out a~ shown i n Fig. 8.9d. The same fr-.tme cannot be rt>.gardt>d 11s statically i ndeteminatl~ on ly from the point of vit>w or Hs external constraints. lndeccl, t he systl'm is redundant in lht> sixth rlcgree while a rnaxirn11111 of

{9)

(b)

CJ

Fig, 8.9

three external c.onstrniul.s can he removed without dis rupting its stability. It ill clear therefore that this s ys te m cannot be convcrl.cd into a s t.aticnlly det.erminatc one by Lhc elimination of cxtemal constrai nts 11lone.
2.9. CANONiCAL EQlJA'fiONS DEDUCEO BY THE METHOD OF FOnCES

In the ptevious article it was shown that the stress amdysis of redu11dant structures rt!quires ~h e use of additional equations based on the strai11s and dl~nectiou s su ff er ed by these structureii. f n the method nf forc.es t.hese equations are obtained thr:ongh l he transfo rmation of the gir;en structure redundant to the nth degree into a stmple statically determi.na. lc ane.. Th e elimination or any cvnstra int.s will inLroclucc alt.erations neither in t.hc stress distribution nor in tho strains and rloflec.tion s if in t he place of constrai nts so 1emovcd we introduce rorcl'S* oqu ivtllent to tho reaction~' davt~lopccl by these C()nstraints. Couscqnent.ly, if the simple struc.turo is acted upon both by the netual loads and the additional actions wh ich replace the eli minated const,raints, the slra.ins and deflections or sm~h a system as well as the l!t.resscs iuduced tht>roin will bo t'XO.clly t he same llil in tlu~ origina l ono and tht>terore the two become equivalent.
As previou!'ly

(~co

Art. 2.81, tho term force will a1>PIY equally to monu:nts.

390

Analysts IJj the Simpler Statically Jndetermtnate Structures

Since no displacement of the given redundant st.ru<.'.tur.e along the reactions at the supports is possible, the displacement!' o[ the c;.unjugate simple statically determinate s tructure along the same dii'Cctions must also equal zero, eveu if some of those supports wtHe eliminated when converting the former to the lattet. This means that tfw reactions developed by the redundant constraints will be such as is necessary to render nil the deformations of the simple statica.Uy determinate. structure alonK the direction. of these reactions. The e<)Uat.ion t.ranslat:ing the above s~at.e m ent iulo mat.h omatic.al symbols will be as fo llows
L\1 = L\11 ~i2 + L\1,11-1 +L\tn j.fp= 0 (2.9) In thi:-; expression the ftrst of the two indices following the lctL(.'r 6. shows the direction o( the displacement (the latler coinciding with the oliminated constraint) and the sec.ond one tho action caH~ ing this displacement. Thus ~ ~ It indicates a displacement along tho direc.tion t caused by tho reaction of the constraint k . In the same way, 6. 111 will indicate the displac.entent along the direc.tion or constraint t caused by the applied loads. Let us indicate by Xk the magnitude of the reaction developed by the constraint 1c (this reaction being cit.her a moment or a direct stres<;). At the same time let us designate by 61k the displacement < ;aused hy a unit ac.tion. ln that ease we can J'eplace fl 1h by X~t6 tk and tho expression (2.9) will become

+ +

ft.; =X~o;, + X26l2 +

... +Xn-,Oi,n-t +X,6;r.+.:\;p= 0

(3.9)

Jn this way the equivalence of the original structure and of the s imple statically delenniuale one will be mathematically interpreted by a system of n linear equations

/ xA,
,

'>.

f.zS;z

Main '- " d{(Jgonal ,/"<.__

//

~,8z, +

/,

,/ ' Xz8z7.+ ... /

//

+ ... -: .. rxn81 // /
~

,/

:+1J p"o
1

//

//
/

'-y/
/

. . +Xn8,;,+1l2p=O

;;/
/

//

... /~ /
/ /

''

(4.9)

//
/

/~

. ..

,x,vnT

+ ,Xz 0 n2 + .. / .. . ,+Xn8nn +iJn,=O

"-.

Secondary diagonals

""'

-.
,.

Equations (4.9) constitute the additional expressions based on the deformations of the system which permit complete determination of all the support reactions and of all the stresses induced by

2.9. Canonical Equation.< DtduCI!d by t.hc Method of Po,.cn

39l

the given system of loads in the original redundant structu re. The lirst of these equations expresses t he idea that the displac!lment of th& simple strnclutc along the direction of the first eliminated constrai nt (that is along the direction of force or moment X 1) is oqttal to zero. the second, that the displacoment of this same s l.ructuto along the directjon of the secon d constraint which has been removed is also equal to zero. a nd so forth. The system of simultAneous linear expressions suc h a!; (4.9) form thP. so-called canonical e-quations of the method of forces, t,hi:s name indicating that these equations are of standatd form and that the unknowns a te the reactive forces developed by the t1 liminated con:;traints. The nu mber of those equations is alway~ oquut to the number of the (onstraints removed, which means that it corresponds to the rlegrcc of redunrlancy of the given structure. It is important to now that both tho number of term!\ in each of the separate oquS~tions and the total number of tllese equations dcptmd solely on the degree of rcd,undane.y of the structure and are in no respect influenced by any of its other peculiarities. Th(1 coefficients Lo the unknowns of equn tion~ (4,.9) rcpre:sen t the dt< floctions of the simple structure obtained by ulimination of thll rcdunclanl mcmbel'8, these deflections heing due to unit loads and moments ac,ting along the direction of the eliminated constntints. ;\umericall y the value.s of these coefficient,s depend on the layout of the structure and on the cross-sectional dimMsions of its mt>mbers. Should these members be made of different matrrials, LhcS<.' r,oefficicnts will also depend on the elastic prOJ>erlil'l; of the .Iutter. Thus coeffic.icnt t3 1n entering the above equations will represent thl' d&nection along tho direction i induced by a unit action (moment ()r load} ac.ting along t11e direction k. The unit displacement lirr situated in the main diagonal of tho canonical equations and characterized by two identical indices will be termed herllafter principal deflection whereas the deflections such as &1" standing in the secondary diagonals of the aroresaid equatiollS will be termed secondary deflections. On the basis of Maxwell's theorem of reciprocal <lisplaccments, the secondary deflections situated symmetrically about the main diagonal will he always equal betwoen themselves

It ~hould be remo10Lcred that the dimensionality of a unit deflection is that o{ a utio of a deflection to the action which has caused it. Consequently, a unit translation duo to a concen~ratcd load will be given in em/kg while that due to unit couple in cm /kgcm or in kg-1. In tho same way a unit angular rotation duo to a unit load will l>e given in ltg-1 and an angular rotation due to a 11nit couple in kg cm-1.

Bu.=&ht*

RH2

Analysis of th~ Simpl~r Statically lnd~lerminate StructU/'e.s

rrlirm tJH~ coefftdent~; to the unknow11s. Th.ese are usually olltained l>y computing the deflections of the sirnple stl'llcturc pr:oduced by
unit ac.tions applied along the directiorls of the elimiuat.ed constraints. lt is recommended to carry out those cmnputations using the proc.edures developed in tbe preceding- chapter. The diagrams of bending moments indnced in the conjugate simple structure by each of the unit actions (X;. = 1)_ will be traced separately, each of these graphs bearing the number of the eliminated constraints, the same applying to the actual. loadiug (the Al1 graph). Th<.1 unit dl:'-fleetions 6 1tt will be obLnincd through the nndt:iplication of the conesponding unit graph M; by the unit graph M" whereas the delloction due to the applied loads .1ip through tho multiplic.n(,ion of lhe unit graph j}t['1 by t.he graph of the aclual bending momonL Mp.* The main or principal deflections will be always positive whilst Lhe secondary on~s as well as those due to the applied loads migh~ be. both positive and negative. When all t he eoeflicients to [.he llllknowns entering the systorn of simultaneou~> equations (unit !lisplacements) as well as t he deflections clue l-o tho applied Joads arc known, onu may proc.eed with the solution of the said equations. The roo l:s of these equations will furnish tho v~ lues of the unkliOWll stresses acting ill the redundanL members. TJ1ese will permit the conslrnc-tion of the bending moment diagrams inducE:Jd by X 11 X 2 , , X;_ , etc., in all Lhc necessary member~ of the structlll'e. fL is eouvt\nient to use for this purpose the unit graph.s tmcod proviously . The operation consists in the multiplic~tion of all the ordinat-es to each of these graphs by a co1rstant factor equal to the magnHuile of the action just obtained. Tho Jlertinellt ordiuate.s t.o the diagram of tho hending moments acting in the l'edund<lllt structure will be obtai ned through the sum rna tion of the ordinates to the graphs induced by the stmsses X and by the adual ltHtding in tlw aforementioned simple s tatically deterrniuate .sttnc-

This roduces considorahly the volume vf work necessary to deter-

t.url:'.
T he same resul t will be ac-hieved if the simple structure obtaiHed by eliminat.ing all the rcdurHlant ml:'mbOI'I> wore subj~~cred simultaneously to the applied l oads and to aU tht streS8t>S acting in the oliminatcd members de termined as described above. The borrcling monwnt graph due to the combination of all these actions may be <:onstructcd using any of the well-known proccd ures .
Wt have ll()glected tlw influenco of norm(ll and shearing lf it were fleslrcd to accO\rnt for tho.~e, OM should trace the c.orJcsponding liagrarn:; aud &tllnputc tht> COfi'4!SJlOllding producLs.

forc~!ll.

* Jo'or simplicity

2.9. Carumtcal

~quation~

Drdl<ctd by thl' M ethod of Forces

393

I t is worth noting that severa l d ifferent simp l~ str uctures may be used for the computation of tlte same redunda nt ~>tru c. t ure, t hese different s tcu.ctures being obtained hy t he elimination of d il'fo rcnt mombers regardl~d as redundant. Jt is very i 111portant to choose t he one load ing to the grentest possible simplilkat.ion of the computntior th rough the rNf uction to 1 .ero of a maximu m nu n1ber of secondary dcDccLions. One should ah;o endcvour to ohtn i11 hc.nding moml'nt graphs of the simple~t possible configuration for the nwnbcrs o[ l hc simple sl ruc t ure. To make clear the ahove statement, let u s tnke as an example the port;.~ l framo 11 ppearing in Fig. 9.9a a nd let us exa mi ne t he v-arious simple structures which mny ho derived tl10re from . To begi n
Redundant

structure

structure

Simple

x-! , \..
xJ
(0)

!Xt
(/J)
Fi~:.

(cJ

!J.9

with Jet us elimiuato tho t hree cnnsLtainLs which prevent both t ho horizontal and t he vart ic.al rnove mOJI L S and t ho angul ar l'Ota lion of tho lower 1'\ Xlromi ty of t he left-h and co lumn. T he sim ple Sll'liCtu rc obtained in that case appears in Fig. 9.9b. T he ll nlwuwn.s X , . X 2 a[td X 3 will repte.stlllt the roactious dtweloped by t ho eli minated constrain ts and t he simultaneous equations will express the idtHt that th e deflectio ns a 11d rotations along t he directions of tlw eli minalcd constraints remai n n il. Lot us c.hooso another way of rendering the redu nda nt slrudul'es statically determinate, namely, by cu ttiug in t wo the top har as iJidica ted in F ig. 9.9c. T his is equivale nt to the olimina lion of tb reo constrai nt.s pt'cventing mutual displacement of t ho two faces of tho c rossbar situated to t he right and to the left o.f tho cut. Hence, each o f t he uuknownii Xh X 2 and X 3 will rbpreson t in this case a group of Lwo opposite forces or couples ac ting over the two cross sections just men tioned. As to the system of canonical equations, it will al ways re mai n of t he same fol'm regardless of the way in which t ho simple stat ica lly determinate s tructu re has been ob tained.

3!M

A1u:lyslt of tlu Simpler Slalkally Jmielermtnak

Strucl~rts

ln t.he first of the two cases considered above th~se equations would express the idea that the movcrrwuts of the lower end of the left-hand columu re main n il. In the l!ec.ond case the sa me equat.ions wollld mean thnt the two adjacent sec-tions through the crossbar remain motionless with reference to each other. However, theso equations do not exclude the possibility of tho two secLions moving or rotating together. Tn t.he case of the simple strucLure or Fig. 9.9b the coe fficient 6u r&presents tho hori-z.onlal motion or Llle lower end of the left column c.aused by the vertical u nit load X 2 = 1. As for the simple !ilnH;ture of Fig. 9.9c, the c-oefficient 8 12 reprcsent;s alteration of the vertic.al distance between two adjncent cross sections of the top hearn induced by two horizontal unil; force~ x2 = 1.

3.9. ANALYSI S OF THE SntPLEn llEDUNDANT STR UC1'URJ::S

Let lL~ exami ne the sequence of operations leading to the deter minatiou of all stresses in redundant structures taking as an example a beam builL in at one end and f.ree ly supported nt the other (lt'ig. 10.9a). The si mple statically dt:~torminate stt'll (~. turo cau be

uerived rom the above by eliminating tlle right-hand support thus obtaiuiog the beam appearing in Fig. 10.9b. A single constl'aint h as to he eliminated for this porpow (that c.orresponding to a roller r;u pport) and therefore the given structure is statically indelerminatc in the first degroe. Apply o.ow the unknown reaction X 1 to thc can tilever beam at its free end together with the uniform load of q kg per unit length as shown in Fig. 10.9b. The equation, explessing that the deflections of the simple static.ally determinnte strncture and those of the g iven redundant beam aro identical, becomes

XtBu+j,1q- 0

(5.9)

More precisely t his equation shows t hat the deflection along the direction of the eliminated reaction is nil. The determination of

.1.9.

Analysi.~

of the

Simpl~r

J/e.d1mdant

Stmct~trs

395

X 1 req11ires that t he values of t]w coorficicnt 8 11 and of the term L\ 1 ,1 should be previously calculated, tho fir1;t of the two representing the deflection of the right-hand extremity of tho cantilever beam along the reaction X 1 caused by a u nit load acting iu tho same direction (Fig. 10.9c), and the second -the denection a loug the s~me direction due to the loads applied . T he c.oofficient ISH

qj_2/~..:..U..U::.....,..,....,.,..,..,..,..,~...., lJ

Fr.g. 11.9

Fig. 12.9

will be found raising to the second power the unit bending moment graph M1 (Fig. 10.9c). As for the term j 1q it will he obtained hy mu1t.ip1ying tllC area of the same unit bending moment graph .vf 1 by the M q diagram due to the actual loading (F ig. 10.9d).

Hence

6u ""'" l2 3 EJ

L3

3/U

1 q!2 3 I jtq= -a-zl 4 . EJ

= - 8EJ

ql~

Subsli!:uting these values in equation (5.9) and solving this ()(Illation with respect to X 1 we obtain

1= -~=sq

A1r

3 l

The diagram of the resulting bending moments acting at tho cross sections of the given redundant beam will be fou nd summing up the ordinates to t.he M q (Fig. 10.9d) graph with those to the M 1 graph all t he ordinates to which have been proviously multiplied by Lho magnitude of X1 (Fig. 11.9). The diagram so obtained appear~ in Fig. 12.9. Thus the ordinate t o the resulting bending momNit curve. will equal at midspan
M = M1X1 + Mq = 16qz- - 8 and at the wall
9

qt2

=11f'

ql2

3!16

Analy.~t.,

aj the Simpler Statically fndeterminate

Structur~-~

The maximum and minimum values of the resulting bending tn(IIIH.mts can be easil y derived from the diagram of the I'esulting shears Q fol', as it is well known, the zero ordinate points of t.his ding1arn always correspond to the extremal values of t;he bending moments. This same boam (Figs. 10.9a and 13.9a) could be analyzed using for sin1ple statically determinate structure the one obtained eliminating the constraint which prevents the rotation of the buil~ in eud. '.l.'he simple end-supported beam obtained in this way appears iu J.'ig. 13.9b. The graph of the bending moments produced i 1\
reJ
( 0/

~ ~;!,' ffr 1 rfj j !II i I

r
?

(d }

~
Fig. 13.9

this now system by a uni I; eouple acting a(;ros.-:; the secti.on at tlu. wall applats in Fig. :l3.9c, while the graph of the bending momcr1ts due t o the applied .loads is giv~:>n in F ig. i::I.Hd. Haising to tho second power the fll'ea of the il11 graph we obl,ni u

<lu = il 2 3El ~ 3/U

Atultiplyiug the same graph by the area of the jl!fq one we gnt
. ql2

~~q = sls
Atq

1
2eJ

~ 2'''
ql2

ql:l

Thu iul.,vdurtion ol' these values in expression (5.H) g ives

Xt=--=--

o'll

!:!

!1.9 . Analysts of thr. S impll'r Htdtmdant

Stru~lurcs

397

Thi~ !;bows that the simple statically determinate system is acted ql2 upon hy a momonl. X, = -!$ nppliod to the left t1nd nf t:he bonrn :uHl by a uniform ly distributed load o.f q kg per metre (Fig. 1:3.9e). TJto r~l;nlling btmcling rnomcnt diagram i ndnced in the s i m pie s t.ruclurc hy Lhcso two 11<:tions will re prtse nt the beurling monwut diagram for the gi ven redundant structure (Fig. 13.91). It is t-cadily seen thaL ~his diagmm c.oincid es exactly with that of Fig. 12.9 <1htai ned previously IlS i ng a different. s im pie s tructure (sec l<, ig.10 .9b). The hove t\xample :::hows that the foll owing soquonco of operati on ~ may be c.onvoniently adoptfld for the l;l ress analysis or redundarlL s ttuctures by tho method. of forcNs: I . Choose a simple s tatically deter minate struct ure obtained Ly eliminat ing all the redundant cous traints of the givtlll one. 2. H e place the e limina ted cons trai nts by uuknowu forces acting i n the same diroction. :1 . Porm ihe canonical equations (4.9) expressing that the displac,eu1t nts of the simple s tructure aloug the directions of tho climinntecl constraints under the combined act ion of: the loads npplied :Htd or the unkuown mo ments and forces re plac.ing those coustrain ts ll ro equal to zero. 4. Apply suc.cossivt>ly to tho s imple s tructure t:he u nil~ ar,.t.ions X 1 -= 1 , X 2 = 1. X 3 = 1. . .. , Xn = 1 and trace the d iagrllm::; or the con cspo odirrg bending moments 1 W1 Trace equally the diaga ll m of the b cudiug mome nt.s Mp due to the applied loads. .) . Cnlcnlatc all t.he coe ftkients 6lf1 to t he unknown~; mu ltiplying one by the other t he unit graphs mentiOTJCd in iLem 4. ti. Calcnlal:e by t he ~arne procedu!'o t he free terms 1 1p. For i,his 1 >1 1 f'Poso t he uni t graphs must he muiLi plied by t he Mp graph d ul!. to th(, ap plied loads. 7. Solve the s ys te m o f si rn ultaneons equations with rororcnc.e to the unknowu actions X 1 x ~ X ". ~ - Compul~ lhe ordiuates to tho rMulting bending mornonl ~: uve hy s umming up lhe ordinates to the unit graphs multiplied previously by the magnitude o[ the c orrll~ponding aclion** wi th the onlina t.es to the bending moment curve due to the actua l loadi ng. Onl\ may also apply to the simple s tatically dett,rm itlllte sl:ructuro a ll the reuundnnt rcaetio ns and stresses just dotormi ned logot h-

. ... ,

All the abovt> refer!: 1:<1 s trudurcs. deformation~ of which remain prac t.ico ll y unaffected hy dir('c.l an d shearing for~/!. If it were othorwi ~. il wunld h o m-c~l'sar~ to trace ('quall y l-be d iagrams for the shPars and no nnal strussos duo both to thP unit a cli ons (Qt a nd N1) and to tho nppliNlloads (Q p ;md Np)+*lt is !itnmgly ;advised Lo traco new bc.>ntling momc.>nt diagrnm s indu ced hy the rl\!lundant ruaclions and not to alt~c~r tho scnlt of the unit graphs traced pf't)vious ly, for th o latt.er procllrlure is a source of fr4!q ucnt error'S.

398

A 11nlu-~is of the S inwl~r Stnlirally I ndettrm illate Stmctllrt.<

or \\"ilh the actual loads, traciug thereafter the comuined bending momt>nt diagram. This diagram will coinc.ide wi th that o{ the gi Hill rt>d undant structure. Lot us proceed now with the solution of a fow problems.
Problem t. Trace th e l1endiJJg momE~nt dingram or th e porta l frarne or 'Fig. 14.\la. '!'he moment 11[ inllJ'tin of the crossbl'aD\ Is twico as large us that of t.he uprights. Solutt<>n. Tho portal ftarno undtr consid<lration l.teing re(]ult(lsmt to llt ll fust llogrllc, the sim ple statically determinate stntcture mny be obl.alnod Ellimi nnth1g ~lac h~tri 7.0nt.al Clln1ittaint at tho rigltt-hnnd s upport (_Fig. 14.9b).
p

'z =ZJ,
l{edtJfldOn

;;'

llrutture

J,

;,

,I

Sttr!IJ/c

strvclu"'ll
~I
(b .l

t---L-4
fa~

.
Fig. 13.9

Fig. 14.9

Thl' hcnd ing mome.nt graphs due 1 o the applied lo~ds ancl to a unit loRd acting 11loug !he directivn of tlw oliminatecl constrninL;llltve lJeen given in Fig. 29.8b nnrl c uf Art. 9.8. The equation expressing that the hurizontal denec.liou of !he lllll'er r:nll of the sim pie structUJe is oil be<:omes

x,611 +.6.,P-o
Th<.> coefftcicut will be given by h.! 2 J I hah h2 I _, 6u =22 EJ , .,- uu, = 6HJ, (4h,;:)a.J
~~~

a"

The dcnoction due to tho Applied lo:td has been comp\hd in l'rohlem 2 of Art. fl.8
Pk2 ( h t.,,,~ -ET;

a)""' a+-r,
~ljl

t2r1, ..,.... 3<1)

p

PhZ

(lh . ,

llonc.c

x,=-o;;---7
Tho rr.suhiug honrliHg moment graph will he obtained b y mu!Liplying all
lh<.> ordinate-; to the unit graph by

anrl by adding them there11ftt>r to th<.> ordi-

nnr.os to lhC> bC>nding moment diagram due to the npplied ](,ad!'. This graph apJh:ars in Fig. 15.9.
reprC>~llnted

Pruhlcm 2. Trac.c the bending moment diagl'nrn for the redundant knee frnme. in Fig. 16.9a.

.'1.9. Analysis of tlu. Sinlplu fll't/undnnt Stru#urts

399

Lelu!! el iminate tlw constraints at th e lower support lbtaining t.fl(lrolJy the siln-

Solution. This stnJctur<' is stntically incleterminntc to th<' secontl <lcgoc.

';

\:f'~ttl!
~tr~ .. l ur!'

(il)

OJ

Fig. 16.9
pie !'Lutic.a lly dcl.cJ1llinate ~truelure of Fig. 16.9b. The c-orresponding 5y!'l-<'m

or

equation~

(4.91 becomes
X16u +X2612 +.61q -0
X 1~1 +X2022 +A2q= 0

The graphs of tht> honding moments inducl hy tm it loads acting along th P ul im innt.od consllili uts as well as .by the loads applied appear in Fig. 17.9.
17-:J.

;7~ '}1 N_,'l :

'-..:.!)

""'=~lll!.l~~-rr

I <~

Fig. 17.9
The codficit>nL

o11

w1ll 1:~ obtained ra ising to the second power tho

Ji 1 graph

1 ( a2 2 ) 4n3 6u ~ ET T ' aa+a2a = 3/!:J

The cuofliciont. ~ 12 is g ivon hy tlte produ ct o[ the ifi1 anJ 1 a a:s

,iT2 gtaphs

6Jz = c521= - EJ lla:r= -21!

na ising to LhE> second powur the jfj2 graph, we ohLain

6 ~2 = BJ

'2 .3a- 3EJ

a~

aa

40(1

A ualysts of the, S lmpler Statically [tldetr.n nLnate. Structurts

Tho fret> wrms of botl1 equations wi ll bo obtained rnult ivlying Lllc 11/.1 Mid t.he Ji12 gtaph$ hy the M q grnph 1 ( q112 a ::1 qa2 ) Sqa4 8 tq = I~J T ' a '4 +T lQ = 8EJ t qa2 a qa4
L\2q =

- v T a-:;: - (L3

MU

lut.roducing tho

va)U()S so

ob tained into tho :;y5tem or equaLions and dividi ng

bMh of the&' (l<jUIItions by EJ we obtain

I,

1 !\ x.X2 + 1S q11~( 2

1x 1 . 1 -z+3 .X2-T,1ll""' 0 Tlw solution of these two

('<Jllll~ioos

yields 3 X2--= :.!B qa

X 1 = --:;- qu;

lu ordrr to oblain the bonding moruonl diagram for the rcdundaul st ructtu
apJily simullruiC)ously to tho slrn plr stnt.ic.aily dotmminato uno bot h tho actual II):Jrls and t.he unlwown r~ar.ti on.c; just dcttmni ned. Ht)ar..tiou X 1 mu~'t. he tli1'(~r.tetl

/it:!Nlt VI{/ N grotJh i b)

_t_l-

..l

Ftg. 18.9

Ffg. 19.flj

towarcls tho left., its valur. l10ing negaliv> (Filo(. 18.!lo:). The expr.s~ifJns of the llllndin(! moments ac-\ing in car It memhur ,,r tlto ~ lrncture willtw ob ta inNlas u~u nl considering th{' lowl!r en d or the column ns its lch -han<l extr{'uuLy nnolmarking tlt i end with 11n <~Strri.<:k.
Sr.ctt.on 1-/

.1 =

\r

for ;rt =O a for z1 =;r

M1 = 0
M
1

3 qax - qxl 1

=-:;-tJny-g =
3
qa2

fl

qa'l

5
56

qn2

for x 1 =

=-:rljfJG --z= --rr-

qaZ

H.9. A naly~i> of thr Simpler Redunda/I.L Strut."tr.res

401

The maximum v;t{ue. of ,'t-tl will be found equating to ali \' tl tl the above cxpnssiou with reference to .r.1

7.Cro

t.lto first. deri,

SertiOit !I-II

If

=
.

:3 3 ., qa2 <!8 ga.z2+7 qt~--T

1/II--~ 14
I

= 28 qlla+T qa-;r= y

qa'l

qa~

Tho csulting bending moment graph for the redundant structu re is shown in Fig. 18 .9b.

l'rohlcm !!. Tr:u)t Lil li bt>nding moment diagram for the portal !nunc tl' .Fig. 19.9. Svlotiort. Tlli$ Slnrcl.un! is tPilundant to tho thir<l d()gl'l!(! . Lflt. us t~ompart> thl' tlm!l' .:'imple ~~alic.nlly dewnlliuate st-ructures slwwn iJ, Fig. 20.!J with a 'o'iew of
p

Possible stmple strliC't ures

(a)

rb.!
Fig. 20.9

(c)

t.lu or1o which will nducc to a minimum the nmount uf computation. From t.his view-point prdNellce should be ~iven to syrnmetrical S)'Stt'!m~, for in that cast> it ht,mlmos possible to trace umt bending rnom<:>nt graphs and to compute t.heiJ pmclucls only for one half o tho structure. On thoso ground~< tho simple structuro appenring in ~'ig. 20.\ltJ sh <tuld he rojt:etNl forl,hwith. B<>t.h sLrnc.turcs of Fig. 20.!lb and c are symmdric:tl lHtt it will htH!:tsier to traco all thon< )CI)Ssary bending moment gmphs for tho OJW appearing in 'ig. 20.9c . Honce our choice will fall on the latter. The c.otrespond ing hendin~ moment graphs are represented in Fig. 21 .9.
26-85.;

chot~'ii ng

402

A naty.~is of ll>e Simpln Stalictfil!l /rulttermin.atl' Structurl'.~

LN ttl\ form llw OCJUntion~ I.IXJll'CSSiug IIHH lite mutual dispii\CI.'lllelll l\ or Ute tWil filt'll' of the Cro~bearu un Jwth Sides (o( the l'lllllt'tlltil.
X,11u-rX~t21 X:t<l t'J

.:\, 1,-0

Xt <\zt '-X 2b22 l S ~6~:!

x ,o,u-Xzb~- XJ'~:

...- t.:,1, .... o

A~ 1 ,

=0

1lel~~re Pr~<:!'Ctling with the ccmputalio n .. r all ~It.< coolfmimtls a llontiou ."lwu ld he d tawn Ill lht r.,('t that ull t.loc gt'ill'h' ~lUI loc .!<Uhtl ivulod inlu l\rltllll lllricl11 (1111'1.' (if, Mul -:-4{3) aud IUtti~Ytuuu~Lrit:lll Ol'les lifr2 ancl M 1,J . Tlw urdilllllN' Lc> the ldt-lw ml nnd t<> l.htl dghHtmHI hulvr~ 111" tJw luUc:r Me eq ual in

llllll>lllll lttt(. O llj)(J.~ile in l>ign, heiug Silualtcl Ill\ ciifitH'I'IIl lli ti()S Of lht~ Clll'll'I>Jlt)nl\i ng ruclll hets 11f t.ht pot tal frllml'. H <'all hl' ca:-ily prond thnt 11/l the d<'(/r(llous

@T
~~
hi
P.'

Fit(. !!l.!J
com]wttd 1/t.ulli('lytnf{ symrrtdricnl ::rnl'hs by tnll.~ym,wtrit:f! l one. w i ll lr rllrcuys ntl. Fur thi~ nutt> ro U~t following cldlt>d.iOII " appllnling in t.lwo hnv <'IJlllll illl ~ wl ll l'lducl t< 7.l'ru

6 1z, 021, bz.,. 032, .l ,,, uuJ

(",<)Jl$Cljlll'lltly,

A :lJ

th('.

l'qUillilll~

thNUS<'lYl'S

lJ~COIII\'

X1611 -:.. X;1b 1 ~ =II

X sloas-Xali:J:~ - Il

Xzl'>:!;! .. - .l2,,-n tlw

fir$~ l\\O

lead ing

imuu~dilltely

to

X 1 ..,. 1) ant! X:; 0

:.\2}

>.2 - - 6:!2

Hone'

w()

net>tl c.alculnt~ onl y tilt~ d" l'hctiou:; t>z 1, n.ml 6~~ 2PhZ a I Jlh~a
,\211 ~

------z2
a.

2- hJ
(/

15 z~ '~

[ ( II )

2 32--2

(/

h:!

1iTT""
2

- - !.I~J

o2 t u~i(t

tih)

Cons.~qucnlly

-;.; _

Gl'h.~

' z-a (a +(ihl

'T'hc linal dingrnm of ~~~" h~>ncling moments act.ing in the rclull<hm t ;;ttuhtrc ma r bo now oht~\in ed mnh.iplyi ng the nr<litHII.~s to the 111 2 graph l1 y tho mngllltndo of X 2 nne! sununing t.hcm up with tho ordi ua ~~s to thc !tf1, grnph du o 1.11 tho a1:Lnal lo11ding. This h<~tHiing nwment cliugtnm is rt(II'C~ent()d in Fig. 22 .!1.
hin~cd

l'rohlcm 4. Ot>tomtinc the t hru ~t dl'\'co ln pert at th t ahutmcnts of lhc l"'"' ardt appe11ri ng 1u Fig. 23.!;la. The neutral lin <~ of t.h is a,c:h fo llowl' a J>ar:obobe t:Ut'I'O ginn hy 4/
!f= [ i ' (l-Xj:X

Tlw

~ection~<

of tltis urr h h1 lt'SS l.ha n <Hte li ftlt uf 11 !'span :1ncl tho ~tiff ness of tl.!< cro:-s nmuins ro11 ;;tant :wd equal to EJ. Solution . Lot ns I'Cgard it~ red undunt the lt<ll'i 2o ntnl c.OJtlJHncnt (thrn ~t) uf till' tonc tion < lovt'IO(ICd at the lefl-lt:uo tl SUf}pur~ 1Fig. 23.911). 'T'hi.s le11ds to

ri~

X1~11 +6 tr =0 (6.:1) SecingthaltlH Mttll'<lili tot' ,r tht' arch i u curw), Veteslt c.hngllt'~ nwt.ltod lttont<~:< inu \>(lrat.iVt) unit llu:rduo,, l'rlnlu's iulll!Jl'als wi ll huv'-' to I~<~ cnUJfllll<!< l nna lylital y. For On t. arch o$ thi::; prohlem i ~ not vcry complicol<:d fnt willH> ul upprcc inhl() ermr d.~ mPy ht! rl plact'd hr tl.r an<l ctts 'I' lliDY he Wlkmo ectu al LO 1.

:y
I

Fi!f. 22. 9

Fl. 29. 9

fhc iult~ration will h!! c<tt'o'it'd cml J>p(.\I'N'II r ~ tJ nnd :r. = I . The nnglo op ju~t mentioned i~ the :ongle foo ,nt'!l hy t.he tangent. to thl' ru.mtrol linr. and tho r-ax is. rt should ho rcmemhcr!'d that IHII'mlll s t.r'l'l'i'l':Hilllst bl' tak< m into r..onsidt,_ rntion wh1m coroputlug tht' lw riwutal di.;;jlncemcnt of flflt orcht:$ due t.o ltol'iznntal l11n1l.~. H t'n CI: Lin c.ncffiCil'nt 6u wi I he cttlc.ulal<~ci 11.!\ing t.ltl l'XJII'CI'-.<iuu
ij

II ..,

. ~
l)

1 M: I d& ~ N I ds /JJ - J!P

' -

26*

"01,
whorl'

A naly~i8 of the S lmpler S lntlcuLly lndr.l r.nnlnatn Strru:ll<r"s

and

N1 == -1 cos<v= - cosq.
f\()I)Iacing ds by dr and putting cos qJ ... 'I we ohtaiu
I I

16,(2 (' I (' 8 j :L 011 =/IW .) r2(l-x)~dr + w.) d:~;= "15 IU

0
(I

I + EF

The diap laceult>nt .1 11, due to ve,t.ical fonnula

lontl~

will hu dHermiul!d lt.~l ng the

"her(

Tla i~

ltladS

to

'T'IIll solu~ion of equation ((:.! 1 ) ~ields immldiatl'ly tloe value of lhl' desired

thrust X 1

1
;

Solution . Siuco lh" structme is ooolundant to tho til:st degree wo uw ~ ohtnin th e simpli! s.t.alically determinate one by cuLLing diagonal G ( Fig. 21..9/n. Thll ('OrreS(I<IIlding l'qUII(.iOO will !)e. of tho St:ludard form

:IJl(ICal'iug in Fig. 21.9a. All the members of thil' ~truc.turc ol!'o o[ Lbe Sllmo cross section. Bars .5 and fJ \w vo n o common hinge at milllengt.h .

P roblem 5. H~'<JUired the l'trcs~s in nil tlol' dements flf tht> frnmerl structure

3 .9. Aualysls of the Simp~r Hrdund<m t Rtruelu.rts

40:'>

Tlw dt'Occtinns 6u and A1p may ~: obtamed u~mg tho e.xpre:<:Sillns dev~l opt'd pr~vi<)lf.-,(y for through ~trurtnws
l'H """ < "

;;;/.

Nit =

1 J;'F

.L ll' 1

"'"'t

iV1N.,.l 1 _ A,p~ !.~= J::f ~''tNvl

I" th ~.:e ~xprt>~shm~ :\' 1 ar~ ~ho strc~~:s indurt!d in the difTcrcnL hur.s hy the unit lone! X 1 ~ I. 1111d i''p arc the stresst>s due ~n tho ap11lied loacls.

Pig. 21.9
All the l)(l(~(~S81\I'Y cn knlaLions Ill'(~ gi\on in 'I'ahlo u~. Tho C<I IIIJ1HI wllieh normally contniu tl1c cross-~-cct.ional areas of all tho bars has hot'H omitloti, tht>w ~rcas remaining constant throughCiut the ~LnlC.t\11'1' .
~twulcl

Table J.!J

u..,.

:\o

.1
I

1 2 $
1
.1

-V2

1
l

I>

-112
-V2
I)

Pa

2
a

"
a

- vz
- Vi
I I

Pa

2
a

0
p

2
II

"
al/2
aV2

- V2
I

- l/2
-2Jla

Pa

-Pl/2
0
l'n

al/i

tJ

al/i
(2 +2

l > tul

- - (3+2 1f21

Vi

l/2)a

ft(IG

A nal!fsis of tlt~ S i mpll'r StaticnllfJ I ndl'trr minllll! Slr11clure.~

Using ~he data c.f>nt.ailH~d i n tht' above table we may easily com pute t he values o f .:\ n> and 0 11

.:ll ,., - - - (3-. 2 , 12)

p

['a

l~F

1/'i .
(

t~u= {iII F

-) :t+2 v ::!

lnt rodur.ing these valncs intl> the st.amhtrrl tlq uati<m we Otll <u

x.l - (> 3- 2112

:l V2 -i-!t
ot.tainod
Strc!iSe~ irl all the difforeul lll(t~nher.s 1.1~i ng cxpr<!!iSion

of tlw g iv ou st. ruclurc will l.Je rcndi ly

N, = N, 1, -j- .V;Xi 'J'IJ(> fwst turJII ~> Uw right.- hand part. of this o>pre:>~i<> n J 'ept'tsents tlre stre~s intluco!l i11 th t' cor respond in g member r>f the sinl)ll'l ~tructul'o .by U1l\ applied loads. anrl the !:'ec.ond the strN ii intluct.>cl itt the same w.embet hy the J 'C< Jc.titu u[ t.he l'tHiundunl c.onstnlint.. T his (I,XfH'('.!'~i on cmJstitu~e-< tli us out> of tlw applications of t iH! princi pll' of supO I')lOS il. imJ. } <m bar 2, Lhu t.Cital st.<os.s \\ril l "')IIIII

N.2 =N., :-NX =P + 2

-P
'

1 ') 1- P 3+ ? -~ =P ) 2VZ+"

vz

v :;

4(1 -1 -v:n

v:;-

l' roblt:m 6. Jkquircrl tlrt' ::;t.tes~es in a troSS!!tl bean1 apptariug in Fig. 25 .\J.7., The m(t!n be.am wh o~ L t'ngth is C'!(ual to the t.<ltal !~pan of the l'! truc.ttnu wor k~ iu Lroull iug , while the reinfordng members WOI'k in d i rect toli~JOJI Cll' C<IIn pre,~ ion p p _ ....Y.....-t-...!L
0
(rf) Nf!dllni1ant ~tr;.J,;turt'

~v
(bJ Simple structute
Fig. 2.'1,9 Pig. 28.9

just as ~hose o[ an ordinary truss. \Ve ~hall a~sumc that the cro~s ~ectiun:< or all t.h e reinfo rci ng mombors remain c.onst.ant. The displacement of the two cliff~ren t. parts o[ the structure will he cakulatud using e xpresRion s pec.uliar to lht.< type 1>f stress developed in each of thcs(.l part.s. S ol1~Uon . '!'he s im ple statically dE.>tflnuinate st.ructurt> will he obta im\11 Lry cutting bar 1 -2 a s inilica llltl in Fig. 25.9b. The equation will Lo of tlw s tlrndnrd

H.9. Analy~is o.f tilt Simpler U(< dulld(W/. Strllcf rtrr.

ft>l'lll

407

X t<'>il -~17' = 0
The values of tho C<tt~ffit:it ul. bll to tht' llltkn<l " 'll X. 1 una of l'lw frt~o t mm llm will he nhtaiJwd using heuding moment graph for the ma in h~am t Fig. 20.9) and the vnlues of liHJ normlll ~tre:;~scs d eve loped in l.lw ruin furc.in~ mlm b()rs. 1' ht, unit ~t.Je~s X 1 acting nl<mg tJae lwrizout.a l !tar 1-~ will prnduco" cotHJlt'I!S~ion in l\<1t.h tlte qtt~;cn Jl<ISl,;, the ull!f(llitu<l~ of this r.)mprL\~8iuu in 1.his JIM l.ic.ul:u Nl~o hl.'i n~ al:< J l'qual l.o uuity. 'J'he~t~ st resse,~ will ht t.tan~mil.t('<l ditl'ct.ly to t.hl mniu lwnm . 'l'ht) ft,'llowiug t.ablo giv~s t.lw amou nts uf ,;f.n.<.~tl>'-' tn al l Lhl h:t t'' <)f t.ltt a\l.~iliat'Y ;~y~~m.
J'rz l>lc 2.9

v .,,

{}1/

aV2
~~

0
l

0
(l

(J

2a
:!tl

1-2 2-/1
1-4

0
() ()

1/2 ,,
1-"2
I!
11

a Vi
(I

V:i
- 1 - I

0
(1 t)

2.[)

T>l:.ll

I
I

I 1

(J

a(:~

H V2}

IJd.ro. tucing the X1 we obtain

lalt~r

valtws iutn tho stnmlnrd equation anti solv uog iL for

Tllll o lin grams (If th11 lwnding mo ments acting in the ma in hc.>am and .,r t.he nol'llolll s tr().>sos in tlw au.xiliary mcm hcl'S of the redundn n t. ~<truc.tuw will hll \ L l> <tbt11 iucd i<S usual hv tlw su nunali ou <1f t.ho ortlinatos L11 tlut strn~ curve dUt th o a pplied Joacts w fth the- tJrtlimt tes to th(l unit r.urvcs multij>lied by Uw nwgftitud~

,.,r x1.

Hcfordng to the differe nt structura:l appearing in F ig. 27.9 Llw

t.udent wi II

(1) determi ne L b.oit' degree

or redundancy;

!,()$

Analysis oj the S implrr Statir.lllltl lnde.tormin.(lte.

StructTLre~

(2) lind arJpropriate simple statically determinate structures and ehoosB the better ones; (:i) form the cort'esponding systems o( canonical equat:ions; (4) trace the diagram uf the unit slresse..-;; (5) c.ompute one of the unit displacements 6 for each of 1.hos1~
stru(~ f;ures.

Fig. 27.9

4.9. STRESSES IN REDUNDANT STHUCTURES DUE TO TE:MPERATURE CHANGES

lu the event of temperature c.hauges l.he standard equations used jn the method of forces become

X. ;o~l ~t-x2~~

x.o1l -1 -X262 +X~o.3 + .. . ~ x..oi" + ~., = o 1 1 ~~6~ :+-.~2~2~ ~ ~3.0~3:- .' ~ .~~n~z~ ~- ~~t ~ ~ t

+x36,.~ + ... -{~ x"6n~ +~~t ;, oj

(7.$1)

In these equations the coeffidents 6 11 , 6 12 , . , 6nn have t.he same meaning as heretofore, while the terrns ~,,, L\ 2 tt . . , ~ 11 1 are the doflect iou.s of the c.onjugate simple structure along the redunclanL eonstraints X 1 X 2 , , Xn eausetl hy ~he thermal gl'adicnt.

4.9. Stresses In flt.dantltwt Structures

These dcflcc.tions may he obtained using expressions (H.l.8) and (20.8) developed in Art.. 7.8*

(i'J.8)
01'

(20.8)

Eq Hllions (7 .9) ox.press as nsnal tho idea that the deilectiou:; of thtl simple deterrnina~e structurc along the directions of tho clim~

inatcd c.()nstrainls rernain nil.

Redundant structure
J
Simple structure

)1 04~1

'1

.,.fi!
Fig. 28. 9 . .

1}:J
Fig .. 29. 9
X .t6 rt-I-L\jl =0
t8.H}

Proh)em. Dt!ttmmo tho st.rt~ses mdnce1l 111 11 or)(.\-l.une reilundnnt st.nH~ture :l}lJ.ll)luing in I!"ig. 2~.9 and Lace tho c.orrusponding honding m<.>ment c.urves. assuming tllat the indoor temptratum rises by 10"C whilt Hw outdoor onr nmwins nnc.haTI g<'<L Solution.. Allupt tho simplt> struct11re nppr~al'ing ill Fig. 29.H for which the stanclarrl tquat.ion h<JCornes

(lsillg 1xpre%ion (20.8) j ust cit{>d we obtain

,:ltt = -o.:-h-

10-0 (

aa) -a. 10+0 ao+T - -a= 2

-15a h

,,2 - 5at

As

f ,H

t\ 11 its ''nlue will

<5 11

no

fllund raising to the secotld power tho area of tlw

;lt1 jlraph ( l<'ig. 30Jl)

.
1 aa 2 . f 4a3 =--- - a -'- '~3 --=-El 2 il ' EJ 3EJ

motl'icol about tho hurizonLal gravity axil;. Wllru it otherwisl'

"'\\"tl shall adm it that !.lw c.r<ss scct ious of all tho elmnents involved llr<l sym2

z,~t

should he

2 y wh~:t'C !I is the db lance from the ftbro lwate1d to t to replaced by t 2 t 1 2 the c.<>ntroid of tho cross sec.tions.

+ -;:t

41ll

A ttnlgsts uf tlu: Simpler Sltttieol/y 1 mk~rmlnaU.

v111lu~s

Strutturt.~

lnlroduciug lht\:!1:

h tLO cqua\wtt (1:1.9) and sol vmg tile Rame \\'C 11bt.ain t:JaEJ

X, ~

-T. =

Au ~>e'" (; +.I) ~r;.r

fta3

(+I)
lta.2

TlHl bonding morntnl d iugt'Ittn i ncl uc~l in Lht> givt>n rt'd undanl .$tl'llc.tutll hy llw givtn t.empcr11Luro dw ngc can nnw he obtained multiplying tlllht> odiuales tc> Lltt' 311 c uno hy X 1 Thi s d iagram 1-"' rc:J)rl!~ulod in Fig. 3 1.9 .

Ftc.9n.9

Pig . '11.9

5.!1. STlUiSSI:s IN HEDUNDJ\N'T' STHUCTUJU:S CAUSED BY TH!i:

1\'J OVgJIH ~ NT

OP SUPPOHTS

As already montioned, slatieally indot1mninate stn.t<'IHt'es may heeomo su,erely slreS$Cd not: only du o lo lh~ ap}>lication of cxlet'nal loMis or due lo J .emperaturc chang('s but also in the O\eul whon
fa)

I <: I I ,L.'t.:n"Kl'' J"1 fl~H {":.;~ 1

IJVI w

(bJ

fA

... ,

J /!'tJC(.,;re

;_ - ' -=-s,mf!Lr
9trurlut7!

. ,.:O'n.
.....Q ...:. -,:p
(dl

~tl

(()

.Uructure

StmPll.'

, '

' l x, ( /
Xz
Fig. 32.9

or rnorc of their :~upports s uffer a liucnr translation, an angular rotation or both. Let us study this problem using as no example the portal frame of Fig. 32.9a. The sltape taken by this frame afler the right-hand s upport has shit.od from B to B' is iudicated in the same figure l1y dash lines. T he horizonlal and vcrlicol displacements of tho
<ll\C

:i.9. Slre!lsl!s in Hed11ndant Strucl!tl'f~S

snpporl will he taken equal to a and b tcspectively <Utd its angular rotation to (f. The influence exercised hy Lhc simple structure adopted on the formation of the standard equations wiLl he inYcstigatcd using tho example~ of Fig. 32.9b, c and d. In the first ease (Fig. a2.%) th<l rl ircclions of the redundant eonstraints coincide exactly wi t.h tho~e o[ Lhc suppott displac.ement!'.. 'J'hlls, the unknown l'caction X 1 follows the d iL'P-Ctiou of the horizontal d i~plaeemeut, lltt' n.'action x2 that or the vertical one (though being opposite ill si~n) while the moment X 3 <~c.ts along the direction of the l'otatinn r-;nffcrcd by the cro~~ secLion at the supporl. The magnitude~ ol' tbese reactions must be such a!'; to ender the displacements of the .simple st.atieally determinate structure ex:1ctly oqnal to those ~tipulated jn the woblern. Hence the canonical equations expressing this idea will he of the follnwiug form

X1~11 +X z012 Xallta =a } Xt&:li+X26 22 +X:l>11a= -b X tOat +X 26::~2 Xa633 = q:

The negative Ylllue of the last term of. the sec.ond equation i~ due to lhc fact that r~action is direct.cd upwnads while the .snppOit move.s do\\'nwnrds. On I he other hand, if tlw simple structure o Fig. 32.!1r. were lHlopted it wonld hcc.ome necessary to regan! tlu~ 41isplaecments ol' the support B 11s a system of external loads. This would be refloeted by the .introlhu:tiou in to the canonical equations of free terms corresponding to the said loads. these term:; being de~ignated as usual hy A 1 ~, A 2 L\ and 6. 3 ~. H is clear thnt these terms will lwvo tho following values (set~ Art. H .. 8)

x2

.:lt.l =a;

L\2,.. = -b

+/(p;
}
(10.1)

Consequently, the canonical equal: ions will take the followiug shape

XtOI!t +Xz&22 + X:/J23 -b + lcp = 0 X16at --!-X 26:12 + Xa6ss + (jJ = 0

X16u+X2ot2+X:~61:~+a=O

For the simple ~;truc.turc of Fig. 32.9d these same equations would become
X1611 + X2&12 +- Xa61a-;- .::.\ta = 0 }

X to2t +X2622 + Xat;2a + .:.\2L\ =

<p

(11 .9)

X 16a1 -rX26a2 +Xaoas +~~B = 0

412.

A~<alytls

oj the S i rnpler Statcall!t [ruletermf.n.,ttc S truclures

Here L\ 1 ~, .1 2 ~ and .1 33 a re the displacements of the eon jugate sim]llt struc.lUI'I) along the directions of xh X z and Xa due to the verlieal nnd horizontal movcmeuts of the right-hand su Jl port..* H was shown in Art. 14.8 that these displaee.rnents are feadil y computed using expression

x lsi;). .,- ~R~ = o

in which the left part represents t he work accomplished by the forces nf the imaginary stat.e along tho displacements of the simple struc.Lnre due Lo Lhe motion of the supports. In this rase lhe imaginary state of the simple stl'llctnre ptwmitting the determi IH\tion of the angular rotation along X 1 due to tlte displacements of tht~ right-hand support is that of Fig. ;)~~.9a. Hence the work MC.O Ill plishcd hy tlte forees 0 f the i maginaty statt! along- the di~placements ol' tho si rn Jlle structme when its right- hand !-;Up port is movod both VGrl.ienlly and llol'i..L I zontally will be expressed hy

{b) u
Zh

_ ;
..:. t Il

X z, I

,-

_/!!_ I "[ '

-

1 X1~1.:;+ 2 h

1 a.+ Tb=O

( C)
I

.;

XJ ' f

'
....
7i
f

wherefrom

, ;;

SimilaJly, the work accomplished hy tl1e forc.es of the second imaginary s l.atc shown in Fig. :~H.9b along the displaceJH<nl.<: of the l'imple structure due to the movements of the same i;upport, will be given by
F ig. 93.9

1 X2.:h~+ 211

a-Tb=O
a
b

wherefrom
~z~ = -u + T

As for ~he displacemellt ..:.\.~,, it will be obtained frurn Lhc L'Xfl!al ion corre~ponding to Fig. 33.Hc.

Xa.:.\s.:\- f a=O
nleut of t.ho simple struc.tur~c~ along

"'Tlw nng\ilnr rotation of the right-haud 1!nppMI. wi\ I prodowe no th(~ dirtr.lions of X 1, X and X 3. 2

disp hoc.~:-

5.9. Stresses in R edundant Stnuture.:

113

w bercfrom
~sA=/i

lut l'uducing those values into eqnntions (H.9) we obtain

Xj6u + X~0 1 z + Xa6ta - (

X 1621

+)= 0 +X262~ + X~6u- L~, --}) =Cf'

;,~ +

Xto3t..i..X:&3~+X~6as + ~ = 0

l I t J

(t2.H)

It s lwuld bt.> remembered that each term of the left part of these
t'<Junlion:i rt>prescnt.s the denection oE the ~imple statice(\lly delcrtal
(b)

Actual
.rlale

tmagmary
;tate f

x,' 111

Ftg. 94.9

nlinate structure along the direction of a redundant rcactiou

duced ei ther by t hi!> same renction or by t he movement. o[ the support at B. A ll t.he equations of the present article have been, ttiuR ba~t.>d ou the principle of superposition. It may be easily shown that tlw!!L ' same equations may bo based on the theorem of recip1ocal work~. Irulecd let u:> oonsider t;wo different states of t he sa me simple stH t ically determinate strncture. namely thos{l rcpresont(!d i 11 Fig. 3<U1a a11 d b. Using the above theorem we obtnin immt,d iatcly

Xt&u + X2~2t + X3631 = 1a (1:3.9) The lt>ft-hand part of t h is equllt.ion rcprp.sent.s the worl< nccomplished by the applied loads of Fig. 34.9a along the denecliuns of the imaginary ~tate of l<'ig. 34.9b while t he rigM-hand pnrt-thal done by the unit load X1 = 1 of the first imaginary stale alo ug th~:~ nctnat displacement equal to a. l;~ xn(:tly the same reasoning will lead to the formation or th~ t.wo following equations (Fig. 35.9a and b)

Xt012

Xt~t3+X2o2.3 + X~o~ 3 == 1<p

+ X2622 + Xl>:12 = -1b

1 f

0 4.fi)

loJ!o

Attai1f.fis llj thl.' Si mpler Stntlcall11 lndell.'rn~tnate Strur.turt'R

T he ldt purls of t hcso ecruation~ represent the work accomplished by the npJllied loads along Lhe imaginary dir-;plac.cments iuducod
by l.lw unil; loads of t he second and t. hird i magina l' y state:~ of ~551ct and b while the right.-hand parts-t,ho!>t:> accomplished hy t ho imaginary unit loads or the two latter slate~ along the given di ~ pl:tt-4.'1llt.'IIIS o f the !ill[l[)Ort. CompariHg eqnnl.ion:; (!Ul) obtaint'cl previously using the s implo Slt'U<:turo o[ Fi ~. 82.Hb with those based on te thcorom of rociprocnl worl<s [equaLions (1H.9) and (14.9)1, it becomes immccliately

fo'ig.

(Of

/mogmary

stale II

( fJ) /ma.flLPOIY

slate Iff

F lff. IJ.'i.9

HJIJHII'Onl that 'the two systems nre absoluLely identical for: 612 = = 62,, 6,:r = 6 3 , and 6~3 = &32 :\tvcrthelcss L he basic itleas corwcycd by the.';t! two sysl(IIIIS or oquaLious art' crrlirel y dirrer~nt. Indeed, the eqrrlltions hascd tlll the princ.iJ>I~ of supt'rposilion ex.prcss that. the 1:\U m of displncemenLl' alonglhe dilo~tions (lf t he retlundanl constra ints oro eithN' nil 01' equal lo J>l'c:>dotermiut>d amouuts ; as fur llrose base'~ on th4' th(>{ll'ern of ree.iproeal wol'ks, they oxprt'ss llutt the work on tho s i mplt> SLatielll y dcl.el' ru i rHilO s:trucl.ure accomplished Jly lhe applied loads along tl"~ displMement.s of t his sn nHI struc ture C.!lUSl'd by nny one o[ the imngirr1 uy unit loads is equal to tho work produccd hy the snicl unil load (Logel.hor wi th bht' support rtlactiorrs due to this load) aluug l'lw displacement carrsod by the actual loading.

For o.x(lr-ci so let. us usc once again the t heorem of tec il>rocal works fol' Llro neterminnliou of st.resSt'S ill the S<'lllle portal frame, IHlOJHiug for co njugnlll ~implc s~nctmc l hl' oue appeHring iu Fig. :lli.9a. Tuo c.orTOS()onding imaginary statt'S art' given in Fig. 31j.!)b, c and rl. Tho ~l.audard t'quations hased on the principle of reciprocal works
heconrt'

x.&u +X~021 + Xr,i~:H = + ~ :t:

X~ . vI> II [, Xr I> "t~ + ~~ 22 -t- '~:1"3~ = cp-;- V, - 7

I I I

(15.9)

X l>13 + X 2623 + X:cFiaa = - ~:

G.9. Diagrams for Shearing n11d Dlrtci Strrsus

415

Comparing the lall.er set of equations with those derived from !iu.perjlosi lion [oquaUous (12.9)1 we set~ once again thnt they are absolutely identical. In actua l de~igu prtwlicc it is moro conven ie11t to base tlw equations on tho princirlo of reciprocal works when solving prohlems coHncc.ted wibh thes~ttllllucuto[ 8upporLs, the equations so obtained
th~ princ.iplo of

ra r

~I

I'

...

(bl .---<>----.

Aclual
_j__
'\

st.:tr.

/mogwary slolr l

Jx, x?~

""

(CI

ifT'IWUIOry

.state if
I I

_ x1r_.~
.

lly; ll

ih j f II
Ftg. 86.9

fi

affording a cleart'r picture of the phys ical reality. The same IIICtbod ('Ouhl be used for stress analysis of redundan1; structures snbjecled to a system of external loads, but it would lose the ad ,antago just mcntil'lned, for i.n the !alter cnsc t.he p rinciplo ol' s uperpo8ilion gives a bettor rop~esentalion of the phcnomt!IJOII.
H.H. DIAGRAMS f'OI\ SHEAJl!NG AND DIHECT STHESS ES. CH~CKING OF DIACR1\MS

Oncu all lho redundant stresses and reaction~ X., X 2 , . . .. X, have bten found, 011(.' may proc.eed with tho determination o Slrt!UI'ing 11 11 d norma l fotccs acting in the structmo under considct'lllion. Th('se will he l'Xnc.tly tha SlllltC ns thoso arising i n the s imple stnticnl ly doLerminate st.,uctnre under l~h e combined acliou of th(' 1\]lpl iod 1oHds and of Lhe said redundant stresf"es and reHclious. The same result::; n~ay b(' ac.hieved uf"ing Lhe bending moment curves obtained for the giYen redundant structur(' as described in llu.' prcvion:; arLic]('s. Indeed let us isolaLo from lhc res t of lhi~ sLructme a roc til i ne~tr ha.r Ail and let l be il~; length (Fig. :~7. Ha). In the most general c.a~;e this bar wi ll be acted llpon:

.4Hi

A11olysts qf

th~

Str"pler Statfcallv

llldetermlrtat~

Stnu:turl'.

(a) by the loads actually a pplicd within its limits; (b) by tho hfmding moment!l M,t 11 a nd J~ 11 A at the enfl .sections. th~ magnitudes of these bonding moment.s may be scaled orr d i~ recl.ly from tho corresponding diagram; (c) by the shenring forces Q All and Q BA as well as by the uotma-1 stroS&1s NAn and N IIA developed at the l!ame cross sectious. Here aod after tho first of the two indices will indicate t h{' posi~ tion of the t~ross section, whilo hoth of these indices togother will

Fig. 37.9

d esignate the member containing this section. Thus, M A 8 will mean the bending moment acting at section A of bar .t1B. Since the bar A B is in oq\l ilibriuru the stres..."Cs Q.4. rr Q IIA au(l N IIA may be regarded as the vertical and hod:tontal reactions of a n ond-supported beam appearing i n Fig. 37 .9b, which we ::;hall call as before the reference beam. It follows that t he ~lre~se.~ ~cting at a ny cross ~ction of the &lid reference beam and those. 6xistiug in t he corresponding ~c t ion of the given structmc will be uhsolut-ely identiclil. H ence the bending momen t at any cross ~c tior\ .t: of the bar A B will equal th e sum of the bending moments iuduced in the corrf}sponding section of the reference beam by a ll the actions shown in fig. a7.9c and d

M
when~

= MO +MAll+ MBA -;llf,\11 X

M 0 tepresent.':i the bonding moment produc.ed in the reference beam by tile external loads or F ig. 37.9c while M,\ B + M IIA -;.1//l[j ;r, is tho moment ari~i llg from the application of rnomouts Jlt[4 8 and ,\If n ,\ lo its end scc.lion$ (Fig. 37.9d). 'l"JH~ tlu~ore m of Zhurnvsky stat.ing that the fJrst derivativll of L ht'- bonding m oment represents the shear in Lhc sa rno cross section

6 .9 . D iugram.s for Shraring and nirPct StrtSS(".<

417

we may wri l~

Q=

dM d:r

= dMO + it/DA d:r

M'}_!! = QO
L

+,., /1,, -

:11 A. ll

(1G.!:I)

llcrl' QO is t he shear induced in tho corros pomliug t"0!'.<; l;l'l't.ion of t.hc re fe rence boam by tho loads directly applied thcr-et.o (Fig. 37.9c). T he abovo o.xprcssion p+mnils tho dottJrmi nation of t.ho hcnding nwmonts and g honr~ in any snr. l.ion of a r oc.t,ilinear mcmher belonging t.o a redundant frame d structure ptovidod th e loads dirctlly applied to t.his mcm!Jer and the oonding moment!$ a c ting ut tho t>nd sections aro known. Wh~.n the houdini,! moment curvHs arc trLict~d on lho sido of the o.xt.cndotl ltiJrcs, Llw s ign of the .9hearing forces may be a:;certaincd as follows: the .~!war will be reckoned positive if the rt:J.~is of tlu rn('rn.bt'r must IJP ro/.ated cloclm;i..se tn order lo come in cotncicimce with the

tangent lo the bmding nwrnent curve, provided llw angLe of rol.a.lion t$ sm.(l.l/Rr than 90. N U/1U'ncally the shear is di-rectly proporttcmal to t.he value of the na.tu.ral tangent of t.hts angle. This rule prosente.d in Art. 1.2 pe rmits the i mmedi ato dotetmination of the sh. ear: sign
for anv cross sec. Lion of bar A IJ. 'fir e. dirc<:tion of Lhc !>lu~a ring furco will bo obt.ai uotl rc memooti ng t.h at a positive !<hear will always t end to rotate c lockwi!!C the ~ction it i s acting npon about tho fnr ond of that same part of the mom her. Normal st rt\'lSilS will lJC d c t ormincd isola ti ng in su cce~;l;lion oaeh joint. of the structure and llJ)Jllying thereto both tho actua l loads and the shea1ing forces obt.ll ined as d t:'s< :ribed abo vo. One c.ould also u5e thu procedure outlined at the beginning of this artic le.
P robl em. 'l'rnco tho Q and the N c.urvcs for tire porllll frame 3!)pMring :~il.9 tngothor with th e rliilgrams of bendi ng mommtls acting in 111! of its m<:mlmts. soz,,.tlon. l>'irst Ll'IWt~ tho ~hear diagram f<1r column .1-2. No oxtcrnal l<>ad being applillcl til this m< mtlJ()r, th e bending moment rliagram flums a s traight line and th<?reforc the shear wil'l remain constnnt. rt will hB reckoned ne!l'ativc for tho c.olnmo axi~ must bo r<llated c<mnwrclockwi~o to come in w inctilmu:u wi th tho tangent ~o thP benrliug momont diagrnm (thl' two coinciding in that pxrticnlar caso). N umcric.:~lly th e shearing force will tqual tho notural tangent of the aforesaid angulur rotat io n, viz.,

iu l!'ig.

Q 12"- Q 21 = -

10.R+5.1t
()

, -2.7 tons

'l'hc same results would huvo becu obtained through tho upplicatinn of the formula gi,cn at the l1cginni ng o tltl' present article

- Q21-.. - QO Q12 u

+ llfzt-MI2
Ltz

41tl

A rtaly.~is of the S imJ>ler S tat lr.ally 1 fldetermtMte Structures

See-ing tbul no load is directly applied to t he c.olum n in question, the shear Q~ 2 w ill reduc<> lo zei'O and thc reforo Q, = Q M2t-Mt2 _ - 10.8-( -f !i.4) _ 2. ?ton"
2 21

l it

When com putln~ tho shearing forcl's each of the ruontlu~rs shoul d be placed m entally in n hortzontal po.('ition; the btonding moments rocko nel positi v(l will 1 h tm prouuc<> an extension of the lower fibres of this member and tho!!oe reckoned nc~atho-an extension of its upper fibres.

l'tf{. 38.9

Fig. 99 9

T he sh t>a ting force in till' ri11ht-band column will he deteom in,cl in exac.tl y tho saml.' wuy and will equal ..:.-2.1 tons. As for thl! shear in the c.rossh~am, it s \alu0 at nny sectton sitnutcd a distance r frum joint 2 will he givQn IJy
M~2 -Mt3 _ 1- 2./o X 9 .t. , - 10.8- ( -10 .g) _ + fO S 2 , Q= \r"'+ {" l23 - . - - 2 - - 2 U:-r 9 - .I X

When z = O (that is, immediately t o th.o rig ht of joint 2)

Q 23 = + 10.8 t ons
and when .r=9 metros (that is, immolia\ ely to th<' left uf JOint J)
Q~2 = + 1 0.8-2.1X9= - 10.8 tous The dingram of shear ing forccs tim!! obtained is represen ted iu Fig. 39.9. T h .... d iagram of t ho normal stresses can be dorivt>d either frorn tbd for the shours or alternativel y its ordinates may he cnlculatt>d knov. ; ng lh<> reactions of ull the redundAnt constl'aints. Let us determine thc normal s tresses u!ling tho equilibrium of joint::~. At fnst we may isolate j oin t 2 ( Fig. 40.9) ac tl.'d upon by tho shear Q 23 = -'- 10.8 t nus rlov olopcd at the left oxtremity or tho cro55b.)am and direct<>d downwards 1 t.hCI sltear Q 21 = - 2. 7 t ons dovolOJ!Od at tbe lop of thn column and diroctea from left t1 right and Ly the normal 8LrMses N 23 nnd N 2 1 (hotlo roukonnd po!!itive if en tailing compression) aml acting along tho crosslJc.>nnL .,nd the (.(llmnn,
rc~pucLivcly.

l~ quih bd uru

consi derations y ield irmneilintoly

N23 = + 2. 7 tons and Nz1 = + 10.8 to ns T he norma.! str('ss acting in the rigbtrbnnd column wiJl be obtai ned tsohltiug join t 3 and will 11mount to + 10.8 t on!!. The complete diogram of normal slre~ses is given in f' ig. I, 1.0.

11!l

A conveniont. method of <:hccking the M, Q and N diagram~ consists in the 1$uccc -ssive isolation of different parls or joint_g of lhe structure which must al ways remain in equili brium. Thus, tho projection on the vertical of all the support roactions of any framed structure must always equal the vertical component of t,he resultant of all t he npplied loads. Similarly, tbe sum of moments o a ll the reactions about any point of the sltucturo must a lway!' tquaJ the moment about the same point of tbe resultant of the applied loads . and so forth. A rapid cJ1cr.k of tho diagram of the shearing forces may be la l~cn compariup: this diagram with that of tho bc11tling momont.s: i nd!:'cd
Z.7t

Flg. 10.9

Pi~;.

tJ.I !J

when t}l(~ mornont curve becomts parallel to I he hoam axis, the shear must equal zero; when the tang<-nt to the hcnd~ng momonl curvo remains i nclined towards tho same side, tho s hear may not chango sign; its magni Lude will be gmatcr for t ho.L soction for which t he. s lope of tho tangent to the btmding momen t, curve is the steeper. w hen two bars form a joint, the ordinates to Luei r bending moment <'urves at this joint mu!lt alway!l have numorically the same values (provided no outside moments act at this joint) since tho bending mo rncnts tnllSt always balance. In the same ca.sa direct 1 utd sheari ng force1; couside.red !jeparately will not bnlnnce, hut com;idercd together they must forrn a system of concurrent forces in equilibrium . liowovor, the control of stress cul'ves based on statics alone docs not provide complet:e gunrante~:~ of the exoct.itude of all the computatious for equilibrium conditions may bo sn ti.sfiecl even if errors were committed when calculatiug the re.dundant react ions. I ndeed, the bonding moment CU!'ve for any redundant structure always results from tho s ummation of the ordinaLes to the cu rve induced i n tho simple sta tically determ inate structure by tho applied loads wit:h those to the curve!! d11o to tho redu ndant reac.tions and s t res:>tiS. If all of these curves wero constructed correctly, equili brium cond itions will remain sntisftod even if the va)u(ls of those reactions and stresses aro completely wrong. ln the majority cases any error-s c.ommitted when c.otnputing tho reactions of the redundant constraint~'! will be dctec.l:ed checking 27

or

t hut tho deflrction s of cettain points arc conl!istm1t with t he s l:ipu lations of the problom. The foll owing example will serve to ill ustrate the ahovc. Fig. 42.9a. represents a knee frame statically indeterminate to the second degree. The co mpulod bonding moment diagram is shown
_ _, _ : J _

qg_1
./
-~

(bJ
(/

t,
(dl

-i

Pig. Jf!.l)

in Fig. 42.9b. This diagram will remain unal tered sltuuld we transform tho givou str ucture into a statically determinate one, say, by cli miuatio n o f the t.wo support constrai nts at the Jowcr enrl of lha column (l<'ig. 12 .9c) provi,rlod these constra i nts an 1 replacml by t.hcir re:w t.ions. Let us now eomput<l the vertical dl'l1cr.t ioo ~ v (lf the lower end o the t~ l umn in ordor to make snrc lhat this deflectio n remains ni l. For th is putpo:;c wo shall first Lraco the diagram of the bend ing moment inducetl by a verLical load unity actin~ at point ;1 (Fig. 42.9tl) who reafter we shall multiply this diagram by the M

6.9. Dwsmuttl for Shranup ond D irect Stussu

lo 21

diagrum l>l'rtaining Lo the giveu ~>L1nr.lurc (Fig. 42..!.Jb). The n'l!ult is

1 J::J

aa-2

1 (

1T." a- 2 ~ a

(/it2

qtl2

2 )

--=0

Lol: us check al~o I'IHit tlw llorizoHt<l l db[>lacement of the same poi11t romains oqnully nil. For that IHH']JO~ we may ruulli ply the blnding moment graph durJ to a horizonta l load unity applio(l at t.his point hy Uw aren of the same bending moment tliugr-a rn ali iu l.lw prcc.eding paragraph (Fig. 42. ~1 b) .

'Tf' ""ifa - yga2a =

qu2

1fir2

=er :r:t-z;i zs- !jo = 0

Thus. the. a hove mctlwd of chcckiug tho computed s trcs.'!ill! acli ng iu members of redund~nt s tructures tonsisls in the following : 1. Tl'ansform the givan redtmdant sLrucl urc into a simpl<.> statica ll y df!.tcrmio ato ouo. 2. Roplac.c successively ent~h of tht' el iminated coustrnints by n unit load or a unit mumunt as the 1 :aso mny be. 3. TtDCO for co.c.h of those unit acl:ions o. bending momont diagram. 4. Cornputo the dcilec.tiort o( tho simple structurc along t.hc diro!'ti!ln of each o( lhnse unit action&-. Tho amount of Lhis deflection will be g i ven by tile product of the orclinntcs to the henc.ling momtlllt cunc flue to the uniL action by those to the diagram induced in tho given redundant sLruc.turc hy the applied londs. 5. H th0se dl\floctions arc consi:>tent with tire stipulations of the problem (nil irt tlw majol'ity of r;as~.~) one may },c rNtsonably s ure that al.L the cumt>ulations were carded out coiTe<:tly. Tho simple statically de t.ermioatc struc turt~ used in that case uoNI not coinr.idc necessarily with tho one uscct for llw dctcrmiuation of the rt' dumlanl str~osses and reactions. D ifferent simple strucllllt'S mn y bo used for the computation of different deflections of one and the same r~:~dundant structure. Thus, for instance, the rosLllling IHmdi ng moml\nt diagram of Fig. 42.9b could be chocked using thll simple sh11ctme of Fig. 43.9a for the computation o th~ hurizor lllll deflection of Lhc r ight end of the crossbeam nnd that or f'ig. 4iJ.9b for the com!Hll.ation of the a11gulat rotation nl thu ::~arne

qa~ ( 1

1 , 1

I )

point.
Ono c.;ul also usc for the same purposo lbc graphs nf the bending due to imag innry unit actions utilized i n the original co m putatiuns. I n tho latter case all t hat need be douc to control tl1o Ul'C.Hrncy of thn resu lting cliagram is to multiply this diagram by the formo1 graph!! au<l to m;1ke suro that their product rcmaiw; cqun I to zero.
moment.::~

.1,22

Arwlgsis of the Simpler Statically I ndetermtrtate Structrtres

The control just de~;cribcd i~ particularly simplified for ~truclures forming closed contouts or those with built-in ends (which theoretically is one and the same). 1\!;Sume tha t it is required to c.ontrol the accuracy of all t.lw tom]lul;ations pertaining t:o the multispan frame with built-in columns

Fi~.

43.9

(Fig. 44.9a). Let us isnlate a single hent applying at the cuts ~x.tNnal moments and forc-c.s e-quivalent to the internal ones acting at these cross sect-ions. Obviow~ly the bencling moment diagram rela t ing to the i.soJawd part of the fram e will undergo llO change whatsoever. Now let us pass any arbitrary section through one o the members of the isolated bent. applying once again at the c.nt ex ternal actions

ff=!11
(aJ

M =IJ .:..~; -(C)

-b:r

Ftg. 44.9

()qui va lunt to tho stresser;; which existed at this section (Fig. 44. 91>). There wi(J hfl again no change in the bl\nding moment curves pertaining t.o the two portions of the frame . It may be easily show11 that th~ sec.tions adjaeeut to t he cut will undergo no mutual rotation . Indocd , let us multiply the re~ulting bending motnf!nt graph by thr. graph due to a unit ntoment acting at the cut (Fig. 44.9c). As the ordinates to the latter graph will b1:1 constant and equal to unity , tho above mentioned multiplication will reduce ton simple summiug up of graph arcus bounded by the re.s ulting bending momllUt cHrvo . These must be naturally taken with due consideration to thei r sign11 and the sum so obtained tniU!t equal zcto. If the di1Icrent members of the structure differ in stiffness, the areas of each graph must be previously divided by the sti.ffncss

7.9. StraiM and l>tflections of Statlra/ly lntkterm inate

St~llclllrea

423

of Lhe corresponding member. 'J'hus, for any structure forming a closed contou,r the algebraic sum of bendtng moment graph surfaces mt~st reduce to zero , these surfaces betng previously divided by EJ when necessary. As for tho sign of the g1aph areas, those situated within tho contour will be taken with Olle sign and Lhoso situated outside with the opposite one. This method of controlling the accuracy of computations is the simplest. If the results obtained are satisfactory, one may be reasonably sure that all tho computations were carried ou t correctly. Jt should be noted however that this method is inapplicable to fl'amed structures with hinged joints or parts thereof. Complete certitude that no error has been committed in any of the computations can be gained only if the number of control operations carried out is equal to the number of redunda1tt constraints, provided these operatiOns do not repeat one another. Thus, for instance, if the gra ph areas for two contiguous yarts of a structure have been summed up, tho same procedure may not be a pplied to the same two parts taken as a. whole, for this would simply repent tho control s already c.o.rried out and could therefore furnish no new data.
7.9. STRAINS A .N D DEFLECTlONS OJ.' STATICALLY INDETERMI NATE STRUCTURES

Expressions (15.8) through (17 .8) deve loped in Art. 6.8 were hascd on the assumptions that the material of tho structure foHows H ovko's law and lhat the strains and deflections of the structure an very small compared to its dimensions. Hence, theso express ion!' as well as the corresponding computation techniques can be appliod to all framed structures regardless of whether t hey are statically de terminate or not. Let us therefore use o ne of these expressions for the determination of Lhu ver tical deflect ion 11v of poin t C located along the neut ral nx.is of a knee frame subjected to a uniformly distributed horizontal load of q kg per unit length as shown in Fig. 45.9a. This frame was analyzed in Problem 2 of Art. 3.9 (see Fig. 16.9a). Tho resulting bcn.cling moment graph is reproso!lted in Fig. 45 .9b (soc also Fig. 18.9b}. In ordet to iind the desired deflection let us apply at point C a vertica l unit load, which will give rise to the bending rnomont curve of Fig. 45.9c. **

+
*'fht-,se operations may <:onsist eitht'r in the multiplication of graphs or in lhl' summAtion of their arcns. Tho corresponding calculations are omitted hcl'e.

'llo

Anoly. Yl., of tile Simpl.('r Slatl~ally Itztlelumtuat~ Structurn

Multiplying the two graphs appearing in Fig. lt5.9b and c one hy the other we obtain

~.; '""" [ 1T""2'3'56 - 8 ' 1fa5if 2+ T"fi x

X ( 5(i

qa 2

3a

qa!

:il

3a. . qa.2 2 _!:.. . ,1az . ') ..L ~ . qa.2 _ .!!;_. ,1,, ~ ) _, ~. _!_
14 7 56 5(j 5ti 7 1<\
r
;!

_ ..::_.

i/<1'~ Z -~. ~ 2 + .!!:.... qa2 ..L 9a . q.1z) 7 !i6 56 :.!8 7 21! ' 513 5ti

J_!.._ __ ...!!!!_ 41t8T!J

EJ ..

ll X

Thl\ ul.galivl' value found fot tht~ cl~ fioc.tiou IJ. c ind ic.nt.e~> that poiut C mnv~s upwards, for th e load unity was dircc.ted dowuwatds. "l'he procedure do~cribed remai ns rather complirat~cl sinc.Q it req uires that all the strosse$ in thu redundant struclul'O should hl' compntcd twice: once foe the case o[ applied loads and Oll<'.e for the case Qf t he imaginary load unity. 'J'his procedure will be greatly simplilied if we remember th at tho deformations of t he simple statically determin ate str.\Lctnro ncted upen both by L ht> appli~rl londs nnd L he redu ndant stresses an d rea~tions will .be csnc.tly the same as t hose of t he given i ndeterminate structure . .Honcc, in tho cas~ u nde.r considera tio n the oeflectiorl <la may b~:~ r;.o mputed with oqunl success eitiuH for tlu" r~dunda nt structme o f lr'ig. 45.9a or Jor t ho si mple sta tically determinato onu of Fig. 45.~)d. Let us a pply a t p oint C of tho latter str ucture a uniL load fo llowing the direction of the required deflection and let us trace the corresponding bending moment diagtam (Fig. 45.9e). Multiplying t h is diagram by the resulti ng bez1ding moment graph ghon in Fig. 45.9b we obtain

~c =2-z-z

1 (qa2 1 q112 2 ) 1 q<l4 563-28"3 EJ=-44}1.E."f

A uy statically determinate stnrctute dt1r ivcd fr-om tJ1c gi ven only by t ho eli minatio n of redunda nt constraint~ can be used fo t doflec~ tion computation . It is in no way necessar y th at this s imp.lo s trucl.un' sh ould he the :>a mc as tho one us~ d for stress a na lysis. Thus, tho deflection o.f point C of t he knee fra1ne cou ld bo obtained j ust as wen using fot a.uxilia1y simple strucLurc the one shown in Fig. 115.9/. The application to this st lur:ture of a verticul load unity at point C would lead to n bending moment diagram shown itt t he ~me figure. T he subsequent multiplication of this diagrn m b y that bounded by the curve or Ute rt'Sulling b1mding moments g i vcu in F ig. 45.9b lends Lo

-Ac = [ tT.z:r :r--a- aaT2 1- z-2x

X T 143+ 56 "3
1 ( q11Z 2
qa.Z

qa2

qa2

a.

1)

'1 qa"' E J = - 4ASEJ

7 .9. Strams and

J)t'~dtons oj

StaUcallu Jndrtermmak Structure&

4ZS

The cltoice of the auxiliary si mi>l~ structure shoutd be governed by l.ho following c.o u~ideraLions: the bending moment curvo clue to 1.he load unity must be ns si mpl e as possible, this curve must he obtainacl with lho minimum of computations and tho Ol'dinates

'1!/ '? 8

Fig. 4.5.9

to this curve should reduce to zero wherever tho outline of the resulting bonding moment diagram for tho given redundant structure becomes too complicated. Henco, in L he oxnmple dea lt with prciOl'Onco should be given to the simple structure of Fig. 45.9e ns compared to that of Fig. 45.9/.

426

An.ttlysis of the Simpler Stati~;ally Jr~dclermtnaJe Structures

The necossity might arise to determine the deflection sustained

by a redunda.n t stru0turo under a given set of loads without being

intel'ested in the corresponding stresses. In that case one may compute only the stresses induced in the structure by a uniL load acting i n tho direction of the desired deflection, disregarding entirely those due to the applied loads. The deflection will bo then obtained multiplying the bonding moment graph due to the unit load aud pertaining to the given redundant structure by the diagram of bending moments induced in the auxiliary simple structure by tho actual loading. In the previous example the deflection llc c.ould be thus -obtained multiplying the M gl'aph of Fig. 45.9c by that appearing in Fig. 45.9g
J\c = [

- 2-356;.--t ....2 .. 2

qa2

a.

311

3 . qa2

a ( 3a

5ff ---r 2 1 -w 2

l.la ) i. ]

X
1
qa~

X EJ=- 448EJ

Thus, it may bo stated that the deflections of a redundant structure .ma11 be determined using only one bending moment diagram pl<rtaining .to the given structure, either that induced by the applied loads or else

that due to a load unity acting along the desired deflection. The second graph may be traced for any simple structure derived from the first one by elimination of redundant constraints. The deflections and distortions of statically indeterminate tr.uss~s .and other hinge-connected structures will bo obtained in exactly the same way with the only difference that the bending moment curves and graph areas ITIUSt be in that ca.:<c replaced by t.ho:;e relating to the normal l'.l.resst~s.

8.9. 'fliE ELASTIC CENTRE METHOD

As a rule, streRs analysis of redundant structures requires the simultanuous snlution of several equations with several twknowns. Tho higher the degree of indetermirumcy the greater thl' number of these equations, the. harder their solution and the lower the accuracy of th~ linal result.<;. It is quite natural therefore that attempts <:~ro frcqnNltly mado to form the abov<! equations in such a way that each of them ~hould contain onl\ unknown ouly, or, alternatively, that the sysleUl of these eqnations should fall irtto 8cpamtc groups each containing a reduced number of unknowns not entering
p~rtainiog to a structure redundant in the second degree is so simple that it is obviotlsly se11seloss to ~ek any further si mplification.s e.vfln if suc.h wore possible.

lhe other groups. 'fhc system of equations

8.9. The Elastic Centre Method

427

Passing to structures indeterminate in the third degree let us investigate the possibilities of simplifying the analysis of a closed contour of arbitrary configuration such as shown, for instance, in Fig. 46.9a. Having eliminated the constraints at the Jeft-hand abutment and having replaced them with three u nknown reactions Xt. X 2 and X 3 as indicated in F ig. 46.9b, we shonld normally form three standard equations with throe unknowns. Tn order to avoid the simultaneous solution of these equations let us fix to the free end of tho simple structure an infmitoly stiff

Rcdt.(tldant struct11re
'( (G)

(b)

a
Fig. #7.9

F tg. 1fi.9

bracket ab , hoth the lt'nglh and the dirnetion of which remain as yet unknown (Fig. 47.9). At the freo end b of this bracket let us apply at right angles two forees z! ami z2 (tho direction of these forces coineiding with that of a new set of coordinate axes u and v) and a moment Ze. H the magnitude of these actions were S\tch that they would )mmobilize completely the end b of the brac.ket, preventing h otll its rotation and translation, the left extremity of the simple s truc.turo (point a) would also become fixed :J.ll(l thus from thl>. viowp<)ittt of their d(\flf:lctions the given redundant st-ructure and tho .simple sttuctm(l of l<'ig. 47.9 would be i.n the sarnt\ c.onditions. l11 other words, the structure of Fig. 4.6.9a and that of Fig. /17.9 acted upon both by load P, the fotccs Z 1 and Z 2 and t.hc moment Z 3 wouhl lJe oquivalont. The system of oquations t~xprcssing that t ho outl b of th<' bracket is held fast is as follows

z.ozt + Zz622 + Zs6z3 + L\zp = 0 Z.f5sr + Zz03z + Za033 + !\sp = 0

Z1l5u !- Z281z + Za<'i1s+~P=O }

( 17.f.l)

~28

Aualystll of th<! Simple-r Staltcnlly lndUrmtnate Structrrrs

lt will bo t'emembercd Utat tho COllfft<:icn l.o; 6 1h cu tcring t.hese oquntions ropre~ent the displacements of the free t1ncl of hrackot a.b induced hy load unities following the direction ot: the unknowns Z 1 Z 2 and Za. The magnitude of these displacl'ments depends, of coUI'SC, both. on the size of the bracket and on tho direction of the nxos u and v. Let 11!:1 choose theso parameters in ::~uc h a way ns to render nil all the secondary displacemonts of point fJ. lll that case eac h of thfr above three oquations will conlai n only one unknown, these equations reducing to
Zi = --~
vii

'

o,.,

Z. = - --022
z~ =
t-3p - -~3~

62p

(18.9)

Let us expn1..<>S mat.hemaUcnlly Lhe c.onditions govetning our c.hoic~ of the af:Mesaid parameters. Donating by t~ and v t he coordinaLes o nn elomont d~: of the given struc lnre (see Fig. 47.9) we may write
I _ _ I

01~

= (' M 1;u2
.)

d$ ..: (' v -u ds =(I

.)
0
I

EJ

EJ
v -1 ds=O

6~~ =

.) 0

(' ivl 1lf~ d5 _

EJ I__

I__

('
,) 0
I

EJ

623 _ (' llf2il13 .J.. = ~ u l ds """O .) EJ us EJ

0

Dividing each of those lhree t'Qualions hy E we ohtain

~u~
0

-=- 0
0

.) v i =
0
I

('

d.~

~
0

uu

~=0

J.t is fairly onsy to find a geometrical i nt~rpretnlion to tho conditions thus ox pressed. :r ndccd, let us subdivide tht~ whole of om

8 .9. 7'h(: Ti:l11Slic Centre Mctlwd

~ l.ru ctu re into elemt1nl.s

lo2H

ds a nd let us apply at tho c.ent.re ol' gravity

of each o.f:

l:lw~c

elemonts a n imaginary

load~.

Tn lhat case t!w

ilrst two of the above integrals will mean t.hat Lhe stn lie a L mo m~\u t.:'l <lf those imaginru:y loads about tho coordinal() axes u a1 HI v having for origin poiut b nrc nil. That will happon ou ly when poi rot b coincides with tlw centre of gravity of loads
Jll(llliiS

a; . The th ird of tho integrals

load!'!
ni.Htut.

that tlw .POlar moment o[

thc.~ o ~;amo

poin t b

Fi[!. dS. !I

'is equally nil, this lH.>.coming possible. only whon the eoordinato axos r.oirH~iclo with the principal aX<!S of i uerLia of Lhe syst.em. It follows that all f.he secondary disp lacements of a structure redundant in tlu.1 third d-egree awl forming a. clns< d contour ll'ill reduce to
zero providt!d the new ortgi.n of CIJorrlinate a~~:e.~ iN brot~ght in coincidence with the ce.ntr<! of gnwtty of the imaginary loads anrl the clirt:clion

d; ,

af tht!Sf.! axc.~-wilh that of the principal a.r.!.'1 oj inertia of the.>;< same loa.ds. If tha giucm stru.ctnre. is symmetrical, the principal axe.~ of inertia will coincidt:! with the a..1:es of symmetry. The, origin of tho Ht\W coordinato axes may he rletennirwd U8iug formu las provided by lhcorol.i<:.al mcdH1uics: thus, osirrg ttw notnt.i nns of Fig. 48.~) lho position of tho conlre of g1avity of th(;\ load.::; ~ wi lL be giver1 l > y
J
t

d$

l ~

ds

,):r.T

.)Y j

.ro=

f)

Yo- -

(I

~ ~
Q

~ ~8
0

1- -

(HUJ)

1n caeh ca!!c the nunwraLor r<:<prosonts the ,sum of t.hc ~;t.atica l moments of tho imaginary loads

d;

about some axis of euonlinatlS

( the summation l>eingcarried over t.hc whole lt\ngth of the c()ntour),

and t he denomiuator equals the Lotnl o[ these same loads.

4:~U

,1rwlvsi.~ <>I

the Simpler Statically [ndl!<lenni11ate Structures

Tho angle formed by the principal axes of inertia with tJto .x-axis is given by the fo llowing formula developed in tltc treatises on tho strength of materials (20.9)

where
(

J:r:cvc=

~ 3'.,Yc]
2

ds

I
1

J:~~:;;

ds

(21. !J)

Tlw imaginaty loads ~ arc sometimes called Lhe dasllc loads or mafise.~ and the centre of gravity of these olastic. masses-the elastic cmtre of gravity or simply the elastic centre. It is 11ot always advi~ahlc t.o resort to the method just desc.ribcd. Thus , For unsymmetrical systems Lhe. umount. of work requil'cd to

Fig.19.9

Pig sa .9

detennint the posit.ion of tho new c.oo1dinate axes may become so important tlwt it will oul;wcigltt c.omplet-ely tho advantages gained from the silnpliilc.ation of equation:;. H owever. H the sLtneturo is endowed with :tl. .least one axis uf symn10try i.t rnay bo sl:ated off lHmd that the methorl o[ the olastic centre will yield tangible results. Some examples o[ sueh structures aro given in Fig. 'tl.9.

9.9. ln{lumu Ltnes for the Simrlcr Redundant

Slr!~turn

431

l' Joblem. Determino tho position of the elastk centre for Uu tixcl oml llr.:.h o( fig. 5LU). 'fll1.> nou~ral hno of this arch follows a conic paraiH>In given
by y

l.f = fr (l -

x) x and i~s cros.s-ser. Lional momrm~s of inCJ'lia vary imw~cl~

lx = - cos <fx

J$

-= momtuL of inort ia of an arhitrarr cross section whoso ahscis.a l'quals x f, = mom(lnt uf inertia of Ll10 rross scct.iott at the c.ro\\-n of the nr~h 'I'-<= augl~.> fonned by t'ho tangent to the noutrol Line of th& arch nt point x with the axis of abscissa. Solr~tton. Start with cl ~.>\ellll ining the phsi t.ion of the elastic. t.c.rt~rc! with rl'fcr~.>nc.(' to tho coordinnt.o oxos xoy (Fig. 50.0i, Owing t<l the symna~ t.r y lf the structure l1oth as rP-gnrds its dim(lnsions and the st. illness of iLs cro~1! ~<~ct ic.Jns. one of t.hl\ r.oonlinato nxes is known off hanc l : it is vcrl-icill in direction otncl paSS'S through tl1e crown. Th(' rc[orc, lhe. ah~issn o[ !he e.la.st:ic C<'ntr(.l :r0 cqcu1ls
where J"

f.

As forth<.'

ctrdinat~ it '~ill be found u~ng oxpr~.'!s:ion tt9.9) and ds=~ ao.d COS lf.'x
l
.)

r<!mou1hcriug

that

=~ COS !px
J,

honco

\ 4/ (L-.r) z ck
~2

Yo =

(' dz

=.!/ a

' 0 7;
9.9.
INFLUENCE LINES STRUC'fUf\ES FOR 'l'.HE SliUPLlm HIWUNDAN'l"

The construction of influenN> Jines for redu nrl.anL structures may he caiTied out u~ing both the sttttical and the kincntaltc method!'.

Fig. 51 .9

Let us compare botlt these methods usi ng as an example thu beam of constant cross section appearing in Fig. 51.9a. T he inOuenoo line for the right-hand abutment reaction will be obtained using as simple statically dctermirrate structure the one shown in Fig. 5U)b. TJlc standnrd equation expressing that the deflection of the latter ~truc t.ure

4::12

.-1 n<ll!!Si.~ of the Si mpler S t aliwlly l n<]P.tr~rmitw/r. Slrur.lurP..<

a long

xl

il'l nil becomes

wherefrom
(2VI) Ou The deflections 61 , and 8 1p will llo derived frotn the Jlf1 and tho 11 1j, diagrams, tho first of Lhe~o diagrams being duo to t.he ap'J:>Iieation
--.-

X 1 .,--

'

< \t p

Fi~.

52.9

<>fa lon!l unity along the di rocLion of X 1 and the Sl:'oond - to tho
application of load P = 1 a distance ;Z: from the wall. Those diagrams appea1 in 'Fig. 52.~la and b.

He nco , i
x~(:~l - r)

and
&
II ~"

r.eJ

'"'2 " _:f.. R I ... :i/U

2l

/.:1

Jntroduring these values in expression (22.0) we obtain

x2(3l-:r.) 213 Tlw abovo cxpression gives the vall1o o[ roaction X 1 fot any '{losi-

X1

= _ bt p ~ :r2(3t.-:r)3TU
611 HRn:>

tion of the load unity P along the beam and therefore the graphieal

reprl1SC nl.:ttion of this expression will constitute the influence line for the said roac.tiotl. Table 3.9 gives ~he ordiuatcs t.o this inflnenco line nl. qual'ter~pan inc.remont:s computed using the above expression for X 1 The influence line it:self is reprc~cnted itl

Fig. s.q.u.
Fig. 59. 9

superposition

the

Next, let us take up the illflttcncc line for the she:~r Q 0 acting at midspan of the samt\ beam. Bnscfl on the princip le of rnagJ\itudo of lhis shear will ho

Qc=Q~~+QcXt

(n.9)

9.9. Influence Lines for the Simpler Redundant Structure~

433

Table 8.9
X x2

3/-x

x.
0
H 128

0 7;
l

0 l2

31

1:6
12

!!t 4

2 .!I
4 l

T
912

it 2
.?_I
4

16
81
128

16
12

21

where
Q~~

shear at midspan of tho simple cantilever beam duo to load unity P Oc = shear at the samo cross section duo to tho abutment reaction X 1 = 1. The value of Qc remains constant and equal to -1 (Qc = -1}. As for Q'b \Vhen the l oad unity P is to t he right of section C

Qb = 1
and when it has shifted to the loft of this section
Q~=O

The inllu<mce line for Qb is shown in Fig. 54.9. The value of the last term of expression (23.9) for any position of load unity P is equal to the abutment reaction X 1 multi plied

;-t-l -t->=1
llll~iilll+
Pig. 54 ..9

Pig. 55.9

by (-1). The graphical representation o.f this relation is given in Fig. 55.9. Adding the ordinates to the influence lines for Q~ and for QcX 1 we obtain tlle influence line for tho fu ll shearing force Qc acting across section C of the redundant beam (Fig56.9).
?.8-853

t.:Y.

An4lysis of Ute Slmpl(.r Stat/rally lndcttrmittate Strud11rr,s

]Jearn will he oblainotl in a similar way. is equal to

whore

The influoneo Jintt for tho bondiug rnomcr11 . at. mid span of the same Ind~etl, tl1i~ hondiug rnomont.

Me= bending moment at

cro:s.~ sec Lion C of the simple cauLi lcv(lr heam i nduced by the Jonrl unity P

~++ iH: ~-4

ln{lllt'!IC" liue {c" r-""1,.~1

!'l[luence iir1e for M~

~} .c ,~ ~

Fil(. 57.9
;\{0

=bond ing moment at tho Sli m~ cross ~(~lion bnL induced by a unit !I)IH.I acting a long the d i roctiou or X 1; tho value of lhis bend irrg mom<mt is constanll y equal to ~ .

T he. i nfl ue.nco linP.s for .ilf~ as wt.'ll as for. McX 1 at'O n'prt.'se.rrl~}cl i n Fig. 57.9. Adding their ordinattJs together wn oblain tho influnnco Jinu for JJ fc (Fig. 58.9). Tltc method jus t dosGribed is b!I~Qd o n com;idoratic)J),S of oquilihL"ium t~lonc <tnd t:horoforo it may he termed statical.

~ =l=LP+H
'f '

It~

~
ZS6 JZ
~o

lri(lu~ICP. {,,e tor Me

Fig.

SS.!I

Fig. $9.9

Lot us rep1ace no w t he de~ocLion 6 11l i n expression (22.9) by 6p 1 as provided for by the theorem of reciprocal denuctions. We ob~tin f>,l X1 -- - - 611 {24 .9)

9.9.

fnJ1Utlltl!

Lines

/11r

tht: Simpln R edundant Strrl(lurn

1.35

Tbongh 6 111 rtnd 6p 1 are always mmerically equal they convey very different ideas. I ndeed, 6 1p is tho daOcction of a lixcd point of application of the force X 1 due to a unit l oad P travelli tg along the beam; at the same time 6p 1 is tho deflection at thl'. point of application of a load P travelling along the beam, caused by a load unity acting along the direction of X 1 Hence, the va riation of 6, 1 repre. souled graphically will constitute at a certain scale tlw c lal)tic curve of the buam suhjectcu t o the action of a load unity applit-d along the direction of X 1 H owever, if we divide all t lte ordi11a tos to this curve by a c:.onstant factor equnt t.o (-8 11) w<.~ shall ohlain the orclin at<'..s Lo a gra ph representing the varin tiou of X 1 when load unity P travels along the beam . .13y definition this conl)t.it.ute.s tho iuOuonc~ line for It follows that tho influence line for X 1 will have lhl.l same shape as the elastic curve of the simple staticAlly determinate s t.ructuro loadtd by a unit action following tho direction of that unlwown. In t hat case (-6 11) becomos a ~ca l e factor permitting tho convers ion of t.ho ordinat.es to the dolloct.iou cu rve to those of the desiro<l infiu ~nc.o line. Th is porticulat method o influence lines construction shall bo tormcd herc.afte.r the kinem.atic method. For comparison , let us talw up again the beam of Fig. fi1.9a and construct the influence Jine for the abut ment reaction X" us ingtho kinematic method based on equation (24.9). Tho deflection curve 6p 1 will be obtained by the graph-analytical method or moments, which is usuall y described in all the treatises on the strength of materials. ln ossence thjs method permits to replace dl.'flection compu tatio ns by those of bending momen L..~ arising in an imaginary beam carrying an imaginary load distri buled iu accol'rlance with t.he diagram o tho bending moments cx.i!:~ti ng in ~ho tenl beanL The ordinaLes to the imaginary bending JHOrnont curve are then divided by EJ. Such an imaginary benrn wiLh a load distribution c.orrosiHlnding to X 1 = 1 is oprc,..entod in F ig. 59.9. Tho magnitude of the bonding moment (divitled hy E.T) in nny eru~~ sec. lion of tho i magi nnry beam si tun ted a d isl.anc.o .r. l'ro 111 its loi't (:llld will be

xt.

~PI= - ( T
wherefrom

lz

3 .c +
z2.1

(l-z) :r.

:z }

B/

6p1 = -6E.f(3t-x)
The value of 8 1lt obtai net! by tho kinematic method coinddes uxacUy with that of 6 111 del'ived from statical considerations. The negative s ign indic<~tes that the forco X 1 will cnuse ll1c boam 'of 28

li3G

A11al;qsls of the Simpler Statically lndete.rm,tnate Structure,

Fig. 51.9b to deflect upwards, whereas we have convened to reckon the deflections positive when their direction coincides with that of their cause, i.e., load P whic.h is directed downwards. The value of 6 11 will be obtained raising to the second power M 1 graph (see Fig. 52.9b)*

Ou =3FT
Hence the equation of the influence line for reaction X1 becomes

l3

-X1 -

a p l - .r2(3l - x)

Ou-

213

This equation is exactly the same as the one obtained previously by the statical method. The kinematic method may be used with good results for the construction of influence lines for internal stresses acting in the
Lett-hand

portion

t-1N ~r(C
' L

1---z--r--y--t .
Ftg. 60.9

)I

77lm

Ftg. 61.9

members of redundant struc.Luros and in p~nticular for the construction of in1uence lines for bending moments and shearing forcos. Thus the influence line for the bending moment could be obtained by tho method just described adopting for redundant reaction the bending moment M c acting at midspan of the simple statically determinate structure of Fig. 60.9. Tho equation expressing that the mutual rotation of two contiguous sections to the right and to the left of tho hinge remains nil becomes

X,ou + o,p = 0 or X ,ou + c5p 1 = 0

wherefrom

Xt=-

<ip1

ou

Consoquently, in that case the influence line for the bending moment at midspan will have the same shape as the deflection line
*TI1o vulno of 6u m11y bo dcrhed from that o <'lp1 suh~tituting l for x and changing lho sign, [or Lho load unities X1 and P nro diroctly opposed.

9.9. /nfl11.en.r.e Lines for the SimplP.r Rcdllndanl Structures

437

of tho simple structure adopted when acted upon by a unit momoot applied at this same cross section. The kinematic method permits the easy determination of the shape of the influence line for any action, this shape being tho same as that of the elastic curve of the corresponding simple structure loaded by a unit force or moment. This analogy can be of considerable value both in checking the accuracy of influence lines obtained

:~-t--Jn
1,.

I : J ~~--z
~

(b)

_~=1

~~M

Ptg. 62.9

Fig. 63.9

by some other method and in seeking those parts of the structure which must be loaded in order to provide for maximum or minimum values of the desired stress. When using the kinematic method for the construction of shear influence line the connection betwE.>en the right-hand and the lefthand portions of the beam may be represented by three bars as shown in Fig. 61.9. '.l.'he stress developed in the vertical bar will have exactly the same value as the ~;hearing force at the same cross section. The simplo statically determinate structure loaded with unit forces X1 permitting the construction of the Oc influence line appears in Fig. 62.9, and the ('quations negating the existence of a mutual displacement of two cross sections contiguous to C along the line of action of X 1 arc of the form

Xlc5u + t5Jp=0
wherefrom X1=

-- os 6u

6sp

X1 = --6u

6p1

Thus, the influence line for the shear at section C will again follow the shape of the deflection curve of the simple structure acted upon by the load unity X 1 At points immediately to the right and to the left of section C both branches of this curve will have parallel tangents, for the horizontal connection bars preclud.e the possibility of a mutual rotation of the sections iu question.

438

A nalysls of the Strnpl.er Statically 1 udtterminalc StruclrUC$

'!'he right-hand part of tho beam (soc 'Fig. 62.9) is subjected to the action of a load unity X 1 tending to rotate it in a cloc.kwise direction (Fig. u3.9a). To maintain it in equilibrium the moment developed by the horizontal bars must act in an opposito direction and therefore t.he top bar will be extended and the lowor one compressed (l~ig. 63.9a). The same reasoning applying to the lcfL-hnnd portion of the beam (Fig. 63.9b), its top ftbres will a lso be cxLended and the lowel' compressed. The deflection gLaphs &r 1 necessary for the construction of influUIH:6 Jines by the kinematic method may he obtained using any

Fig. GJ.9

F'tg. 65.9

of the procedures described above and in particu lar tl1o one wo have en lied the method of elastic loads (sec Arts. H .8 to 13.8). The kinematic method may be conveniently used for tho c.onsttuction of influence lines for stre.'!SCS or reactions at the supports of sLaticnlly indeterminate trusses. As an example, let us tako t he trn..<\5 red undant in t he first degree appearing in F ig. G4.U. T ho crOII!S sectional areas of all the members of tllis truss are the same. The corresponding simple statically determinate st ructure is given iu

Fig. 65.9 .
The standard equation showing that the displac.ement along the

li11c of ac.tion of the redundant constraint X 1 is nil Lakes the shape x,&u +15rp = 0
wherefrom

X,= - ~ = 6tt

6 111 6u

Tho variation of & 1, 1 when load unity P travels aloug the lower chord or the t.russ will coi ncide with the deflection cu.rvo of the sa me chord of the simplo structu re subjected to the action of a unit load X 1 'J'he ordinates to t his curve at all the joints have been compuLcd in Ar t. 13.8 using the elastic loads method, and tl1e curve itself is represent.ecl in Fig. 45.8. AU these ordinates are negative Io r nnder tho action of X 1 tlle lower chord tends to move U{)\V(H"ds while load u nity P is directed downwards. Tho influence line for X 1 obtained l>y dividi11g the ord inaLcs to the 61,.1 curve by (- 011) is represouted

!1.9. [n{liU'IICC T ,lrtN / (Jr llu Simplt!r fledundnnt Slruclurt s

439

in Fig. Gl>.9. Thus, Lbis inOllonco Jine will differ from the deflection <urvc o( th"' simple structure only by a con!'ltant factor equal to ( - ~J As for tho value of this factor, it will be oa~ily found by ~'l ling ol'f the value of llv 1 at tho point of a pplication of th~ load X 1

'
1

!
I
I I

:
:
+

~x,

ln{lflence lifle for

'

: ! x1
:
j
I

I
o.3Gt

:
'

I I

am

o.m O.J5Z

Fig. 66.9

Ftg. 67.!1

One<! tho influence Hoe for tho reaction at the tedundant support has been round, the stresses in all t he members of t he tr\lf!S will be readily obtained nsing the well-known expression based on the prinr.ipll of suporpositiolt

N,=Nr +iV,x,
whcro Ni

Nt =

stress in bar i resulting from the application t o the sirnpl~;~ !'!tructnre of the nc tuRl load stross in the same member rosulting from tho application to the same structure of the unit; load X,.

a~ Q7~GV,'fVI
/. JZs

Influence lint! for Lu ;(1

~
!
/(1/lU(!tiCt:

~~
0.032 O.OJZ

fine f,or L21 1

Ftg. 68. 9

Ftg. 69, 9

h follows that the infiuence lino for tho stress N; may be o!Jt~ined by the s ummation of tho ordinates to the two other influence linos, p that for N, anrl that for N 1K 1 To illustrate tho abovl', Jet us construct the influoncc line for stross 23 acting in one of the lower chord members or Lho same trus!) (see Fig. G4.9).

440

Jht<r.lysls of lh~ SitlHkr StaLicall/1 ln.dt Urmlnale Struclurn

Using the expression just mentioned we may write

L2a=Lfa-I-L2sX1

In order to obtnin the influence line Ior bolh terms of tha righLband part of thi~ oquation let us pass section I-I ns in Fig. 07.9. Assuming that load Wli Ly P is tn the right of this section, the oquilibriunr of the left porlion oi the truss requires that
:l:M3=A-3d-L~h = 0

whurort'om
LP- A-3d
u-

=..!A 4

The right-hand part of tho influence line for L~ will be obtainc~l setting off along the vertit'al passing through tbe left suppor'l an . 3d 9 d ord mate equa1 to h-= 4 an <lonnecting this point with tho point of zero ordinate over the right abutment. The left-hand portion Ftg. 70.9 of the same influence line wi ll be drawn remembering that the two always intersect in the vertical passing through the origin of moments. The completed infl11ence line for Lfa pertnining to the simple strncture of Fig. 67.9a is given in Fig. 67.9b. This same influence li ue shows that the stress induced in !Jar 2-3 by tho unit load X 1 will equal Multiplying by this facLor all the ordinates to tho influence line for X 1 given in Fig. 66.9, wo obtain a graphical interpretation of the variation of L 23 X 1 or, in other words, the influence line for the second term or our equation (Fig. 68.9). Summing up the ordinates to the influence line for L~ with those to the influencL~ Line for we obtain tho influence line for the stress developed in bar 2-3 of the redundant truss. This iuDuence line appears in Fig. 69.9. The influence line for tho stress D3~ obtained hy the same procedure is shown in Fig. 70.9.

f.

r23xl

10.

CONTINUOUS BEAMS

t.10.

TH01\EM OF THREE MOJIH~ N'J'S

A continuous beam is a statically tndetermlnate multzspan br(un on hinged supports. The end spans may be cantilever, may be free!) ..mpported or built in. At least one of tho supports of a continuous beam must be able to develop a reaction along the beam axis. Fig. 1.10a represents several spans of a con tinuous hea m carrying an arbitrary sy~>tem of vcrticalloods. The supports will bonumbered from left to right 0, 1, 2, 8, ... , n - 1, n, n + 1, oLe. and the induded spons will be designated by L 1 , lz, 13 , , l,. _, l,., l,+l, ole. , tho index of each span coinciding with t.hat of ils righthand support. It will be assumed that the moment or inertia re m ai n~ constant within each span, but may vary from one span to the olhcr. A conjugate statically determinate system for a continuous beam may be obtained by elimination of constraints considered as redundant which prevent mutual rotation of two cont.iguous sections over the supports or putting it otherwise, by the introduelion of a hinge at each of those supports as 1odicatcd in Fig. 1.10b. The equation, expressing mathematically that the an~;les of rotation of the aforemen tioned sections over the supports one with respec.t to the other remain nil , will be of the following form

... X,.-l'>,., n-2 + x,._,6,., 'fl-1 + X,.b,., n + X,IH5n,l1+1 +

+ X,~.~6,, nu +

.. . ~ Anp = 0 (1.10)

The coefficients to all lhc unknowns as well as the fre~ term wi ll be calculated with the aid of diagrams of the bonding moments induced by unit couples acting along the direction of each redundant constraint (Fig. 1.10c, d, e, f, g) and of that due to t.ho actual loads (Fig. 1.10h) , all referred to the system of end-supported coujugate beams. Thus, the coefficients <5,., ,._ 2, 6n, n- J. 6n. ,., 6,.. n+" 611, n+z will be obtained mull.iplying the 1~.1,. diagrnm (Fig. 1.10c) by thosl.!'

Cl)f]ti.rMvJs

lleam

(0/

Conju,qo te tmttsuppor!.ed IW/hls

.. ~,

4t

x~.z ~n

{,~!

;'til

~ -I
Xo-t I ln

II it l@ 2t ! ii1
"
///, ,

f)

nl

J;
@

J;

;;;;

'11 7

t t.'')

~-1
. ,.,,
f

i.

n-1

Fig, 1.10

1.70. Theorem of Three ,\foments

for Jlfn- 2 M, -~. llf,., Jl.fn +t and i1fn+z (see Fig. 1.10c, d, e, f, g)
On , tl-2

=0

bn, It-

1 ln I ln I = EJ,. ' 1 '2'3' 1 = llEJn

0"" ---

i Eln.

) _ 2ln. (t'2'3 l,. 2 i) 1 ( ln.+t 2 2ltt+t + Eln+t 1 ---y-3 1 -6BJ,. + lilUn+t

l)

1 ( ln+t ) ,.,,.Ti= Bln+i 1 2 X 3' 1

ln.+ I li.t:ln+1

l5n, llt2 = 0

IJencl, all lhe c-oefficients lo the unknowns in equatiou ('I .10) wH.h the cxcept.ion of the coeffldent.s <'>n,,.- 1 , 611 , 11 , and On. u.+ t reduce to zero. TJle multiplication of the 11-fn graph (Fig. 1.10e) by Lho Jfp gtaph (Fig. 1.10h) yields the following value ror the free torm of tho above oqnatiou
/:o.n.p

BJ 11

~~"y" + B J "+1 Qr~--ttYtH 1

In this expression Q n and Q,, +I aro the areas of the M 1, diagrn rn ovor t.he ln and the ln+t spans (see F ig. 1.10h), while Yn and Yn + t ar<' the ordinates to the ll.fn graph measured over l.he centroids or ~2,. and n,.+ respectivoly. [<roJH r'ig. 'l.10e and h we draw

Yn = t;;"
and accordiugly

(J.n

l
}ll\4

Yr>+S -

hn+l ln+l

we obtain
L'l.l~>=~ + n+l.'!l.+ l l Elnln Eln+1ln+l
c;

sM

whoreS;~'. ,_1 = slatic moment of Q, about tho vertical passing through the loft-hand support of span l,.
sLatic moment of Qn+t about tho vertical passing through the right-hand support of span l"+ The signs of these static moments will be the l':amo as tho:se of the eorresponding grapn areas. SubstiluLing the values thus found in equation (1.10) and c.ollecting Lhe tetms we find
n+s =
ln+1 ) X r~-f ' -In J + 2X n ( -ln J -t- -]-n n n+S

S';! +J,

. T

X n+t

-~--

ln+t

n+l

(j''M &.; tt+t,r..+ t

l,.+tln+l

Continuou s Beams

As the unknowns Xn-~o X,. and X,.-r 1 reptesent the bending- mo rnenLs at the supports oi the redundant beam Mn-t Jf,. and .M, +J , respectively, the above equation, universally known as tho equation or three moments, will take the following form
'" l,. !Yl,.-1-J n . 2lrcn ' 1 ( JI" + - ln+l ) + 1n 1l + 1
Aful - lH - I 1> - I

1 n~t =
li , }J
... n +t, H. +i

--r;;r;:--

t>S~f. n -1

ln+t. nl

{2.10)

J[ the cross-!<cetional areas of 11ll the spans of the beam remain constant, i.o., if 1,._2 = ln- 1 = J n = ln+t = Jn+~ etc., the equation of three moments becomes

i\, [ ,._ 1l ,.

+ 2./lf,. (lrl + l,IH) -+ Afll+tln+l =

H~t'

inn- 1

6s~l+1. n.-t

1,,.. \

(3.10)

The right-hand part. of cquat.ion (3.10) is eq11al to six times the imaginary reaction R,, which would arise a L the nth sup pott of the conjugate system of end-supported hea IllS if the spans coutigIIOUS to that support were loaded with the areas of Lhc bending moment diagrams due to the actual loads acting over these same spans {see Fig. 1.10h}. This reaction will be reckoned posit ive when thu loads just mentioned cause an extension of the lower f1bres of tlw beams. Equation (3.10) becomes thon

j frJI,

+ 2Mc (l~.. ...:.....tu) ~ Muln " -611~

(4.10)

where J\1 r, . ilfv . and Jfn stand for the mo men Ls ovt>r tho left-hand , tho central and the right-hand supports, lz. and lR ror the leng th of the spans to the loft and to the right of the contra\ suppol't, and R for tlw imaginary tuaction of the central support. All the three equations (2.10), (3.10) and (4:10) are known under the name of equations of three moments. Each of them expresses the idea that the mulual angular rotation of two adjacent cross sections over the nth support is nil. Therefore the equatious relate particularly to this nth support. At thu same time each of t.hese equations establishes the relation between the bending moments acting over three consecutive sup ports of the wntinnous beam. The numlJer of such equations Lhat. c.a.n. be written for a beam, all the supports of wllich are hinged, will be exactly equal to the number of the intermediate supports. The simultaneous solution of these equations will yield all the values of the unknown bending moments at these supports. The system formed by ali the equatious of three moments consti tules a particular form of the system of canonical equations. Its

1 .10. Theorem of Three Moments

445

groat advantage residt:>s in the fa ct that it necessitates neither the construction of unit moment graphs nor the computation of the displacements caused hy tho unit actions and the actual loads, simplifying thereby very considerably the analysis of continuous beams. When all the moments at the supports are known one may proceed with the determination of bending moments within the spans, Qf the shears and of the reactions developed at each support. These .computations will be carried out assuming that each span is simply supported at its ends and is acted upon bol.h hy tho applied loads -and the moments at tho s11pporls just determined. The following expressions will be used

M 0 + Mn-l +

Mn-;:fn-l

(5.10)
f)/1

Q = Q~+ Mn-Mtt-1
ln

(6.10)

where x is the distance ftorn the left-hand support of this span. These same expressions may be used for t.ho construction of the corresponding diagrams. The support reactions Dn will be determined as follows : isolating an infinitely Fig. 2.10 small element ovel' the support under consideration from the rest of tho beam we see that the left face of this elomcn tis acted upon by the s he~~r Q,.. n-t while its right face by Lhe shear On,n+t Such an clement is rept:esented in Fig. 2.10a. Projecting oo the.ivertical all the forces acting on this element we obtain

Qn,n-1+Dn-Qn,n+l =0
wherefrom
Dn = Qn, n+J -Qn, n - t

(7 .10)

ln tho above e.XIlressions reactions Dn are reckoned positive when directed upwards. Thus, in a continuous beam the reaction at a.ny su.pport is equal to the difference between the shears acting over two conttguou..~ cross sections located both sides of the support under consideration. Hence the numerical value of this reaction will be equal to the ri.~e or to the fall in the shear diagram over the corresponding support (Fig. 2.10b). The same reaction Dn may be obtained if both spans meeting ~ver the support in question are regarded as simple end-supported beams (Fig. 3.10), these beams being acted upon hoth hy tho actual

lo4fi

Conlinuous /Jeam$

londs and the moments at tlte supports already determined. In t his caso roact;ion D,. will be givou by the su m of Dn ,, dC'voloped nt tho right. end of tho left-hand beam and of D 11n devdoped at the tort ond of t he right-hand beam or, in other words D,..= DnL+ D,.n (8.10) in this exprlssion D nL-Do +!tln- tln - Mn } 11L

nn-

, 1n+ I - JI1 n - no + ,, nR ln+J

(H.10)

or

wlwro D~. D~,L nnd D~.n arc tho reactions nt t he common SUJ>po r1s both hea rns due solely to the action ot actual loads, tho bC'uding Hlolllouts nt the supports being disregarded.*

Pig. .' 1.10

(~.H))

Jn L roiJur.i ng tho vu lucs given lJy ex.pressions (9.10) in equation wo obtain

(10.10)

Doth rormulns (7. 10) and (10.10) permit lhc compulnLion or all thC' SIIJljlort roncLi<lns or the c.ontinuotlS hoam when the moment~ nL tho supports 11rC' known. The rencLion at the support or a eant.iJovor-encl spa11 will bo determined using expression (7.10) or, in other words, computing Lhe difference heLwoon tho shears acting on l>Ol.h sides of this support.. It will he rcmornbered that t he :;hearing forco acting at thC' support of a ca ulilC'ver lleam is always equal to L ht> projecLion of all fo rces acting on lhi:::. beam in the direction normal \.o i Ls axis.

+
Tho magnitude of Dn 1, unll DnFI could al~o lJ(I decluc.(>d fl'om the equilib" dum of the end-supported beams just rnom~il>nLIII.

.1.10. T/tr.orrm of .T hree ,\!!orrumttt

44.7

Let us now examine tllo wnlinuous beam appearing in Fig. 4..10a when the length of tho left-end span of this beam reduces gradually to ze.ro. Tn this C;Jse tht>. tange.nt to t.he elast.ic curve at. thf:'. lofthand suppox-t will also tend towards t.he axis of the beam (Fi{r. 4.10b),. which indicates t.ba l. tlre aoss section over support .l will suiTor no rotation whatsoever. This moans that t.he end of the heam npponring- in Fig. 4.10a ht~coml:'s ftxerl when tho length l 1 o( iLs end span Lends towards zero (Fig. 4.10c) . .It follows Lh;lt the analysis of continuous beams with fixed ends may be carried out using tho same equation of three moments, providrll

Ftg. 1.10

a built-in end is replaced by an additional freely supported :.pan. oj

uro length.

Cunc.lnding we may recommend l.he following sequence or opcrat.ioos for thf:'. analysis of ('.ontinuous bt'ams~ 1. Trac.c a schcma l.ic drawing of the beam iJldicating all the applied load~. If one of the end spans of the beam is built in, rtplaco lho huilt-in end by a.n additional simply supported spnn of zel'o lengtll. 2. N~1mber from le(t Lo right all the supports as well ai'J all l.ho spans. 3. vVril.e [or each intermediate suppor~ of the beam an equation of three momenl.s. 4. Proceed with tho simultaneous solution of all these equations obtainin&" t hus tho magnitude of all the bending moments at tho supports (except the end ones which remain zero). 5. Determine the bonding moments and the shears along tltt' spans usin~ expressions (5.1 0) and (G.1 0) thus obtaining aU the da La nece~sary for the construction of stress diagrams.

Corllitluous JJca.ms

S. Compute all the support reactions using CXJJressions (7.10) or (10.10). 7. 'l'he accuracy of the diagrams obtained will be checked using one.of the methods described in Art. 6.9.
J'roblem I. Trnce the M and Q diagrams for a continuous boam of constant cross section rcpre.sent.ed in Fig. 5.l0a..
( (J J

, r
lr =l

l
0

Jm
lr = l

(b)

I
J

. .A.
(C)

Jx.

(d)~
(e!

"o'' t'' ' ' ''

lll f i l1 ~ ~ =~ . . . . . 1~ - z
P

40 ---:::-: ~ ~ p tr-------L~ , = pt r--------,. ~

JP

Fig. 5.10
Solu tion. Construct tho Mp diagram re}tarding each span as a separate ond-supportc:d beam ( Fig. S.i.Ob) and form for support 1 U1e equation of throe moments. Expres>~ion (4.10) loads t o

Mol 1+2M (l t+l2)+ Mzlz= -6R[

The beam being s.y mmetrical and symm(kically loaded, tht- moments over supports 1 and 2 will have th e samo values, wltich means that M, = M 2 In addition Wt' hnvo M 0 = 0 and z, = lz = l.

1. 10. Throrcm of Three M oment$

449

lienee

and co nsequently
2Jlt 2l

+Jl<J ,t = -

-8-

3P 12

wt. tlrefrom
Il'lt=M2=

3Pl - 40

Both bcnlling moments M 1 and M 2 thus obtained being negative, the top fibre-s to\er the supports will be extended and the bottom oues compressed. In order to construct the bending mon1cn t diagram let us cletermino now tho momont at load point P using formula (5.10)

~ .!..!_ - 3P l 1 2 4 40

+ -"'40- -40 . ..= 1J>l

l 2 40

3Pl

3Pl)

Knowing the nll uos of tho bending moments ot tho supports as well as that nf J ,li(' moment at. tJ1o middle of the c.entral spun wo can procee.d with th e cnn1'l t:ruc: t.itlll I'Jf the IHmding moment diagram for tho whole boam (Fig. 5 llln II t thl' same. time ox pression (6.10) permits t.t.o c.Blculation of ~>h earing flli'CI'S nt. all the cro!l-.'> sec tions of the beam. Thus, for t.he s pan O.l we ftnd 3Pl -40-0 3P

Q,.=-aO+

- "10

nnrl for tb( s pan J-2 we have betwl)om support 1 and the load point

Q =!!... + 40'""'"- -40

2
l

-3Pl

3PZ)

_!_
2

ol i n~tram appea ring in Fig. 5.t 0d. This diagnm boing symmetrical , it"' rigllt

'flu a bove d a ~a arc s uftlc iont for the cons tn1ction of t.he left half of th e ~hear

hnlf will btl ol>lained immrdiately. The rencUons at the supports will he given lo ~ oxpres.sic>n t7. 10) 3P 3P Do-D3= - 40

-o--40
!~) =

Dt = Dz= ; - ( -

2 :;

Fig. 5.10e repre.!!onts the given beam together with all the loads nnd rc:~clions a cting thereupon. It is ohviou.s that the wholo system is in equilibrium . Let us check the accuracy of the M diagram which must provido for deflect ions consistent with the sti pulations of the pro blem. Since the boam and the load distribution are symmotrical , the aneular rotation u11 of the cross section at load point must equal zero. The value of this rotation can be obtained eliminating supports Q and 9 and applying to the simple statically doterrninat.e system thus
29 - s~ :c

450

Continuous Beams

obtained a unit moment at load point P. The bending moment diagtam duo to this unit moment appears in Fig. 5.10/. :.VIultiplying this graph hy tho hwtling moment graph <lue to the actual loads and reactions (Fig. 5.10c) we ohtain
vp

1 [ 3J>l = EJ - 4o

!23 1+

( 1Pl

~to -

3PL ) 1

~to

2 2 1 =
=

4~~21 ( -t+f-{) =0

which indicates that all the computations were carrie<l out >tcc.urately. Problem 2. Construct the M and Q diagrams for the continuous beam appeaing in Fig. 6.10a; the cross-sectional areas of this beam vary from span to span. Solution. The schematic drawing of the beam with its built-in end rotllaced by an additional span of zero length and all the supports and spans duly ni!Jllhered from left to right appears in Fig. 6.10b. The terms of the right-hand part o( the equation of three moments will be derived from the diagrams of t he bending moment~ due to the actual loading, considering ear.h span as a separate end-supported beam (Fig. 6.10c). The diagram for the cantilevering f'nd will he const1uct:d in the same way as for a simple cantilever beam. The bending moment M 3 being equal to - 5 ton-metres (see Fig. 6.10c), the only two unknown moments are those at the first and second supports {M, and M 2). The equat.ions of three moments for these two supports are

..:._u+2.M1
It

lf l

l l '&SM 6S"" (-1-+_2 )+Mz-"2-= - ~- _32 It /2 lz lrlr lz/2

6SM 6"iM

_M, lz+ 2.M2 (~+..!L)+u3 .2!.=-~- 3;3 /2 /2 Ja J3 l2J2 l3!3

Stwing that M 0 =0; M3 =-5 ton-metros; 11 =0; 12-ilm; 1:1 =4m; 1 2 =2J; J 3 .,.., J and s:~ 0 =0 we f\nd
~':! : z=--2.. ,1

sxa( 3 +3) sx a 2 3=-l::l . 3 +--;r;r

s..:; ~t f = - s x 3. !..3+5x3 (a+.!) =15 2 3 2 :;

S3 ; 3
~~

3 "< 4 4 3 " 2 3 . =--r- 2 +y :r;r4 ~;-=IH

2J'~<1 1 (>+M ~=

_ ti ( -15)
(i

21

x 2J

M,f) 2M (~ -1-_i )_5 X 4=_fiX15~1i x IS 2 2J 2/ J J 621 4/ Upon collection of krms and other simplifications these two
b(~CCim6

eqn;~.Lions

~M:~+2M2=5 and 6M1 +28M2 =-2~l these two equations yield M 1 = 1.98 t on-metres nnd M 2 = -L4G ton-metres. The bentling moments acting along the spans may now be easily founrl using oxpression (5.10), those acting along the cantilever span arc alrondy known.

f.lO. 1'heorem. of Three M omen.ts

Span 1-2
fur 0 ~ x .,.,.: :{ tn

M= -

5 - i .ltti-1 . 98 3 x+ 1.98-r-- 6 - ---- x = 1 .98-2.24x

for

:p~3uJ

M = 1.98- 2.21tx3 = -4.74 ton-metres rn Jlf=1 0-jx+t.98+ -1.4.~-1.!1~3 x=11.98-2.24x

M = 11.98-2.24 X 3 = 5.26 ton-rnctrc~; M =oH. 98-2. 24 x 6= -1.46 ton-mdrcs
" ;t{ =J.5x- 3~ - -1.1o6 + -5+L46 x= 2 4 = -t.46 7 3 . 615x - 1.5x2 ;1{ = - 1.46 + 3.615 X 2- t.S X 22= - 0.23 ton-metre M=.4.5.r - 3 X 2 (x -1 )-1.4G+

fvr

3m ~.<. ~ (j

for x= 3 m {or x = 6 m
Span 2-J

for x = 2 m

for 2m ..,.,;.x .,.; ;, m

+for x=.2 m

5+ - ' st. 4 1.46 z._.,, 1 - 2 . as;) X

ror x= 4 m

M=4 .54-2.385X2=-0.23 ton-metro M=4.54-2.38l> X 'l = -5.00 ton-metres

The complete.d bending UlOJnent d iagrnm is repre~nted in Fig. 6.1011. The magnit\lile of th!l shearing forces acting within the spans will be given hy the. first derivative of the expressions oht.aine.d fo1 the bending momnnt. Span l-2 Q= -2.24 tons Spar~ 2-3 f< )r O~x ~ 2 m Q=3.615-3x lor x =O Q=3.615 tons for x =2 m Q ~ 3 . 615-3 X2= - 2. 385 tons Tlw shMring force will becomJ zero at tht> c.ross soction dutermin.'d by

Q=3.615-3x=0
wherefrom 3.615 1 .20" :t=-r= ., mtt rt's

At this c.ross l!ection the h<'uding moment will rt>ach its maximum*
Mma x = - 1 .46+3.6{5 X 1.205-1.5 X 1.2052 =0. 72 ton-metre 2m~ .x~ 4m Q= - 2. 385 t ons The shearing force di<Jgram construc.ted using the above data is reprc5ented in Fig. 6. iOe.

+
" By maximum we mean here any point corresponding to a horizontal tangen~ t.o the bending moment c.11rve.

Continuous /Jr.oms
Tho r~?actions nt the support will be obtained rts previously usJng furmula (7. tO) Dr ,.~ -2.V. tons; D2 =3.6t5-(-2.24j=< 5.855 ton:s n3 =5-(- 2. 385) .... 7.33.~ tous

at ,

I I

I
I
1 ,.,.

f('_ __

...,: i'f"

<;;...U......:..J..L.I..I..I.-!-rTT"!'TTTTT:~b-::-n-n-rfTT~"l"l:~l..L~

; ,
I

I
1

,.

-~ - 1: .. : . 1 : I ....
I : I
I)

S S,)Si

<t>'

'j .

1 1 -.

--,j-1-L-:....U...:..:..W....i..LLJU...U....:.W..J..LLU..U...I..L.J...J....U.J..O::::::::,.,.U...._i

~.

Fig. 6.10
lt'I)!'I'SeJllS lh~ h~:nm with all the IO:tds and react ions ac.ting thereon . l..tl n<~ c hf.'Ck whclb cr tho l'tptil i br ium condi tion!' arn salisfioo

Fig. fd Of

l:l' = -2.24+5.855 + 7.385 - 3X 2-5=13.24-13 .24 ~ 0

~M 1 =I . ~g+10-5.855

X 6 -7.385 X 10+3 X 2x 7 -i 5 X 11 = 108 . 911- 108 .!)8 .= 0

2.10. 1'i Foc.a,l Puinls Method

Let us cout1ol also tho ru:cumcy o[ the M diagram using the mothutl Lased on the consistency of <lenections. For this purpose let us compute tht\ deOI.>ction of the section situated <l iruetly over support 3. This defloot.lon mu$t ho ncco:>stuily oil, the support pree.lmling 11,uy vertical movement of tho h(a nl. Tho bending moment diagram induc.e<l by a vertical unit. load acting r~t the c<HTUsponding section of 11 simple statically ilelermina&e beam (obtained l,y elimination oJ supports 2 and 9) is repesented in F ig. 6.10g. Multiplyil1 g the (rdinatcs to the curvo o-f the rosultant m<~ml'liLS M by the ili11gram cf Fig. l'o.10g we obtain

6s=
X

( -2 X 10 X 1. 98+2 X 7 X 4. 74+10 X4.74-7 X L98l:x

'o(

2 ~f+i {-2 X'i X 5.26+2 X 4 X i.46+7

2

l ."16 --4 X 5 .26)

H>)

i J-,.

i t.2 X 4 X

1. -~6+2 X2 X 0.23+4 X 0. 23 + 2X I
5.48-6+3.61.) = 0

,}j-

2 4 2 1 , :! X 2 ( O 2 ~ 2 1 ) 1 5 2 X"]f X - - xEJr---;;;--- X - 1 X .X. . <>X;r i- :> XS l!:J ~ 2 .

= ; , (15.075-18 .195 +

whkb intlic.nws that all the computations were carried out correctly.

2.10. THE FOCAL POINTS METHOD The method doscribed in the preseht article becomes particularly interesting when c.ontinuous beams with a very large number of spaus must be dealt with or when only a few of Lhe spans carry the loads.
0 . ., .,

"''

(::J ,

Ftg. 7.10

Let us examiue the beam o. co11stant cross section appearing in Fig. 7.10a assuming that only the nth span is loaded. We may

Continuous Beams

eli min ate all the redundant constraints opposing mutunl rotation of adjacent cross sections at the supports, provided wo replace Lheso constraints by the corresponding bending- moment~ which are as yet unknown. Jn order to find these momcnls let us write consecutively the equations of three moments for each of the supp orts. (a) Support 1 The equation or three moments becoltlcs
Molt + 2M, (l,
hut since M 0 = 0

+ le) 1- Mzlz= 0

hence
2 (l, 1- l:!)
~~

The latte1 rel ation shows that (1) the bending moments M 1 and M 2 at Lwo uei~hboudng supports are of opposite signs; (2) lhe ratio depends solely on span lengthl:! l 1 nnd lz, but i!'l comt>letely uninlluenced by the magni tude of the lflOmcnls a11d loads acting along the spans further to t he right. In the particular cnse when l 1 = l 1 the factor K 2 becomes equal Lo 4, or. in other words. the bending moment 1 l1z is in ab~olut~ value four times as large as the bending moment l'vf1 The bouding moment diagram for span lz has the shape indicatod in Fig. 7.101>. This diagram shows that in the loft half of the span there il'. a point where the bending moment Leco mas zero. This point is kuown as the left-hand focal point of the second span and will be hereafter designated by F 2 The location of this ])oint along tho span depends on the value of K 2 which we s hall call the left-hand focal factor for the second span. The l ocaLion of the focal point. rcrnains uninflu~nced by tho lengths or t.he ~pans fnrther to lh!! right, nor by the loads these spans may carry. Th.c bending momeu Ls at the ftrst and seMnd supports may vary iu t~rms both of the tUOOllnL and of the distribution of th o loads. hnt the ratio heLwoen Lhes~ moments will remain const ant as Jong as the spans l 1 and l 2 remain unloaded. Consequen tly, the bending moment at the focrd point F 2 will remain always ntl when the latter condition is fu,l{i.lled. The distnnr.e u 2 between the focal point F 2 and the nearest support to tlte lefL is given by

Z:

2. .10. Tlu Focal Points M,.chod

455

and in the particulat' case when l 1 = l 2 = l

u2 = 5 z
(b) Support 2 The equation of thr ee moments becomes
M1l2 +2M2 {la + Zs) + Msln = 0

Snhst.i.tuting in this equation M 1 = - ~: we find

wherefrom

~= l2 + 2Mt(la+ls) ..L. M3l3 = 0

M2

1 Ms=-[2+~(2-)] =-K3 ls K2

It is clear that the ratio is again independent or the length of L he spans further to the right as well as of the loads applied to these spans. The shape of the bending moment diagram nlong the third span will be as shown in Fig. 7.10c. Within the left hnlf of this span there wiJl again exist a focal point where tho bending moment will remain zero as long as three spans lt. l 2 and l 3 remain unloaded. (c) Support 3 The equation of three moments will be in this case Mala+ 2Ma (1 3 l,)+M,l, = 0

z:

Substituting in this equation _MKa for 1 M 2 we obtain as pre3 vio usly

1 M43 =-[2+~ (2-)]=-K,.

''

Ks

'l'hus, the focal factor for span 4 will be given by exactly the !'arne expression as the one for span 3 with the only difference that nll the intervening indices are increased by one. Consequently, the general expression for t he focal factor Kn relative to Lhc leftha nd foc.al point of span n will he
Kr.=
Th~

[2+ ln-s (2- -1-) ] = - Mn-1 Mn Ln Kn-s

x.=-M=-oo Mo

(11.10)

above expression permits the computation of all the focal factors one tlfter the other. Thus, for the first span of a simply supported continuous beam we bave

M 0 =0 and

456

Continuous Beams

which indicates that the left-hand focal point of the first span coincides with the left-end support. For the second span >vo obtain as already ml'ntioned

Kz=2+~

lz

(2-2..) = 21l,+12l co l
2

It should be always remembered that the left-hand focal point is a point situated along the axis of a continuous beam at which the bending moment remains nil as long as the span under consideration and all the other spans to its left remain unloarkd. Let us now investigate those spans of the same continuous bea m whieh are located to the right from the loaded ones. B.easonlng in exactly the same way, we shall obtain an expression giving the value or the right-hand focal factor. 'l'he bending moment diagram for the unloaded right-hand spans will have the sl1ape indicated in Fig. 'i .-!Od. This diagram shows clearly that in the right half of each span there exists equally a certain point where the bending moment remains nil as long as the span under consideration and the spans located further to the right carry no loads. These points are Lhe right-hand focal points and the expression giving the value of the right-hand focal factor which we shall indicate by [(~ will be derived from that for the left-hand focal factor keeping in mind thl:IL the numbers allotted to the supports and spans decrease from right to left
(12.10)

When tho right-hand extremity of a continuous beam is hiugosupported the focal factor becomes intinit.ely great just as in the case of a hinge-supported left end. All the other right-hand focal factors will be determined in succession with the aid of equa1;iou

(12.10).
The expressions (11.10) and (12.10) ruay be used for the determination of focal factors pertaining to continuous be.ams with fixed ends if these ends arc replaced by additional spans of zero length. Thus, for a continuous beam with a built-in left end the value of the focal factor K 1 will be giver\ by

K 1 =2+~(2-;J
where 1(0 = oo for the left end if the additiona.l span is hingesupported. As l 0 = 0 we obtain K 1 = 2 which means that the focal point will be situated one third of the span to the right from the wall. It is worth mentioning that this is the maximum distance which can separate the focal point from the corresponding support.

2.10. The Focal Points Mttlwd

457

Af!. for t.ho minimum distance, it is equal to zero as we have alrendy scon. Let us apply t he focal points method to the determination of t.he bending moments aL the supports of a continuous beam nppllating in Fig. 8.10, assuming that only one span of this beam (~ny. span
....,
.

1 1.

-. -+.

<.. ..................

"

',
Fig. 8.10

--- --

M , .,

t---~-"..;..'--

l,.) is loaded. The eq\tations ot: three moments for eat~h o( the t.wp supports limiLing t.he Jonded span become: Ior support n - 1 Mn-2l,._t 2M"-t (l,._, ln) M,.l,. = - 6R~-~ = - 6A~ for support n

+ +

Mn-lln +2M,. (ln +ln+t) +Mn+lln+l = -6R~-6B~ In these expressions A~ and B:, are the imaginary reactions of
tba left- and of the right-hand supporLs of the nth span respectively. Replacing the bending moments at supports M,._ 2 and .M'n+t by ~heir values expressed in terms of tho focal factors "" llfn-1 d M n+l = - -,Mn I YJ11- t = - - - an
Kn- 1 Kn+t

we obt ain
MTI -1 [ 2 (ln-1+ ln) -

M,._tln + Mn Oi"iding both parts of these expressions by l,.

~:~J + Mnl,. = - 6A~ [ 2(ln+ ln+l)- ~~:J = -68~

1 Mn..t[2+ l,_, (2--)J + Mn= _BAf, L,. K,. _l t,.

( __1_ )] M1'1-1 + MII [ .2+tn+l t,. 2 K;.+l =-

6B{.

z;.-

arul keeping in mind expressions (11.10) and (12.10) we fi nally

obtain

Mn-tK,.+M,.=-

M,._ 1 +M,K;. =

--r:

6A 1 ," 1 6B1

458

Contlrtuot~s

B eams

Solving these equations for M,._1 a.nd Mn we find

__ G(.1{,xo-n:1 }
Mri-lln

\KnK~-1)

111,.=-

6(B;K11 -A;.) l n( K n K .,-1)

(13.10)

If the loads are located over one of the end spans, say, the left. one, and provided the leftend support is hinged, the vah1e of the focal factor for this span will become infinitely great. The bending moment at the left~end support becomes nil and the value of the bonding moment at the other support of the span becomes indetermin~te. This indetermination will be eliminated dividing both the numerator and the denominator of the expression by K,. . When !(,. increases indeftnitely we obtain
6

M,=

(B~-~) ln (K;,-ck) =

61J;.
-z,.K;,

Having thus determined the bending moments at the supports of the loaded span, the bending moments at all the other supports will be found easily using the expressions for t he focal factors. When several spans of a continuous beam are loaded directly tho problem will be solved using the principle of superposition.
Problem t. Determine the bonding moments M 1 and M 2 aL ~he supports of span 1-2 carrying a load unity P situated a dist.ance x from support 1 (l~ig. 9.10a) . Solutton. Using exprcs~ion (11.10) determin~ the )(1ft-hand focal fac.t.(>rS for spans l 1 aml 12

Kt=-Z:-=-co;
'= K4

K2 =2+~(2-~)=4
fo<~al

and

De~erm i ne in the same way t~ using formula (12.10)

the right-hand

factors for spans 1,.,

l~

M3 -=-CO

M,

Ki=2+~ la

(z-.!.) =4 o:>
3.75

K3 = 2-t-~ (2- .!.-) = lz 4

using expression (13.10)
M _ _ G (A{Ki-JJi) . t1 2 (K 2Kj-1) '

The bending moments at tho supports of the loaded span wi II be found

M =
2

6 (8iK2-A~) l 2 (K 2 K,i- l)

2.10. The FocaL Potntt

M~tlwd

1,59

in which

, 1 _X (l-.r) 1 . l 2
f

..!. . (21-z) ""' (l-:r) (2l-x) x

3!
(z +l)

61
:t: {l~-zll)

O1=--~-2 ----ar =
{s~.>e

r(l-x)

6!

the bending mornen~ graph represented in Fig. 9.10b). t sing t hese

Wl'

exp ressions

find

(l-x)(2l-:r)x 3 n, _ x(l!-.~;2) ) 6[ 6l X . 6l

M 1 "'"

L(4X3.75-1)

=
(1-x} (:ll-x) r X 3. 75-.r (l~ - .r2)

(l - z) (21-z)z x (l2-z2) r. [ 6l X 461

14Vl
4z (l2 - z2) -(l-.r) 121-z) z

1412 t4l Problem 2. Required the complete annlyJ<is of a six-span c.ontinuous heam uniformly loaded o,er the whole leugllt o[ spnn 4 ( Fig. 10.10a).

M groph

!b)
a= x3 ..L .._!"'-"-'-'....L..Lj..L.L.:...:..L.:.""' = 4l;JC ..__ _, .,IJ . J
I I

t--"'---"1-

---=.-.

F ig. 9.10

Solzttion. Begin with computing the leh-har1d focal factors 1 1siug expres-

sion (H.10}

460

ContinuOu$

B4tUit8

'fhere i:; no need to compute tho focal factors for the following spans. The riRbt-hand local factors will be computed beginning with the rlgb.t-end span of the beam. All the spans of the beam lleing o[ the same lengt11. wo hn"f.' K~ = K 1 - - co K&.-K2 = 4
K4 ~ K3 ""' 3.75

'J'Itu bending moment diagram inducod in the conjugate statically loter-nwlnte bOtlm by the given Lon.dlug Is represented in Fig. 10.10b .

.q

ra>_A

::r:

Ptg. 10.10
in~ va luo~

Using lhis diagram as the imaginary load di agram we shall find the Coll'lwfor the ~upport ro~ctlous

A[ =D[ =- ~.

~ Li-=~~

Formula (13.10) yields immediately tb.e bending moments u thl' supports 3 nnol 4

3.10. Bending _llfoment Envelope Curve.1

46t

Knowing the magnitude of these. moments and the vah1es of tho foc.al factors all the ot.hP.r bending moments, at the supports of the lleam are obtained with no difficulty Af3 11 2 4 11 2 Mz=- K = 208qZ 15=7801Jl
3

Mo 11 i 11 Af 1 = -....::= --q/21.= - - - q l 2 ; J\1o = 0 K2 780 " 3, 12(1

1~ 41 I 4t 2 Ms=- K~~780ql 2 T = 3,120ql ; M6 =
(J

1 'h& data so o'IJtainod have pp.rmittcd the consln1ction of the dingrnm appeA ring ln Fig. 10.10c.

3.10.

BENDING MOMENT ENVELOPE cunnS

fJ.'he control of fibre strCtsses in co:ntinuous beams and th ~ choit:e of their cross-sectional dimensions wj.ll frequently require the knowlt~dge o the extreme values the bending moments may aLI.nin at different poinls under di.f!erent load:ing conditions. The dend loads
;a,l

A-

.?

Ftg. f11..10

will be usually c-onsidered uniformly distributed hut tho position of the live loads may vary quite considerably. Jf at every cross section of Lhe beam we set: of[ two ordinates-one r~presenting the maximum value of the bending_~ moment (jl:fmax) and the nthor its 1(1inimum value (M n11n) and if we connect these ordinates by two smooth curves we shall obtain what is usually referred to as t.he bending moment envelope curves. '!'he construction of such cur.ves can be best explained using as an example the Lhree-span continuous beam represented in fig. 11.10a. Let q be the uniformly distributed dead load per unit

462

Continuous Beams

length of the beam, and p the live load also uniformly distributed, which occupies either the whole length of the beam or

( f1}

Fig. 12.10

is SJH'ead O\'E>.r rert.ain SJJan lengths only, or is completely absent.

Suppose q = 2 tons per rnell!c and p = 3.75 tons per motre.

8.10. Bending Moment Envelope Curves

463

The bending momellts at the supports may be determined using ei ther the equations of three moments alternatively or cnn be deduced from the position of focal po~nts. The diagram of the bending moments due to the dead load {iS given in Fig. 11 .10b. Fig. 12.10a, b and c represents the hLnding

Fig. 13.10

moment diagrams due to the live load occupying successively the f11st, the gecond a nd the. third spans. Le.t us proceed now with Lbe construction of the envelope curve. For this purpose we shall frst take at eac.h section tho sum of all positive ordinates due to t.he live loads and add it to the ordin11Le nt this same eroS!\ scclion due to t.he dead lond. V'le shall thus obt.aiu for each cross section the ordinat.orepresonting the maximum bend ing moment M max thai. can be produced by tho given loads. '.!'hereafter we must pick out for each of the cross sections under consideration aU the negative ordinntes that may ari&:~ u nder the offcct of the live loads, sum them up and then add them algebraically to tile ordin<~l.e induced at the same section by the dead load. Tho

ordinate will represent the minimum bending momtlnt possible under the given loading conditions. T hus, for instance, the M max and 211min ordinates for section 1 ov~r the fi rst support will ho
,'1-fmrn

re~ulting

Mmox =L0+( - 3.2)=-2.2 too-ru ~trts Mmtn = -4 + ( - 3)+( - 3.2)= -10.2 t on-met ros
Hcpeating tho ::~arne operation for a suffiCient number of scr.tions we shall fmd the il-fmox and M min ordinnt<.\'5 which, connected togtlthtr, will form the two t'nvelope cu rvt~s desired (Fig. 13.10). T he shea t'ing forctl~ tnvelope curve~ can be obta ined in exactly the sam~;~ way . .Envelope curves for continuous heam~ of constant cross section and evun span lengths aro usually constructed usi ng appropriate tables which simplify the operation very considerahly . 'l'hese tables COh laiu da ta pormitt.ing the computation of the M and Q ordinates due ho~h to dead and Jive loads. Here under we present such a tablo ITablc 1.10) for a two-span .beam simply supported at its end!!.
Table 1.10

" T
0.0 (1 .1 0.2 0.3 0 . 375
{t. 4

0. L
11

Bendi ng momen(s M I). L .

Shearing rorecs f./

I
I

0. L .

+~

-II

"'
+0.375 ..0.275 +0. 175
~0 . 075

L. L.

+6

- b

(1. 5
n.t)

ll. 7
f t. 75

0 1-0.0323 +0.0550 +0.0675 +0.0703 +0.0700 + O.OG25 + fJ .0450 1-(1 .0175

(I

0
0.(13875 0.00750 0 .08625

0 0 .00&25 0.01250 0 . 01875

0. 02:~4

0.0()375
0.09500 0.09375 OJJ8250
0 . 001~

(1.8

(1.85 0.9 0. 95

-0 .0200 - 0.0125 - 0 .0675 - 0 . 0950

LO

-0. 1250

0 .04688 0.03000 0 .0 1523 0. 006H 0 . 00138 0

0.0250U 0 .03125 0.037:>0 0.04375 0.04688

0.05000
0 .05773 0.07361

O.O!lG38
0. 12500

0 - 0.025 - 0 .125 -0. 225 -0.325 - 0.375 -0.425 -0.475 -0. 525 - 0 .575 -0.625
1. 250

0.4,)75 (1.3437 0.2624 0 . 1932 0.1491 0 .1359 0 . 08118 (1.()544 0.0287 0.0193

0 .0625 0 . 0687 0.0874 0.1182 0. t49l 0.1609 0. 2148 0 .2794 0.3537

0.3913
0.4369
0 . 48 14

O.OH!)
0 .0064 O.OU27 0.0007 0

0.5277 0.5757 (1. 6250

Support react ion A1 =

11.2500

3.10. lJmdtng Moment

En~elope

Curws

T he bending moments a nd the shearing forc~s arc calcula ted using tho following r()Jations M = (aq ~P) t2 } (14. 10) Q =(vq+<'>p) t where q = < luad load per unit length p = li ve load per uniL length o., p, v and 6 = coefficients whoso values are drawn f1 om the aforesaid taLios. Maximum hl\Oding moments are obtained using the values of coeffit:.ient ~ cont.ai nod in (.he + f} column, minimum bending moments using those in the-~ c.oJumn. In exactly the same way it i t is desired tc> find the maximum she~tr. tho coefficient 0 shou ld be sclcctld in tho ;-6 coh1mn, and if it is t he minimum valw of the shca1 that is needed this sa me cocliciont shall be takon from the - 6 column. The sarne table permit.s also the determination of the s upport reactions <,iue to the applicatiou of hotb dt>ad and live. loads. The formula to be used is the MUle as for Q. '.l'ah h~s sueh as Tablo 1.10 contained in hand books usually take caro of partial loadings of. different !!Pans when such partial .loadjugs may lead to greater (or smalle.r) values of bending moments, sh ~at'S and support reactions as compa;red to t hose due t.o tho loading or completr. !'pan lengths. For this reason the envelope curves obLain~d with tho use of such tables arc even more accurat.e than those constructed as explained ahove.

l'roble111. A l'einforoed ccmcreto doublo-sjlan ceiling beam carries the wei~ht of tho ceiling itself amounting to GOO kg per motre of beam longt.h. ThQ ceiling may hy uv<.-ulua lly l11adod with a layer of Insulating matorial at lho rato

jin~1 ~I u11,fu; n~~~ 1 ' 1111! ffi 1'11!1,

1
~

q=fiOOI<g/m

PZOOkg/m

1om

l 10'"

Fig. 14.10
c,[ :WO kg per metre or tho bt-am. This insulation may be applied to nny part of the ct>iling (Fig. 14 .10). Jlequired thomos~ un[avourable values of the hendin .g wonwnt and of the shear at a section sit ullted a distance z = 0.4l from tho left-end support and of the rea~tion A 1 at t.he intennodiato support. S olution. DPtermino the bending moment u~ing the first of ilic expressions (t 4 .10\. This exprP.ssion may he rewritten as follows M r.:aql2+ ~pl2 =.Mq +Mp
30-8[)3

466

Continuous Beams

Tioro <:qlt rtprcsl!nl~ the bend ing momont inducod by tht>OI!IIU load of 600 k~/ m ai<IJll'. From Tablt 1.10 t ho coefficient " conospondiug to x=0.4 l tquub 0.0700 antl thorl'l ort M 9 ... a;ql2-0,0700 X liOO X 1011 = 4,200 kg-m Tho t.cnn Mp = ~ttl2 rt~pr()sonls tho henling moment induct'tl l1y the ln11u p whoso situnLion alHng the hoaul is such t hat it will provide eithor .f11r ,, maximwn or for a minunum v~tlue or lhe moment. In tho prt>.wnt ensc for lht> section unler con~illl'r:J lion t he value or cucflic.icnt ~ r..orrespond ing to M,.,,., equuls +0.09500 and to Mmtn -0.02:'>00 . Thercfum
;1 1'1" """' "'~pl2-:aO.OH500 X 200 X J02 = 1,900 kgrn

nnd
di~t.ant

H~nct

,\fp ml" """ ~pl!.,.. -0.02500 X 200 X iO== - 5~) kgm tlw most un favnurahl~ vnlul' of thll bending moment nt a :;ction OA I from tho ltft-on.L sllpp<~rt amouuls to

Jfma:.: = 4,200+1,900=6,100 kg m
cro~;j ~"cti on

If W<) us11 the va hm of M1) mlrt lh> l'O$ulting lu: ml iug moment 11t t.llc' will l10 considornbl) smaller
tltcst~fM~ .

gi~"l!n

Mmln .,. 4,200-500~ 3 ,70(J kgm s imo the two values <>htlcinod arc <>f thl' same s ign, tho lirst onl' nlcllct' will he r~>tninNI [or fllrthpr cornputlcLilln~. As fot the ~h<!ar. tho use or tile S(:C0011 C)Jl{l of t.lu' esprc~'<lOIIS <llo .1()) togclh ur with 1'ablc 1.'10 )'icld!' Qm,1 x "' \ - (t.0~5 X. fi01)+ 0.135!J X 200) X iO = -1.50 -t-271 =121 kg

nncl

Q,.,"= (-0.025 X 600-0.1!)09X200)X lO-= -15i.\-32t= -471 kg

The !(rl111ll'st vu[U(' o f lhll reaction rol thu int.crtnNliau: SUJI}l\lrt will bt givl!n l>y A1 = tt.250<1+L250p) l= (1.250X600 +i.250 X200) 10-., IO,CY)O kg = 11) L) t\S

4.10. J::-:J:o'LUF.J\Cg LINES POll (;ON1'1NUOUS llEAMS

Consider a cunLimulus bt~am ad.ccl upon by a moving unit liHld P travelling along the spa11 L 11 (Fig. 15.tOa) and as:~urnc that lite di :~ l:ancc of th is load to support (1i - 1.) i~ given by .r = 1 t,. (Fig. 15.10b). J n ol'rlcr to tlpd t.ho val u1!.1'1 of th~ bt .nding moment.~ 1\f,. and Mn-t at. tho supports lt1t us l'trst dctot'lll irw tlw imagiunry rcac.t:iom; nl LhtSf\ ::;am l\ sup ports
1 An=

t ( 1,.- 2 1)1n ) - (l -1)) 'l'}ln. Z, (1 - lJ) l J inIJin. z

-+

(1 - "1)

1
2

2
Ln

--+

3 '

t,. CI-l1 )

1 = {1-Y))1ll;, 2 -:;- r
u

ll., = ( l -YJ

I I (1 - YJ)'lli, 1 YJlnln:r-A,.= (l

+TJ

4 .10. ll!fltwncr L int for Conlirluous JJrnm s

lt61

l -sing expressions {1 :t10) we obtain then

1\tf,,_, = -

r. (I ~K;, - n;. )
I n (K u }(' 1) 1~ -

(1 _ ,11YJl,
K fj K',, -

I f(Z -Tt) }(,. - ( 1

,.

. + TJ)I =

1
J

-c (1- rJ) '11( 2- 11) K;, - (1 + ll)]

Af,. ..

(l tli[.K,-.'1;,) - II -1]) Y)l.u. . . _ ' ) _. _ , 1) - K r1(1 1- rJ) Ii, (- lJ)I t(KK ll /1 , 'l""-

= --c (i - tJ) TJ[(1

+ q) K "- (2- TJ)I

{I !l.'lO)

With tho aid of tlw lat.lor cxpre1>siem lei. us prupaJ'l> a Iaiiie l(ivi rtg thl' Va]ll(!~ uf }1111 -1 aud ll.f.,.. for diffl'I'Cnl positio nS of the IIIO VIII~ Iond P (at 0. t l,.. i utToment.s).

'!.111. . I

11 li

ll
II .

il

I!

11. 2
lUi
II

- c riJ. 171K n - (l.l(~,l l - c (11 .288K ',., -rt . l:l:!)

- (' (l!.*'l7K ' Tt. - t) . 27:S)

- ( ( 11. ( ~1!1/\'n - t' 171)

- (t.l H!lK,.,-1! :l$11) - ,. (ll . 27i!K,,. - I I lSf>7)

ll. 't f>

-c t11.38t.K .,. - u.:~:~r;)

-~

-c cll.il3tiK,1 -(r. :~H~l

- r. (11. :i5iKu --o.:mn -c (ll . ~iS8A",. -1, 1 , 1 92)
- r ri1.375K,. - ir.a?:o) - c t iJ.~81oK11 -t.'l. 3;}1h

(11 . :{7c>i{' n. -t'U\7r,1

(r'I .:~:~IJK'., -O.W.i

ll. li I I, 7 11. 1:1

n . !l

-c
-~

t,l.il:i7) (il. (!1 2K' n-1"1.288) - r (0.11\l\iK , -0. 171 )

IJ

r (il. ~73K' 11,-

-(' (f1 . 1 71K"- o.ll\l~l J

II

Kuowing tho values of thr bonding nwments a t the snpporls (sec Tablo 2.10) and the valuos or tht\ focal factor::. K,l ond J<,. w., may tJa~iJy ohtain tho moments nl al l lhe oLh<.. r supports or t.lre LtHIHl for any position of ~he moving load aloug any of tlw spans. Thi ~ bt1ing dono, w~, may prtH:.~ed wil.h t.lw cunst.r-ru;l.ion uf tho influcnco linr.s eit.her Jor tho bending moment~> or ror Llro shollJ'in ~
ill)*

468

Col!liwuJuS Reans

forc.es acting al; any section of span Z, as well as of the influenc.e line!s for any of the support reactions. Let us talw up, for instance, the continuous beam appearing in Fig. Hi.10 and let us construct the influence lines for the bending momm1ts at all the supports as well as t he influcnc.e lines for the

Fi~- lJ.JO

bending moment and shear at section I = I of t,he second span aucl for the reaction D 0 At first we shall calculate all the focal distances wl1ereaftcr we shall construct the influenc.c iines for the bending moments at the

k .. . .,--J.L~.!:~,_l,_J=_l_,,.....,,__._l.:. ~
Fi.g. 16.10

'

= _L_,,.-.,

supports of the span under consideration on the assumption thnt the unit load '? travels along this span. HerN~ fror we shall denote the bending moDlents at the !;upport by M with two indices, tho nrst giving the number of the support and the second the number of the span along which the mobile load is travelling. Thtts, for im;tance, M 22 will mean tho bonding moment at support 2 due to a load travelling along the second span; in the same way M 12 will indicate the bending moment produced by tho same load travelling a long the same span but acting over support 1.

4.10. influence

~incs

for Conttnr:ous

Beam.~

469

T able .UO
Lett-band toea! factors Right-band focal factors

Kt= CO K2 =ft

Ki=3.733
K~=3. 75

15 3 . 7r. K 3 =-- 7 ~-":;': a

" 4-

- 5ti 3 733 15= '

The values of a ll focal factor!:! obtained with the aid of expressions (11.10) and (12.10) are given in Table 3.10. Tablo 4.10 contains the values of 111'11 , .M 12 and il122 cDmputed using data given in Tables 2.10 ru1d 3.10. For a symmetrical bea m tho values of 11-134, M 33 and il123 appe11-ring in the same tablo require no c.akulations. The oxpressions for the bending n1oment!> at the inner supports of t.he end spans (in the case under consideration ilfu and M 34) contain both in the numerator and in the denominator focal values which bec.ome infi nitely great when the end supports are hinged. In order to overcome this difficulty both the numerator and the denominator should be divided by the said foc..al factor. Thus,
Table 4.10
BMOing moments at- tM uppurls
Load point
,'<fu
.:\112

x=O
X= ll.11,. X=(t.2J 11

IJ

0
-(t.t:oJ!iul':s/ 2
- 1) , (1:{<\2~12

r=0.3/11 .r=0.41,. .l'=0.5t,.

J;=0.1Sln :c =0. 7l,.
.r =O.~ln

x=O.!l!,.
.r= t,.

-0.026521, -0.0514/tf.t - O.Q73f21 1 - 0.0900C ll t -0.100401, -0.1028(ilt - u. 01J5(iftl t - 0.077141, -0.0-1580l, 0

- 0. 0387-'lle - 0. 1C.: -!41lz -O.OiiH2l 2

- 0. (1788tll2 - 0.073flii/2
- 0.111)2/.SII/2

-o.o;12acu2
-ll.llt18:i81 2

-IJ.tJ81J3til2 -O.OKt72/2

-ll.ll4762/2
-0.0308t.i~

- 0.08:!5012 - 0 .06858! 2
-O.Jio l781 2

- 0.0143012

470

C.cmfiiiiiO!U /Jeams

Table 4.10 (cunl imml)

1 1ontllng lflllments at the snpports
J..uud !'<li n t
Ms1

l-133

Mt;s

~-

.... o

.r = O. J/"

x = tl.:ll,.
.r = l) , ;~(,.

0 -0.0<15801, - 11.077 J4l,

-u.O!I5!l41 1 -0.1021!(il

0
-0 .I)J4::lf)l3
- (J . (1308613 -0.1}fo71i2l.1

u
- li.(V.178tJ
-o.Oti8:i!ll~

.r=fl. 4/,. .r ~ 0 5/n L - O.li/,. .r=l'. 71 11

J: - 08/u

-O.OG:!i!6l3

-0.08!:!5\1 13 -O.OR57U3
- tl. ()IS03IIIa

z = O.!JI11
:r = l,

-0.101461, -O.OOOCI(J/4 -0.073121" -0.0514414 - 0.02052L 4

()

- 0.07366/J - O.Ii188ti/3 - 0.071 11213 -0.06342/a -0,()3!!7413

I)

-O.OtiS.'i&/ 3
- O.O:i2!lVI~

-0.0342813
- t'l.(llli0813
(I

t.ho bontliug mo men t M u for load poinl giveu hy :t:

IJoco n~t).S

0.1l1

"'-

O.H

11

(o.o!l9 -~)
K'

t 1- ;;

=
(lol~~ 11

= -

3.73:1 = -

0 .02652l

Tho 111agnitudc o[ M 11 Ior any olhcr position of Lhu load poiuL wil.ltin tho limits of the ftrsL span will ho obtained iu OXllt' l.ly tho .S!llnt way. T he va lues or thl\ hc nding rnomenl:; 21-1 1 ~ and M 22 l'vr a load p()iut R itualod at :x :.: 0.1t 2 wi ll bo uh ta ined using t h ll fo ). lowi ug O.'I.(H'cssiu ns (st~e Tallll' 2.10)
M 12 -

l2 (fJ 1~ 1 L' ' ('I Q<)t)) K 2K;- 1 . 1 '~ 2 - .r. ' '

4 X :l.75-l X

/2

X (0.171 X 3.75-0.0!19) = -0.0387-1l

M~: =

- J\2K12-l

(0.0~9.K: -

0.171 ) = - 4 x:~o~5-1 X

X (0.099 X 4 - 0.'171) = - 0 .0Hi08l The mngnitudc of t hese tMmenls for other positions of tho loa.d alonf.! the 11nme s pan will be computed in th<.' same way. The gl'aphicu l iuLerpretatiou of Jl.f11 , M'12 , M 22 , Ms,. Maa anti M'23 obtained with t ho aid of Table 4.10 is given i n Fig. 17.10. Eoc.h pa it nl' eo n ti gu ou~ e.nrves. those fo r 11111 anrl M 12 , fOJ' 1l f 22

4.10. ln(luettct

~lt~s

for Continuous lJeam s

471

and lV/ 23 , for M 83 nnd JV/ 34 l:Onsti tute the influence Uno for bending moments induc.od at the support so~arating the lwo spans by a urJil Load siluutcd along one of theso two s pans. T hus, for instance, the two curve~ for 2~{11 and 1~12 consti tute the influence line for the IJending moment induced at tho cross section over sup]lOrt J by a un.it Load travelling along the first two spans of the beam. In the event the unit load travels along

Fig.J7.10

more distant spaus tho ordi nates to the influe nce line ro r the samo beuding moment~ at tho supports rnay be obtained using lhe focal point method. T hus, the ordinates to the influenc.e li ne for the bending moment -ov<.lr support due to a uTlit load Loc.ated ovor span 3 will bo ~Jasily ol>tained using the following expression
M,3= 21123

K2

= _ 11!23 4

The magnitude o the bending moment acting at tho same sup]lort when the moving load h as passed Lo s patl 4 will bo given by
JrJu

M24 = -/?2

but since wo obtain fin ally

Mu =

+ K3K2 =a.'l5 x 4=15

M34

M34

M34

'!'he ordinates to the influence lines for M 13 and Mu are given in Table 5.10; Lbis table contains Lhe ordinates to tbe influence

Continuo"s Btam1

lintJs for M 2 1 a nd M 2 , deduced from

M~s= -i\~;1 = -~~5

3 34 M u= --x; =- -3.75

111

lf

T he influence Unos for the bending moment.s M~t M 2 and M 8 are represented in Fig. 18 .10. These influence lines may bo used
Tablt 5.10
Bending moments at the supports

Load point

-~~1~--

J'dt3 -,-

M.l, ~

M34 "1"6

Mu ~- 3'f!i

:~r

M u-: - 'J:"'f& Ma .

z =O
..r = O.IIn
z=O.:Un
:r ~ 0.3!11

(l

+ 0.01(1445!
+0.0 17145! + t). \)2()(\25! + 0. 021!o30l +0.0200ll01 +0.0171<151 +0.013125! + 0.008.'>70! +0.0040201
l)

x=OAI,

0 - 0.0030531 - 0.0051431 - 0.00637fil -0. OO\i857l

z=0. 51n .r=0.6ln z = U. 7ln

:r=0.81, .r =O. 94.
z = ln

-o.ooli6mz
- 0. 001)0001 -0.0048751 -0.002112!.11 - 0.0017681 0

0 + 0. ()(J70721 +0.0-13717/ +0.0194!JIJ! +0.0240001 +0.02(i789l +0.027<\291 +0.0255041 + 0.021)5711 +0.012213l 0

()

+O.Ot22t31 +0.02(15711 + V.(12.'ij04l + 0.02742!11 + 0.02671!9/ + /). 024!}(Kj[ 1 0.(H94!lGl + 0.0137171 +0.0070/.U 0

Note: Too value o r ln<lex n appearlnl! In the llrst column nmst .be tlllu.-u equal to the second lu<lex allotted to .M.

for the design of continuous beams consisting of four spans of equal length with free ly supported ,ends. Influence lines for bencling moments at the s upports of the continuous bL'am with unevtn spans and any arbitrary number of supports can be obtained in exactly t he same way. Let us consider now tho influence lines for the bending moments and shearing forces at a cross section of the st~cond ~pa n located a distance x = 0.4l to the right of support l (Fig. 1.9.10a). For this purpose we sha ll use expressions (5.10) and (H. 10)

Q=~ + 1112

-;llf

M = Mo +

Mr;lrf, 0.4l+M

= M0 +0.4M2 + 0.6Mt

where Qo and Mo reprosent the ordinates to the corresponding influence lines for an end-supp orted bea m of the same span. These

':-.r"
f;l .. l.t1 {' 5ti'IOIJ ~1
Qil&'!."'O,'t;
.:.G.\'9((1[)
~

Y!J

,fi!llll.li)

."o'!!li''J

S&J[!;O '&'
'!'17ii iO

/290ZQ V Ot9:ZV:J
['('(Ji,i?(j ,'1

'i'?: Lf1

"i?.:i::t1 :J

'"

Conttm101~s /)~(mls

1\ ll rl

influouco lines are of tria ngular shapo as indkaled iu Fig. 19. 10b c. The va lues of the ordi nates to t hese influcnc.c lines at 0.2l incromcnU! a ppear in Lhc a ppropriate columns of Table 6. 10.

1 (0',! .
'
(/].1

- I .........!-...._ - /.

..

~=0::1'-l...J

---+ ----- l

-:~~
~I
<:::sl

~~s~~~t"" ' "'' ... j

I
co::;
N

__L_

;t . '
I
I

.. - -- '

'I ~I

l i
I

~e
l

ln(luen..Y! ltne for,.,,~ rxOiftzJ ~~J .,

C::S

"'---

'

<::s

--

I-

10

~ ~: I .. - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-.)

n
<::;

:
:
... .....
1:5 <> <::;
<:::)

1 I

,...,/ '
,

: '
I o c:;'

-- -

1 I I

<::s

<::;

""

""

Influence linn for O,/XIJ.4l1 )

(d)

<:s

!.~

~ " ~ ".$

"'

<

;g

"' ""

~ ~~ ~~ ... ~ ~ i
~

""(tl ""

~ ~
<::1

mr

)<> C:;iJ <'J

:!!:

""

:;;:. a '" ~
l:~i

~
~
<':l

~ ~ ~ ':'J < .. ~

()

""'"'

Fig. 19.10

T he sa me table con tains ~he values of+ (M 2

M 1), OJuli/ 2 and

0.6M1 as woll as the co mput ed ord inates l.o the Q and M inOuence

Load POint

QO

I
1)=0 ..... 1)=0.2 c TJ '-" 0.4 ~ 1] .,- 0.6 <1: 1]: 0.8 l'j -= 1.0 1] = 0.2 1] = 0.4- 0 ~ 'l] = OA -j- 0 0
(I

I 0rdlna1e LCI Plz - 3r 1 } 11\a lnCin~o<' I lone for Q (X = 0. 4 /2)

Ttlble 6.10
JfO

0 4 Mz

0.6 Jh

nllu cnc~ line for JI (>: ~ O.Uz)

Ord !nate lo the

0
+O. 0551;)7 +O-H 4000 +0.1:{0280 + 0.0!)7711 0 +0.02!114 1 -0.01028 +0.01028 -0.02286 -0.03i72 0 -0.085725 -0.107150

0
10. 055157 -j-0- 11'tt)00 -7-0. 130289 f 0.097711 0 - 0- J7()l)\) - 0.38972 + 0.6\028 1 -0. 37714 +O.Hi228
l)

n
(I

0
0
l)

0
- 0.2

0 0 0 0 + 0.121 + 0.24! 1- 0 24l +0.161 1 -0.08!

0 +O. 0(1~4871 -1 -0. 0096001 l-0.010!lnt +O. I>O!l2281

0 -(l.f1308Ml

0 -0.025377l
-0.0444001 -0.0507441 -0.0380561 0 +0.1): 82361 -10. Hi!J2521 .., 0. J652.')21 + 0.0879661 0 .034052[

- (l.0541Jfl0l

0
-O. L l1371 2Z - l). 11274321 - 0.0271t321 - 0. 03it288Z -0.0274321
()

-0 0617161 - 0.0462841
(I

- 0.4
I 0.6 +0.4 +0.2 0
0 0 0
0 0
1.)

g_

1} ~ 0.6

C/)

T} =0.8 1]=1.0

0
0
(I
(I
()

- 0.0380521 - O.O-'t731GZ - 0 ,t)473!1il -0.0377161 -0.(118.5:1.61 0 -j-0.0102871 +O. 0 12&581 -f-0 . 0 I 028i I
+0 . 00,~3tu

()

1]-:::0.2 'l'J = 0.1 ;; 1] --" 0.6 ,Ji' 1] =0.8 1]=1.0

:r>

-0.085725
- 0. -107'1.')()

- O.O:l7432l
-O.O:H2&~Z

-0.085725

1-0 .~2850
+0.01542~

-0.085725 - (). 0:\2850

(l

... 0.02i432l -0. 0137121

()

-0.0171451 -0. 02H:-I(l -0Jl1i'145l -0.0093701

0
(}

0
_ (). (l3')8fi/

0
.J..Q, 0051421

- 0 .2 '"' 1')=0." ~ 1)=0.6 ~ ll-'='0.8 1]=1.0

I)
-

I O.<HM28
1 0 .020572 1 0 .018000 +0.()11288

. .,. o. (l(l822Sl
!-il,()l(l9i2l

--

I)

--

0 0

1 -0.020572 +O.(H8000 +0.011288

(l
-~--

(l (l (l

-1-0. 0096()01 +0.0054871

-0.(lfYt1 14l -0.00360U/ -0.001!\:iil

(I

--0. 0078581 i- 0. (l()IIOOOl +0.0().'r0301

--~--

0 ----

476

Continuou~

Beams

lines desired. A graphical representation of lhcse two influence lines appears in Fig. 19.10d and e. Let us examine next the construction of the influence line for the reac.tion of the leftend support. 'l'he magttitude of this reaction may be determined using expression

Do=<lo, +~ 1
where Q~t represents the left-end reaction of a simply supported beam corresponding to the lhl't span. T hl\ inflw~ n cc li ne for ~1

trn;;:'
. ' I I
I

' / flu~."<.'~ : r"t'

x.
( OJ

I,

Jn{lur.nr,c l tlll! f or 00

~ <;; ~ <:$
~

:i'
.. .$

<:s

~e~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~

~ <t)

., ,"
::.~

;,".)

"'

-s

<::>

e :s:
~
~

o::;
4

<::1

;r .

""

(b)

~ ~ ...

~ ~

""

Fig.

20.10

appears in Fig. 20.10a. All the calculations necesl!ary to obtain t.he ordinatell to the inlluonce line for D 0 are tabulated hereunder. The completed infl uence line for D 0 is given in Fig. 20.10b. The influence lines for all tho other support reactions of a continuous beam can be obtl\iued using exactly the same procedure. Influoncc lines pormit easy and rapid dctetruination of maximum and minimum valuol' of :support reactions, shcats a nd bcndin:.r moments due to tho c-ombined ac.tion of moving Joads and t.lead loadB (it is frequently assumed that moving loads are uniformly distributed over whole span Jongths). T hus, for instanc.o, reaction D 0 wi ll attain i ts design value when in addition to tho dead Loads of q 1<g per metre the beam will be acted upon by mobile loads of p kg per metre d istri bu ted along the w_ h ole length of the ftrst and third spans. The ordinates to the corresponding inOuence line ovor these spans being positive, the value of reaction Domax will be given by

1.10. 1 n{luenc.e Line-s for ConlilluouB

/Jet11a~

477

Jn the latter expression 00 1 , w2 , w3 and w" r~pro&Jnt tho area-; bounclcd. by the influence line for DG over the corresponding spans. TheRe

areas ma:y be easily cakulated using the numerical values

or

the

Table 7.10
Load point

I
.
(j

'%
+ 1.0 +0 .8 +0. (\ + 0.4 + 0. 2 0 0 0 0
(I

.Mt
-~-

Otdlontcs to t ho
I nfluence L i n ~ f< ,r JJa

J1]=0.2
Span ! .

rlJ = O

t}=(l. l\

1J= 0.8

Yf = U.'

0 -0.05144 - O .Oflt'IOO -0.10286 -0.07714

(l

+ 1.H 1 -0 . 7485('. +t1. 51000 + 0.2!'171/i + 0.12286

(I

lt)=-~ 1

f1]=0 . 2 jlj =0 .4 Span 2 '1] = 0.!) '1]=0.8 l1)=1

-(1. 06312 - 0 .07886 -0.06286 -0.(13081)

(I

-(I.OH 342 -O . O i88H

I I , 01)281 )

-0.030&1
ll

( 1') = 0.2 1'1] = 0 .4

S pall 3~Yf=O.n 1'1')= 0 .8 lT} = l

0
(I
()

0
(I

+0 .01714 + 0.02143 +0.0'1714 +0.00857 0

+(1 .01714 + O.n2l43 +fi.OiiH +0.00857

(I

( Y )=0.2 lT}=0.4 Span 4 1)= 0 .6 1) = 0.8 lY)=1

0 0
I)

0 0

-0.00514. -0.0(1(18() -0.00600 - 0.00243

I)

-o.oonoo
(I

-0.00514 -0.001i86

- 0.00243

ordinates given in Fig. 20.10b and assuming that the segrncnts of the curve between two neighbouring ordinates can ho replaced by straight lines. These areas will be reckoned positive or negative depending on the sign of the ordinates. Tho minimum value of reaction Do will be given by the following expression

11.

REDUNDANT ARC HES

l.11 . OEFI NITI OX::i. CHOJCI:: OF THE NEUTR:\ T. T.INE

Arch1 .!.~ ns di ~ linb'l.l blwd from simply s upported sy!ltc ms are t hru!'t dt\\''(:.lo!>ing stnu: LIIl'l\:5 who~l' genera l ronn if' that of a l~\Jrve. Clnss iftrl w ith r~fcreuc.e to t.lw numhor of hiugcs arehe ... r~dl into tho followi ug C Lcgori.,~: lhrcc-hinged arclltl< (Fig. 1.11t~). two-h i~tgtd

~
(C)

Fig. l .J.l
nrc.lw~-: (Fi~. 1.ll b). archc~-: of one hi1~ge (Fig. 1.11 c) nnd hi.ngPles.., o r lt:r.ed end a rches (FiJ!. '1.11.d) . All tlte arches with Lhc o.'l:t'Cption u[ the Lhrcc- hin~od ones nro s ta tic11l1y incleterminatc. In bridg6 c.onstruc Lion. espn<~ia l ly in railroad hridg~:~~;, tho mor<' frequently H;ed ar<'luJs am l,he t wo-hiugod and tho frxcd end ones. ln all c.alcul ations i n solid masonrv o r re inforc.ed com'rcte arc.lo!' i t is customary lo ennsider s~rips of ~~nit width scparaLcd in imaginalion rrom th1) rest by t wo parallel plnnes us shown in Fig. 2. 11 . 'l'hu wholu ~t.-udure IJCcomcs t.hus replaced by a scrit's oE paralltJl

ar<: ho:-:, the dcflcctionR of whic.h remain s l.ric.Lly idout.icnl as long

.1.11. Dr.finit tons. Choice Qj the N l!rttrul Lin~

4 7!\

as each one of them can-ies the sarne load. I n this way thB stress analysis remains exactly the same for all the arched Stluctures o r the same type irrespective of thcil de pth. Arch ribs arc frequently loaded at certain points only, as i n the caso of trusses orj plato girders supporting floor beams. When designing an arch great care should be taken to roach as close c-oincide nce as possible between the Otltline of Lh~ axis (also called the neutral nr the centr-e line) of the arch and lne pre!'..-suro line (< ,.: equilibrium polygon) . As previous ly stated, suc.h a coincidenc-e would provide an arc.h or maximum economy. However, complete coincidence c.an be ac.hieved o nl y in t he case of three-bingerl arc.hes. A'> for the staticall y i11dote rminate a1chcs, it i!'i i mpossible to obtain full coinc.ide nco of the arch axis with t he preRsure lino, for bending moments in s uc h nr.chcs are absolutely unavoidable. Therefore the most economical design of an arch will be t ho one pro viding for minimum f1bre streS-<~es in t he arch . The pre~surc line for s ta ti cally indot erminate arches c.an be obtained only if all the redundant I'Oactions a1o a lready doh>.rmined. E :l:owe vcr . these reac tions Fig.2.1J depend on the doforrrui L.ions of arc.h and for this reason it he<~ornes cxtrcmcly difJcult to find tho most ccononricaJ eonliguration of an a l'ch of: t his typo even whcu tload loath; alone al'l:.~ involved. '.l.'he problem can be solv()d only by a series o( !;UGcessive approximations. Thi$ may he uone by solocl,ing fi rst !:>ornE.\ arbit:rary curve (usually a parabola) for the arch neutral line which is then conedert on tho grounds of eomparison with t he pressure line obtained fot t hat partic ular nrc.h. A.ltoruati voly, the centre line of the arch ma y, in tho first approximation, follow t.he pressu rc line of a t hroe-hi ngcd arch of t he sa rno span and rise. Upon correcLion of Lhe arch neutral line a new pro~~ur() polygo n is constructed (or t he corroded arch. ThH opcratior1 is rcpt\ated as many times as nec.es5ary to obtain a satis[actMy coi nddence o[ tho two 1i oes. For arches < :arrying moving loads lho choice of t he neutral line bocomes oven m fH'C co mplicatt>d . J n actual pra(~ tice this ehoi ce is most frequently ba~od on the simple comparison of sovcral arch!l!S differing both in outline anrl in e.ross-,gectiona l dimension~. The con.liguratiou of maso nry are-hcs Jllus t be solectcd with t he view of maintaining t he pressure li ne for all possihle load com binat ions as close M! possible to the central core boundaries. m a~o rHy being uncapable of resist,ing tensile ;;treMos of any appre(;iablo magn itude.

Redunr!anl Arches

2.11. AB.CHES WlTH VAR IABLE; CROSS-$ECTIONAL DIMENSIONS

The coefficients to the unknowns and the free terms of the simultaneous equations used for purposes of stress analysis of redundant arc.ttt-s depend on the cross-sectional dimensions and the moments of inertia of the structure. As a rule, neither of these two remain c.onsLant through the whole length of the arch. Thus, for instance, in fixed end arches the height of the section and consequently its moment of inertia increafle very frequently from crown to abutments because the bending moments are as a rule much smaller at midsplln than in the immediate neighbourho()d of the supports. On the other hand, the thickness of two-hinged ardtes de<:reases usually from itho crown t o the abutments rollowing tho bending moment diagram. Direct computation of the coefftc.ients to tl1e unknowns and or tho free terms of the simultaneous equations requires the integration of expressions containing the values of Jl and J and therefore it becomes necessary to expres~ matherna~ically the variation of the:3o quantities along the arch. The following equation has been found very useful in prac.t.ic.al design

J -

lc x - [1-(1.-n) ~] coscp.,

where x

= =

Jc

Jx =

fPx =

l1 = As for n

abscissa of the neutral line referred to a coordinate origin coinciding with the centroid of the crown section moment or inertia of the same section moment of inertia of a section situated a distance x from the origin of coordinates angle the tangent forms with the neutral line of the arch and the horizontal one half of the arc.h span. its value is given by

n=

Jo c-os <f'o

J~

J 0 and q>0 correspond to the section at. the support. Modifying the value of n we modify at the same time the law governing the variation of cross-sectional dimensions along the arch. Frequently n is taken equal to unity in which case the expression for J" becomes J _ __!_s_
X-

COS

CJl:r

.!J .11. Coni u.gate S ln.tically

Determi.~tale

S tmc.tuns

481.

for a rectangular arch of (;Onst.ant width b, J x rnay Le replaced by

~b

und I c by If , where dx and d" represent the Lh1ckness of tha 12 arc.h at the crowll aud at an arbitrary section a distance x from the {~oordinate origin. When n = 1
d~b d~b

d~

12= 12costp,
d3

d' -- "- co:;q;.,

The cross-sectional aroa.s Fe and F x becorno in this ease Fx=bd,. aud Fc=bd.: lt follows that

wh ercfrom
F Fe " - Vcos<p, For :>imJllicity this expression is very frflquently rL!placcd'' hy
" - cos Cf'x It has LH.\(~n ptovcd that this simplification entails an error in the bending moment and thrust values which docs uot cxceud 1 per cent. When the rise of an arch i~ less than 118 of its span (11at at'<ches) the vahw of cos Q)x for a ll the eross sections wilt remain vmy close to unity, t.hus permitting us to adopt a constant thickue.ss ol' tho arch throughout ;md therefore Px =Fe= const

p _ _!_s._

In Lhe design of nat arches tho length of the clementa .. y segment ds is aLso usually replaced by the ltmgt;h of its horiwntal ptojcction cL1:. 3.t1. CONJUGATE S'l'ATICALLY DETERMINAT E STRUCTUHES
USED FOH
STRJ~SS

ANAr.YSJS OF FIXED END AHCHES

A fixed oud arch (Fig. 3.11a) conslitutes always a dosed contour nnd is therefore redundant in the third d~grec. It follows that tho simple statically de.lerminat.o str.ucture can ho obtained by e.liminnt.ion of three redundant constraints whkh must bo replaced
:11 -8~3

482

R r.rlztndant Arches

by three 1.1nkoown actions X 1 , X 2 and X 3 Several of such statically determinate structures are shown in F ig. 3.Hb, c, d, e. and f. 'rhe statically determinate structure of Fig. 3.11 b is formed by a cmved har built in at its left end. Tho three unknowns represent in this case the reactive forces developed by the right-hand abutmont. The structure of Fig. 3.11c consisting of two curved hal'S ftxed at one of lhoir ends has heen obtained by cutting the arch in lwo. Tn this case Lho unknowns will represent t he bending mouent, the shear and the normal stress acting across the cut. If the simple Rtructure is constituted by a three-hinged arch, tho unknowns will repros<Hlt the bending mornents at the crown and at
Lhtl abutments.

The si multaneous equations used for stress computation of p.

lixod end arch will Lake the following shape

X,6 11 + X26 12 +X3(\ 3 + ~ 1 p=0} X 1621 +X2622 + Xa62s + o2p = 0 (1.11) X,63 , Xz6~z +X86a3 .:.\ap = 0 pr.ovidcd that in these computations resort is made to one of th~ simple structures appearing in Fig. 3.11b, c or d. In Art. 8 .9 it has been shown that all lhe secondary eocfficients o{ t he simultaneous equations may be reduced to r.<!ro by an appropl'iatc e.hoice of tho simple structure. In this t~ase the simultaneous equations mentioned above become

X 1<'>u

Xsfia3 + r~ap = 0

X 2 15!lz+~ 2 p =0

+ D" P = 0

}
(2.11)
Utt>

lc<tding immediately to the following values of reactioJIS

X,= --r-;
Vl1

redundant

A 1p

'

Xz=

-T"'"' ;
,V22

<\zp

X3 =

1 --;:V 3~

Aa ,

(3.11)

'.l.'he simple statically determinate struc~ures will be obtained in thnt case by the addition to the free ends of the curved built-in bars of one or two infinitely stiff brackets as indicated in Fig. a .11e and f. The unknown actions will be applied to the free eoclf:l of t he said brackets, these ends coinciding with the elastic centre of tho structure. The directions of these actions will coincide with those of the principal axos of inertia of the elastic loads \Vben a fixed end arch is symmoltical about a vortic.al axis the elastic centro of the structure will always lie in this vertical, one of the principal axes of inertia being horizonLal and the other vertical. T n that ease

d; .

,q_zJ. Coniugate Statically Determinate Structures

483

{a)~

')f-=
~

Fig. :1.11

Pig. 9.11

Fig. !i.Il

3l*

Rrtlundant Archos

tho C011jngate structures of Fig. 3.11e and f will be replaced by those appnnrin~ in Fig. 4.11a and b. Since all the secondary displllcemenls due to tho unknown fort~t>s acting nt the clastic centra nr(' nil. it becomes very easy to dolt~r rnine the natur~ of the displact' munL:;; (,)[ the brac.kets produced by these unknown aetions. T Jet us examine first tho si mple strueture of Fig. 5.11a ~ub:joctcd to two u11it horizontal furc.os X 1 = 1. Sinec 6 31 = 0, bo~h brackets will rtmain vertical and parallel to one nnothtw. Their cleflcction in the vertical direc.tion will depend on the direction o( the unit forc.os X 1 hut the amount of this dctlcction will he exactly the same for both brackets since o t.hl'rwise 621 would be different fl'Oro ZCI'O. J n lhr horizontal direction t.hc mutual displaccmonL of two brackets will equal 6 11 When thtl sa me system is suhjcctt>d to two vertical unit forces X~ (Fi~. 5.11b) the two brackets will rotate together remninin~ parallel to ono anotlwr (for otherwise the displaccrncnt ll .1 2 would h~ different from zero), will ~hift. together along the h ori:tontnl and sust~in a mutual vertical d is plncomcnt equal to ll 22 T he unit couples X~ shown in Fig. .1.11c will entail a mutu:1l rollltion of the two brnckots, cnch bracket becoming iudinod to the vertical at <\n angle equal to ~ 6 33 The tot.al mutual displacement of t he two brackets will equal 8;, 3 . The free ends of those brackets will romnin at the same dislnnce from one another, 6 13 buing nil. They mny shift vertically upwards or downwards depending on the dirocli<HI of the unit couples but both must shift tbo :same amount, for othtrwil'(' 6 23 v.ill difor from zoro.

4.1 1. API?JIOXI.MA1'E ME1'HODS OF DESIGN AND Al\ALYSIS

O.t' FIXED END /11\t:HF.S 'fhc dl'sigru~r is fl-equcn tly c.o.lled upon to den I with ar~hes whose neutral Jinc aud law of cross-~uctional variation c.annot bu expressed by a11alytkal ('qualions {it for prac.tical usll. 'Jn such cases t,h o c~:x.act a na lysis of the del1ections of t.he co njugate simple s~ructure boc.omtts impossible for this analysis is based on integral cnlc.ulus. R eso t musL be then made to approximate methods, t.wo of whieh will be described hereunder. In the first of these methods lho neutral line of the arch is replaced by a polygon of from 8 to 20 sides (Fig. 6.11). To addition it is ass\lmod that cro~-scctional areas remain constant. along ttnch of these sides, their dimensions being equal t o those of the g iven arch as mens\rcd over tho centre of that pllrtieular side. A.ll thll loads appliccl to the arch ate t eplaced by concentrated loads acting at

4 ..11. Appro:~;imate Methods of Design and Aualusi.~ of Archrs

485

the apiees of the polygon. The magnitude of these load~; is laken equal to the combined support -renctiOJl of two contiguous simple beams canying the same loads and having the same length as the corresponding portion of t}Je arc.b. Tho polygon of structure ohtained in this way can be llhalyzod by one of the methods described in Art. 3.9. For the analysis, any of the structures sl10wn in Figs. 3.11 and 4.11 may be adopted to bo conjugate with or withont transfer of the rcdu ndant constraints to lhc elastic centre. Any other s l.atically determinate :system (~ould be equally used if that W()re round expedient. All the deflections and rolalions c:.an be

Fi~r.

6.11

easily calculated using Vereshchagin's method of graph mnltiplit~ation . The stresses obt-ained by this procedure are practically equal to tllosc induced in the curved arch. Hereunder in Problem 1 of tl1e -present article. we shall give an example of !!tress analysis by the method just described. The second of the appro:r,imate methods consists in the subdivision nf the arch into a number of segments generally comprised between 8 and 20. Having chosen thereafter an appropriato simple struC-ture eithl\.r from tbo::;e appearing in Figs. 3.11 and 4.11 or any other deemed better fit for this purpose, one shou ld proceed with the construction of tho stress diagrams due Lo the actual and to the unit loads. This being done, the calculations of the coefficient.~ and free terms or the !>imultancous equation:; are carried ou t assuming that within the limits of each segment the expressions under the integral sign vaty linearly. Consequently, the corresponding integral will be equ al to tho length oi the segment multiplied by half: the sum of the values of the expression under the integral sign calculated for Lhe sections limiting ihis particular segment. Thus, for instance, t.ho displa~;ement 6 12 will bD taken equal Lo
s __ = ~ M1 M2 d ....., v~ 2 J EJ s......, 0
J:

i=n
l=t

~ ~ (Mt,I-JM2, i-t + LJ 2 EJi-1

Ri!dundant Ard1u
wlll~l'e

s1 =length of tho segment

n11d i (Fig. 7.11)

i limited by

sections (i - f )

M 1 ,; anrl Mz, 1 = bending moments induced at section i by the un knowns XI and J , = moment of inertia of the samo section n = numbel' of segments into which the arch has been subdivided . T he abovo expression can also be written as follows

x2

i= n

6u = ..J

~-

- "' J.l11,tM:,t ISJ i

(4.11)

i~U

where s, is half the sum of the segment lengths contiguous to section i

St = - -2
S+St+l

Thus, in order to determine one of tht1 d i~placcmcnts {) or fl pro-

ceed as follow!!: 1. Compute tho values o( Lhe expressions under the integra l
sign corresponding to each se(.tion situated at the boundarieiS of the segments forming t he arch. 2. Multiply eac.h of the values obtainud in this way by half tM sum of tho contiguous segment lengths. 3. Calculate the 81lffi of all the values obtained as explained above.

Ftg.7.U

All sub~quent. computAtion ~> (soluLion of simul taneous equations, construc.lion of stress di agrams, etc.) will he exactl y the &~me ns fo1 any othor statir~lly indeterminn le structure . .Problem 2 presented at the end of Lhis article wi ll give an example of streljs o.nuly~is of a ft xen (md arch using the latter method . Hogaruless of L he method of analysi!! selected the displac.cmenl.s 8 and ~ may he obta ined usiug the method of elastic loads descl'ibcd in Art. 11.8. Hecourse to this method is strongly advised when it is desired to obtain the influence lines for internal stresses indun>d in the nrch. for iu this cnse it becomes nor.e$Sary to coustru(;t whole deflection graphs and noL only to determine the defl ection of par-

!1.11. A pprozimale Method of Dt$tgn and Analyrir of Arcltc

487

licuJar points. T he construction of influence lines Ior redundant is shown in detail in Problem 3 of the present aL"Liclc. Wl1en the rise of the arch is greater than one f1 fth of Hs span, tho calcu lation of the deflections and nng1tlar rowtions may be
arcl1~s

q ttm
/

_______L~:~Z~4~m------------~
(0)

Fig. 8.1 1

carried out neglecting the infiuenca of shean; and normal stresses. This does not. apply to flat arches whu!'ft1 ri~e i.s .smaller than~ of the spun. For these unit displacemen l.~ 611 along the dirt1 etion of the thrust must be carried out taking duo aceount of the corresponding u11known X 1 = 1 as well as the normal stresses resulting from tho thru.st. However, the other displace ments duo both to the unit actions and to the applied loads may bo again calculaled ncglu<:ti ng normal stresses anti sht>ars.
Prnblem 1. U~:~ing the first of the m ethods do..ocribod nhovc compute the Rttt~SI'S inducQil in tho nrc.h of Fig. 8.Hn. 'rho neutral lio o of this orch fullnw~ n couic p:Jmboln, and tfu1 cro!lS-~ect.iooal momonts of inc1-tla vary Jn Ll~cordnncc

Rtdumlant Arches
with the

cxprc1;~ion J,. = ~.TheM, 0

COS (j)x

and N diagram s williJe C VII:>(.rueLcd

nssuming that tho lcfl somlarch carries a uniformly distributotl Iond q = 2 tons p!!l' metro. Soluti!Jn. Subdivide the arch span into 8 equal part.<; tllus 11doptiug 11 = 8 Mul a = 3 moLres. Jnreribe int.o the given arch n polygonal one a~ uuite.at()tl in Fig. lU t b. 1'he equation of a conic parabola in the coordinate system TjO~ whoSe origin coincide" ' with the centroid or the ~ction at the left-ha.pol :;upporl lwcomc:'s 4/ (I t 4 X 6 (V. "). 24-~
1} = ~-

-sh= 24 x 24

- s s=2i";;

Tht vlllucs of 11 at the boundaries of all the different t<egmonLs arc indicated in l-he same figuro. As.,Uill.e that tho conjugate ~implt stmct.lll'l) is obtaiuod

by cuu.i ng tho nrrh at the crown as indi cated in Fig. 8 .Hc witb. tran~>fer of the redundant constraints to tho elastic c.entn. Com)JUl(l tho ordinate y 8 of this clastic centre in the coordinate ~;ystcm zy

l:
!Is=

" uds S J
t

}; J 7
(!liCit

\' ds

oxpr<~.siliou

Sinco J 1 is ussumod coustant (>r for y8 b(!Co mes

side o thl' fl(>lygorta l arch tho

u.=

1-n

~ !!. .,) l; i== t

where s 1 repre;;o)uls th o length of sido i and /1!- t:}:Yt is th o ottlinato to the cen tr1! of this siolo. In the case under e<lnsiderntion wo have u:1Uon of :;ide
i

/ 1 =-:'~-where Pt cosq>i

is tho incli-

of tho polygon to tho ltori2ontal and thoreforo

s1 s1 cosq:, a Ti=--J-,-= Je
l~n

?Ja
~

!Is _. _.......:1~ = ~1-a_ _ __ lc n or with duo r{1gartl to tho symmot.ry o ( lbe arch
f=tt / 2

Lt (111 - i +!I;)

~ (Yi-i+lt;)
2n

(!lt- t+Yt)
!Is =

_...:l..:;;=~l--;; 2:-n.--- ""'

!~

t~n

(Yi-t

+ Yt)

i=l

4.1./. Approximflle Methods of Dl!.,ign and Analy.<i& of Archr.$

48!~

whore from
1 !Js = ( \i-l-if , 27 X 2 +:rx :-~ ., 3 2 -I "' L r1j'<

o) ... ., .,, .o ti<.;:J

to

rndfflS

Tlo" I!Xact va lue or y 3 for a parabolic nrch whose moments of inrrtia vary
in accordance with t'ho J ., =
CO!I<j>.x

-.!.L_ is cq'\Htl

is smnllrr Llum thr value olltaiuccl t~hov<> l>y 6.25 em. Thi,; diffcrcllca e:11 be fur-

~ 3-- f wlli~h in the prc~out ('ase>

tlu:!r

t(ldu,~~d

inc.reasinp: the numhor of sides of the in!:<:rilled polygc,nal ;:m:-h.

~;lructure by 1111it actions appliucl at tlw clastic Cllntre, and Fig. 10.11 thoso due (() the actuulload$ c.cmcentrat.cd at t.hc apices of the left half of the polygonal

Fi g. !J:I1 l'oprcscmts the bending moment lliagrams induc:ed in Lho siTnplo

arc-h. '' t both cmd~ o[ this arch (pQints 0 OJH.I 1) the~ loads are

a ton",

and at tho intcrroclli:tlc points (points l, 2 and 3i the!:IO loads amou nt to qa ~ = 6 tous. Tl1o l'( 'adion of 1 he unknown conslranls will he t:ivcn by

(3.11}

Di,;placemcmls l> and 6 will bo obtained mult iplying the grat>hs of Fig. 9.1 t by th11~u of Fig. 10.11 using Vereshchagin's mclhocl . It should bo reml'mhercd that. tiH.' ratio hi)LWeen the lengtl1 of each sid1: of tho polygon nnd th e tnoment of ine1tin of th e corresponding cross :section remains constant nJHl oqnal to

'1'hc unit di!iplaccmonts will lx! cll.'tormined using lormulas peculiar t" (see Art 8.8). Thus, rail;ing t<> th( lltcbntl pow' r th(! ;lf1 graph. (Fig. 9.11a) w<.> obtain
tra).IC~idal strc~M .!iagrnm~

Thll values or 62Z and _p wil~bc obtnlnl'd in the same w11y, i. c., t o tho second power the M2 ancl 1113 graphs (Fig. !>. lib and c) 2 622=()EJ: ((2 X 12 X 12+2 X 9x 9 +2 X 12 X 9)+
+(2 X 9 X 9 + 2 X 6 X G+ 2 X 9 X 6J+ -f-(2 X GX6+2X3 X 3+2X GX 3)-f-2 X 3 X 3J ~

raisin~[

iE~:z

6:n=ET X 8 = EJ $ .. c::

2lt

490

Redundant Arches

(Q)

x1=t IX 1 =T
~~~~

'

------+-- --- --vr-'-"7:~

Fig. 9. 11

Fig. 10..1.1

4.11. A pprozimale JI.Iethods of ' Design

tllld

Analysts of Archu

491

ll'Uz

a = BEi c [t2 X 12 X 144+2 X !l X 81..!.. 12 X 81 + 9 X 144) -1+(2 X HX 81 +2 X 6 X 313+9 X 36+6 X '!1\+ (2 X ti X 3G+ -t- 2 X 3 X 9+6 X 9 + 3 X 36)+2 X !i X 9[:: SR~'Jc"l

Ll~'I=Elc

" ( 11i4

:r-+ 81,.-3h+ D
I

'>,

..,._ Eic

59/

Intr oducing t ho:vnluos o( Lhoso

d isplaconton~s

in
t

t~quntious

(3.11 )

\W

o ht.nin

X
1

=-

,611 = BX 2,457 = 12

61q

7,371 X 32

ODS

____,.,.,.~2-}

X2 =

- 5.292 -b22- ---= i,15Z

X~=

- -i- = ''"
"~3

j....

li.:\9" tons) .

594
'

...- 24.75 ton-nwtr(ls

Tlu:> M, Q mul N tliagrams may now he ol1taine<l apply10g to tho l>la~;ttc coulru of tho. conj\1gate ~tructure two forces X 1 - 12 ton~ and X 2 = - -1.594 tOnS and 8 COII Jil u X3 = 24 .75 ton-metres togcth11r with t.ho uniform Joncls <li.~ trlbuL<'d ov()r l.he l eft l!Cmiarch . The following [urmull\s mny be used provid ud tht onlinate)l pass Utrcugh apices of th o polygcmal urrh: (n) fot the left somiarch ( Fig. 11.U a)

,o,.f=X 1 <v - u.) +X~x + X 3 - '1 2

X~

Q:~ - X 1 ~ iu !J'+X2 co~ <r - q.r.eos <v N = X 1 cos q,+ X2 siu q:o- gr sin <p

(b) for thu right somia rch (l'ig. 1!.11b)

.tT=X 1 (y -y,} + X zz - X3

= -X1 sin q+X2 cog q:

N = X1Cllll lf' + Xz.~in <p

!itldnnd<lll.l Arches

In tho aiJon~ oxpr~ssions x and y nre the c.oordioates of the nuutral lin& of tl11: atc.h, .1: lwcomlng nt'gutive to thl) loft ff Ute axis of symmetry (S()e Fig 8.11 !) , wltilll (j) i.~ ~l't( an~le ht>tweon the t.angc:nt to tl1is nt~utrnl lint' unt.l tl"' lwnmulal. Tltt values of t.his angle am pos itivo for tltn left half of ~ht> nn lt und negative for tht~ right nne. * Jllonn:d stresses will he rc.ckoncd positive wiH>n they cause ~ compr~;~~~ion ol' t.ltc: art,h . Fot tho bt~nlling momen ts a!lll ~ho~rrinl( forces the usunl sign c<nVtnLINI giv'cn in Ar't. 1.2 will Lo maintained. ll is ea.'!ily ~tlen that aU th~'

(0)

Y, - ;&

_J.:J

.. 1

t---~.L--L---+-30 II J. O ,' J. ~ JO
?Ji :E
]II.

f.'iJI.

11.11

for

cxpr~s.'>ions lor the strcs~s induced in th o left baH of ihe arch differ fr<rm tltoso i~s right lwlf <nly hy the pn>sto nce cf tcm1s due to t.ho d istributed Jonds q. The
d~cluced

vahws of the angll' IJl will b<'

from the. oquution of t.hu n()ut.rnl line

1)= lZ

4/

(I-sH

whordr(>m

"' 'fl1e slrCS!; diagrams must be constructed for tire real arr.h and not for th o imaginary (lolygonal one adopted S.lloly with tiro view of simplifying Llle computations.

4.11. Approximate

l'ffethod~ of

Design and A nn.lysls o/ Arches

t\93

The
'IJlpe~r

valuc~s o[ :r, 11 llncl lJl in TalJ],, 1.11.

core~poncling

to diff<lrcnt c:ro!;S scc.tions c>[ Lhll nrch

1'nbl~

1.71

Section
No.

'!

co~
0.707
O .!l(M)

1
- 12
- 'l

]Jnl

()

0
3
(\

45
36~fl2'

o. 707
O.tiOO O.fo/7

1 2

0.75
O.fi
0 . 2!i

I c.

3.:ml
1.5

2G"34'

O.!>g/1
(1. 970

- !l

8
4; 1'

!)

14"02'

3'
2'

l:t If> 18
21

0
-0. 25 -0.() -0 .75 - 1

0.2425
0

- 3
0
3
i\
!)

0.375 u
o.:n~

-1 ~ 0 02'

1' 0'

-2634.' -3652'
-45~

24

-0.21,25 -0.447 -0.600 - 0.707

0.970 0.894

0.&00
0.707

:-um,
li

I. :'I

12

.ing cornpulalions ar() entered into '!'abies 2.11, 3.H auc\ 4 .1-1 .

The ordinn tes to thll M. Q ancl .N diag1ams

t.ogo~hcr

with all th( corn\Spoucl-

Tabt,

~. 1 I

Ordinates lo
~e-

tlu~ .'If

f>lugra m
-q.<2

liOO N O.

XJ

11-11$

lxw -v$> X:
I

X2x

x,

-2- ~- ~:

(h'fl11l/IVS

for

semlarctt

th~ l ~ fl

to ll~ .o11 ci h l )trft flt .

tou .. m r l rtt~

<J
1 2
.3

4;4'

J'
2' 1' ()'

3.9371) t1i.2G 1 . 312.'i 15 . 75 - O. .'i6~5 - 6.75 C) - 1.M75 - 21) .25 .... L"> - 2.0625 - 24. 75 '-:' - 1.11875 - 20.25 I - 0.56~;'. - 6.75 t .:-1125 15 .75 1,7.25 3. !1375
~

-12.00 - 9.00

5.'j. 13
Ia t.:'l:i

- 6.00 - 3.00
0

27 .56 l:i.71i 0
-13 . 78

,,., '' ,<\(

- 1 '14. 00 - 81 .00 - 313. 00

-!t .(JO

--11Ul7
(1. 85
~1 . 5(i

\.1. 28
l>

3.00
li.OO tl.OO 12.0(1

- 27 .fiG

- H .35
- 55. 'HI

-!1. 28

_.... :;.;
- O . ~!i

I(J.Il7

The diagrnms given in Fig. 12.11 hnvc ht>en con,<tructeil u"ing the tlela contained in thL ahove tut.les. Lt>t ns chock t.hc M diagram of Fig. 12.11 HSiog lh~ lll('lhocl lutsccl on lho coosi.:;tcocy of denc~t: tirm s c~ec> At. Ci.!>t. This con be cl l>ne mu1tirlying tlw !!-aid

!i rduntfant A ulttt

Table 3.11
Ordinata~

lA> the Q Diagram - qxcos ~ Or<lhMts tor tt.e to tloe Q lett sc- <llagra m, m ia r<)h tons
Hi. 9(18

S"cNo.

lt Oil

XJ

AI R < p

sin <P

- Xt

+~
0. 707

Xt cos 'II

q:r:

0 1 2

!J
-1;4'

8'
2'
]'

-8.484 0.707 -7.200 0.800 (),!, !,7 -5. 31)4 (), 8!'14 -g 0.970 0 .21,:5 -2. 9'10 ., 0 0 ..... 1.0 2.910 I 0.970 - 0 . 2'a25 1 ) ,894 5.364 --O.H7 l) ,I)) 7. :wo -O.GlO
1),

0 . 707 0 .600

- :-! . 248 - 3.675 - 4.'(()9 - 4.457 -4 . 5(1.', - 4.457

-4.Hl'J

- 24 . 000 -18.000
- 12.(1(1()

14.400 10.728
5.S20

:\,2/t 3 .53 1.26

- LS5

- 6.000
()

0
-

-1,.59
- 1. 55 1 .21\ 3.f>3

0'

7117

8.48-i

-3. 1i75 -S. V.M

...

5 24
1'/ilc 1 ..1.1

.~ ,.,.

..

tl<><l

Xo

x, ,.r.s

(i:

ens

X1
'll

- Q'< s i n II'
x~

M in

<.,

.\"1 sin rp

J.'C

lo1 the
IO(l

Ord lnMI!S
l <> \h~ N d Jn;!rurn.
t OM

0
1 2
iJ

sPnJhtrcl

1).7fa7
ll 1SOil
ll . ~!l'o I) .\170

8.484
!1. 60(1

0.707 1 ),600
(1.44'i
e'> "' ,...,
~

-3. 248 -2.756

- 2 .05 ~

10.728
tJ. r>~oo

-44.000 1 11i.!lG8 -t8. (1(11) 10.800 - 12 . 0(~) 5.364

22.2 1
J7 .fllo
f .. . \)I,

#; I '
3' 2' I' 0'

~
N

- -

l ,(!

12.000
11 . 61,0 tll.i:tB !J. !iOO 8 .lJ$ ',

0 .970
0.81-V.
1'>. ~1. 1(1

1).2!.25 0 -0.21,25
- \!.~17

- J .111a
I)

- r. ooo
0

J .lt:Y.'l 0

1.114
2.0f>4 :!.756

0 . 70i

-O.GOO -0.707

3.21.8

JJ. fl8 12.1'11) 12.76 12 .70 12. 30 It. 73

cliagrtun hy, suy, Ll1o unit m <mll'IIL diagram M 2 (Fig. 9.1ib).

~ ((2 x 12x lli .87 -2x 9 xo.85 -t2. x {1.85 + !l x 11l.87J In Jc

-(2X !l X (1.85 +2.>< 6X9.5G + 9.5G X 9+6 X 0.85}- (2 X() X !J.5U + 2 X 3 X 9.28 +6 X !'1.28 +3 X 9.56)-

-2 X S X. 9. 28} = Rjc (550. 7 - 557.1 ).:::: 0

4.11 . Appr<>:r:ima.te .Method$ of Design rmd Analysl$ of Arr.hcs

4f.ll).

R grapn,t
4 4'

Fig.J2.11

41}()

Rednnrlan.t A rclws

x, ;( I -~---xJ\.m~.?
Xz ~ X z

----; f
,.

z ---.~.:Js.om I .. ~-- - z 2
;-.-------"
- -- ....

Fig. 71.11

Fig. l!i. 11

M. (I and iY rliagrams ft>r tho par3bolic ar<:h <:(Hrylng 2 ton.s pl'r 1'1(( metre tFig. U.H). Compl'C~$J VO ::M~ssos arising in t,hp, ard1 wi lJ bo acco1mt.e<l for *. 'l'ho ,;;pa n of the arch l - :it> m, its ri~tl f = ill m. At the c.rown U te arch i ~ 1.2 m thick and at the ahttl.meuts 1.8 m lhid:. At int.(lrmediate scc.ti<mS the tlur.kne's of tho arch j!;j ).{lvtn by
n II<Jrizont:alload of q .:....

Pr()blem 2.

H<~qu ired t.IJ~

rlx """ dc+

tla - tl, 0.51 -

I :c I

wiHl i'P. I :r. I is tltt> hoJl'i;-.oul.,ll. <listnnce of ~he cross ~tion nrtrllll' c:o11sidl'r'1 1U1.>u to the crown (Jo'ig. -1~>.11) . The willth of tim arch (in the <hrectiou ncll'lna.l t.t Llu; plum <lf t.h" c lr.1\ving) will be l\, '!$Umed e<rual t.o 1.0 m. S<>lvtf.<)ll. 'l'lw conjng<lt' Eiroplo strnr.t:ur< with all Llw rNlun<lunt rl'IH'l iHn ~ t.rau ~rOI'l'r.d to the rla:;;tic: contrc nppeur;; in Fig. H.l r. Tlw nm~Jllucl iug C'IHtC< nical cquatims l>t!CCmc

t2.11j

whence

In nrdcr t.<l dcHorminc the displac~.ments 15 11 622 , 6~~ ~~>/' t- 2 q and .:\~>7' subclivicle t lw rtrch iulo t.wt,Jvo ~l'gffi(~nts having eq,unl hlrizonlal projLc. Uou~ (Fig. 15.1 f).

z :m 4=n=r2=3.0
arc~

Th11 orcli1wtos to tho neut.ral liM of computed using c)xprN;sion

th(~

arch reprcs!.'ntl!d in Fig. 1.5.11

x2

f1='7Zx2=

4f

I, X

362

18

x2.=I8

All fbc data uecessarv for further c.:rlcmlations are given in Table:> 5.11. Tht> angle q; botwccm t.lt~ tangmt to tho neutral lino of tho arch and the horir.on'Lal has belln compnt!!d using expression

tan c1' = d~ =TS=g

For tlitl ri~ht semiarch ton <r nncl consequently the angles q: thems(llv()..~ rm) positive a1id for the:- left scmi:rrclt they are negative. Tho mcnn valuos of scgmlnl this case . t = 0.5l (i. o., f > l) and consf.'lquontl~ direct stres.~cs be neglec.tecl. (n this problem they will be c.onsidc,rc~d sol~ly in order to ar-quaint the render wit.h ~hu col'responding computation lochniques.

d11

2x

lengths contiguous to soction sulldividing the arc.h have bcon c:~lcnlated usi ug

fn

~Jwuld

n-8~3

Tnble 5. 11
x, m

stn cp t.an
~:

Sl'c-t icm
N c:.~ .

st,miarch

ltft

se-mi arch

roglit

,!J, TtJ

SPmta 1 clc

l' igh t

cos 1j)
l~ft

..
r ight
HenlhU'C ll

d,

rn

J m4

VJ

s~ruJarctJ

0
1

0
3
6

0 0.3333

0 - 0.3162

0
1).3162

1.,j0

'1.20 '1.30
1.40

0.144
I) .183

to ,1,
i7 .3
i5.8
15 . 1

0
8. 7
31. 6 67 . !J 116.3

-3
-6

0.5
2

0.9187
1).8321

3 .1ti

2
8
4

O.GG67
1.0000

-0.55; '.7 -0. 70il

- 0.81)1)1)

0 .5547
(1. 7071

3.t\J
1 . 24
5.CI!)

0.229
(\, 281

-9
-12
--15

9
12

-1.5
8
J2 . Z.
IS

0.7071
O.t,OO O

1..50

1. 3:133
'1.ii667

0.80(11)

1.60

0.3-'.1

11 .6 11.8
(i,j)

5
(}

13

1 }. 5145
0.4472

- 0 .85iG
-t) .8!H4

0.8[,7;)
0. 3941

5.1)3 1.70
3.(15
1.30

0.409
U.1.&G

'llt7.5

- 18

IS

2.01JI)0

124. 2

Tota l

I
9 1. 0

106.7

4.11. A ppro:rtmat c ilfcthod& o f Dt'.,ign. and Analysis of Arches

499

the :o pproximatu rela tions, = for 1\bic lt

-

4 -

C<ISIJ!t
11

with Lhe exception of SCt' tions 0 and 6

s0 = - --=- 15m 2 co:s (ro

nntl

So= 2 cos tf6

th~

II.

3 = 2 X O.tlll72 =

3 3' O> ro
bl~n

'l'hu arch tlticknc.ss at diffc r11nt crOS.'I secW:m s has relation s pecified above

calculated usi ng

l=-L d =i . 20..L1.80-1. 18 201 :r l= 1 2t)...!... 30 whil o th" n1omcnt.s of in('rtia are

~ivt'n by J = ~ . The coorJinatt'~ of thr dastic centre with roforencc tJ the adopted .1xos (se~ Fig. 15 H) wilJ be zs = D and
'5' ds :E s -Y J yT 496.7 Ys=--.,-- - =--=5.40 m , ds s 91.9

""7

'i.y

Tho values of tho numerator and the den'lminator of the< lo.Uer & l'prossion have been taken from Table 5 .11 . Let ns now compute the unit dtspwuments. Displac.ement 6 11 will he- oht.ainod using tl1e relation

EB 11 =2 (

l:M~ ~

+ENi

: )

wh ich t.akos d u() care of the normal s tresses.

rn

the above l'Xpression

M1 =t (y-y,); N1 =
and thl'rdort

L coscp:

F= id

fillu=2 [

~(Y-Y6) 2 ~ + ~cos2 (p
=

;.

rn tbe l11tt('r l'Xpression the term in brack~ ts is mult.i{llild by 2 fo1 th o summation is carried along hnlf the nrch only. All c.a\culutionM flllali vl' t OJ RB 11 aro entered into Table 6.11. Using tho data thu s obtained wo find E~J 1 =2 (2702.4 + 9.02) 5422.8 Tho di~plnccm11nt 622 will be co mput~<l nl'glocting the infinoncl' of tho n or ma I t~tr(Sst>s, cofl.S('quently

E~:r.! = 2l:Mi ;
Si nco A/2

= lz,

this expression redutx'S to

Ef>22 =2Z.r~7

Tho corresponding cnlcul:ltions nre cn!A)rod into Tnblo 7.H

..

7'11 /.{1, 1).71

I
tlon No.
St:<'~' 1D

IJ- V

iu

'''~

$
J
11 "' U.s).:

.
!

I
fOS If
('u$!! ..
~.

i I
I

r.

m~

I
I

I
'

C~'

'I-;-

-- - -

-5.40
_ /, , 9(1

2!1. 16
24.0 1

10.4 '17 . 3

3tl3 . 3

I. :10

1 ';.'t)

I. :.!;)
2 '.3

t 25

0 .5
2
1,,5

4 15. 1 ,

I :JW
II ~2

0.!1{.)[

3 II\

UiO

:us
!
l. ill

- 3.40

1J. 51.\
f). i\1

15 .8
J5.1

J8l . li

(l, (\!t2

lU\1

I 4U

:!

;)~

3
4

. 0.90
2.61}
7.10 12.60

1~.2

'' 'j'{i7

u ;it)t)
I US')II

., zt,
~) .lltl

-L.r.o
1 .1~ 1

2 f>:1
I

1 II

!:!
12.5

IU6

11.6

9!1.7

IJ. Iif)O

3.12
i~i

1. 12

511.'> 1

H .l:\
tUI

!iHU:i

0.5H
0.4~j

(t. 2t i'o

5.83

1. ill
1.8(1

Ll.~l(l

ri

18

158. 7li

1~V.l5 . 1

1.1 . 21)11

I
Total

2i1;2.1

I
I

-I . .

335

1 86

I I

- I

li,Ji

..

9.112

Table 7,11
[.;i r l~ I. i H)\

X<,
()

.:r. ru

(1

f)

0
:J
3!i 81
1fl;i

3
li

tu . r. 17 .::1
15 .!<

15tl

569
1:t:t3
~tO<!

!!

!1

ti
J[)
1~

5
(j

22:'i 3:!-'t

'1 5.-l t4.tl 1'1. k

G .Y

:.!H55 22..'-lti

(!~iug th" t.ota. l ~h >wn

Jli.~pl:lCI.IIli~:JJ.l /i3.~ Will

Lhl\ fouL

,,r LI JQ l it.sl. co l umn

C!lW Ctly lh( S!l llli:

wo o J,t:uu
WilY

F l\2.2

2 'X 8.H1:1 .... 17,882

bl' ohtainlU i n

Eb~3 = 2l:M~ ;
wlH'rr }v/3 = 1, loailing to Ell 33 = 2 ~ -:).-.
l '.~ ing-

the vn l ll<' of ti ll! ~o)J.Itl fl[ T il uh 5. 11

\Vl\

guL
~r pp/.t.ocl lo N..ls

Ct~33 =2 X !'J U = li3i>.)l

J'he cli.~plarmntmls ol lhf siml'le Ntructnre du' t o tht> be o )bl;linttl us ing t.ho fol lowing E~X]ltt~:-;Si olJJ,~

lvill

\\ IWJ'o'

(JIIt 'lltly,

;411= 11 -!ls : M2=r; 114~ = 1 ; ;~1,1

'2r12 - '1'12 2=--z= -uz.

JL\1 '1 ~ -:S l,, ,2...!.... . - 11) . ,, J

" ~ E'-\ 21) =-- - . ~:ry -:r

Red1~11dllnt

Archu

<:~'ll~tantJy

l i1C: right semiatch oul~. the bending mol\lcnt~ n th~.> l~ft ~cmiarcb reroainiog

In ull lht> three of

~llos.t-

expre,.$ions the summation will Lt> :nrricd over

lh> 8.1'1).

ni l. Further cokulotion<:- an> cauriod out in t.,\bular fol'm (sec TnTab!~

8.11

Sec!I nn

No

II

11 - !Is

u':t.

ll~ -j

(u _,,~:x
:XIII

:xu=7
0 13 37!J 2752 1J213 271157 /a0241
1 82255

0
1

2
iJ

4 6
(,

0 3 6 9 12
15

0 0.5 2 4.5 8
12 .5

10.~

-5.4U

17. 3 15 .8 15. 1
t(, , (j

-4. 1)0 - 3..40 - 0. 9(1

0 0.25 4 20 25
l>'o

4.3

-21
- 215 -275
2ft2Sl 13091 2816!:1

63.2
305.8 934 .4 !S.{3.S
2235(;

2.60
7. 10

18

18

tl.S 11 9

12.60

1!J6.25 32-i

Tv tal

1 f>387. 1 1

4.3178

L"'> iug tlu> l.:sultlf l'r tlu.>ro cakulatioJt~ we ~et E,i 1,1 = -43, 178; 15!!.2; = -82.255; /!!11, 1 ~ -:i387. 1 ltt~YtJduring t!Jes<> "ulucs wt.o l <:xpro:-BSlOD~ (3 11) w: (lbt.uin tltt' magnitudes of lhe uulmuwn n:duudanL rt'~ct.ious
Xt =
,

-11' :::: ~,.,

VH

~\tq

~S .ti8

oJ'l-

,=o.OO 2.o

~r

tons

~ 2 ~~- ii22-

.l:!q

82,2;)5

17,882 = 4.00

tons
tou-welres

X$ - -'~::~ ~3::J_'81 = 20.3t

'fh~-s.: Iorc&s are ar.pllo!l at tho clll!>tic centre of the statically dot<Uminnte conJugate structure. 'logcther with tht' uniform loads applied t o tho arch, tltey c.on<.lllu te lho complete system of loads purmittmg the compuLation ol: all tho sLn.'~'!l'!< and reactions ( Fig. i4.11J. Tho orilinates to theM, Q :md N graphs will bo obtained using the foHowing
cquutuon ~:

(11) for the left serniarch

(h)

M = X 1 (y-y$)+X2x+X3 Q=X 1 ~in rp+XzCOSlf' N = X 1 cos 'l'-X2 sin <I' [or t.he right somiarch 111 = X 1 (y - y8>+X2z + Xs-T
qy2

Q=X 1 sinq~+ X2 cos c:p-qy sin <r N -x 1 cos q; -X 2 sin <F-IJY cos <p

4.11. Appro:cimrtte .Meth4ds oj De~i!(n a nd Allalysis of Archl.'s

503

[\ will ho notc.d that t.be ~:~xprtssion s for the left semiarch differ rom t'hnse fur the right one solely by the ab:>N1cu of tho t orro accounting for tho uni!Cormly distrihuted lo:ul q . ;\ll the caln1laLions rt>lati vo to Llw ordinates to the M , N nntl Q diagrums are c.nrri~d out in 'I'ah)e,. 9.11, Hl.11 and 11.11. T able 9.11
Ordinates to tbe .:lC Diagram
- qus = - yz
sec~iOII

No .

x.

IJ -J.!s

Xt i v- u8 )

x2

"
0 -3 - 6

Xzx

}(~

Ort.lloat~s

(!or the
r i~ht

t o tbe 3-f
d!ngt'.l m,

B~miarch)

ton .. mctr~s

-"'
~S

.... 1 '"'
Ei ..:.i.i

-5../.tO
-4.tll)

- 42 1:)(\ - 3!1.00
- 2i.LII.!

.::: :;.
..J

'"

2 $
4

- ;3./oit

- 0. !)1)

-1.16
2(1. 7(1

-9
-12 -15
:~

2.60
:;.:..
=-~

;;
6

7. f(l 12.61) - 5. ,~.()

51). 52 100. ::!0

- -18
()
;':S
tj
~)

0 -13.80 -27.tSO -41 . 40 -55.21.1 - 69.00 -82.8()

- 13.67 -23.49 -25.35 - 19.25

- 5 . }'1
Hi . 8;~

-=
~

"' ""
q.
;:

,, "
4
[>

1 2

... ~2.98 -eo -4 . !J U - 39. 00

- 3 . fo!) -1). !10

,:,; 0 13.8tl

;;;

4tUH

"'

0
-0.25 - It

-13. 67
:l.&ti

- 37 . 06 - 7. H\
20. 7(1

27.60
41. 40
55.20 l\0.00 lj2.80

--20. 25
- (Vt

25.155 .\;-;,30
4 U~i -1.~2

]l

::=:

li

2. i)l) 7.10 1 .2.. 611

56. 52 11}0.30

12 15

-lZ>ti.25

Hs

- 324

- l 11 . 5(l

Tho diagrams shown iu Pig. 16.11 l1ave. helll plotte-d uswg t.!Jc ol'dinutos calcu.lated i n tho ubove labltlS. 'l'o dlcck the accura.cr of the M diagram let us multiply th is diagram by tllf) M 1 , ~'!!2 an ,l ~~J'~ grfrphs. ln o~hor w ords, wo shall obtain the values s s s of Y..~hil-f J . ~J1 2 !vl 7 and '2-M 3M both for the leoft- and the right-hand

semiarches. Homembering that Jlr!1 = y exrrl'~~ions ~implif~ and become

::& (Y - ua) M

y8 ,

M2 =
and

z nnd Ms = 1, these

s y;

s 'i::rMJ

s l:M J

The necessa1y calculati on~ are ente1ed into Table 12.1 1. It '~ill be observed that the totals of tht>- entries in the last thrco co lumns of 'l'a.ble 12.H differ very little from zero, which confirms the accuracy of tho d1agram. The slight discrepancies, which remain below 1 per cont, are due to the fac.t that wo neglected the normal s tresses whon chocking this diagram whereas in computing 1511 thoso stresses were taken into consideration. Problem 3. Hequired the influeonc.e lines for the reduntant reactions X 1o X 2 and X3 M well as for the stresst>s M~t. N,, and Q,. acting at section/( of tho arcli

fl04

/( ,.Jrwdnnl Arrh!'S

Trlble 1().1{
OJtlinaLes tu the (t Ding J'IIlll
l':ioc~

I.Inn

x~l
r

- tf! stu q.
tihl ,~.

Ordlu\t h~

.\1 Sin q;

x2

co~

fP

~Yt (.;us

<P

.,. -211

"q}t :...:-

(It) ( llt s i~ ll t

If til(

Sfnli nrch)

- - ----1 r'it't
'l.l~!)

ri J n~: n un, toJI\~

IJ.

~
.~

..

()

(I

0
-- 2 .:':.!
Ll . !)!,.(J

.. (t.31f,

'. . G O 4.37
:~ ~{)!

;:;

.:s
~

!7

2 3 .J
.i ,;
()
~

-0. 5:J5
- LI.7(17
-IU :i(IO
-(1. ~.')8

- lo

r.~

0.8':12

-11 .5(1

-~ 5.03

-r.. :i7
-().83
-7.11
(l

o.im
(i.fll)(l

:{. 25 2. 7()

- :Ls'-1
-1J.N I
-~-~7

-- ,._
~ -

---(1.8\l'.
1 )

iG ....

0.5H 0 .117
1) . ~)4\l

2.:Jii
2 . 01i

5.1.\f)

.,
O.l.lil2
l). 7tl7

4.tiU
4.3'i
:us:~ :~.25

0
- 1
-'t

(J
-0.:~:::

!, ()(I
tj

.:::
&:
::::

-;:; ... .I

U. i!l(i
(l.!lf)~

2.f)2
1 . /t~ ~l. (',3 tUl7

f>7

2
J.
,'j

-2.22
- tl. :~n
p
~ll

n.,..:->
) ' ) _ , ,J_

"
f>

l) . 7117

O. !Slll.l
(1 .~f,8

IJ. (jr ~)

:Uti
z. :~11

- !.I --16
- 2ij
-:~tj

..

;)

t\7

tt.X04

1 :.83 7.11

0 .5[1,
0 .4{7

- 21.15
-:~2.18

- 11 . 21\
- ~3.fll

<' . 0Li

To.Jbl~t

11..11

Ordinat es to lhe !\' Diagram

SPt:: t iuu
J\(1.

Xt

oos q;

Xt Co q. -X?.

sin <p

- X, sin IP

=- -'211

- m1=

-o]{; CfS

q:: Orili nats

1,/'C+f tiH'

r ll(ht

<lJ:\1!'rnul,
t ) n~

to

lhr~ ;\1

SOilJiarch)

-;:; ....
-~

IJ

7 . 9fo
0 . '.1/o!) 7.f>5
I}. tl;l
~) .

.7 2
3

:5 ,,
l.i

...

0.8::1:0 ll. 7.'17 ll .tJIIO

0.51!.
;,:

(t3
::::: ::=.
I

4.1~

0 -i.l.i!HI - 0.555 - 0.7(17 -(l.801.l

-u.~;,s
- ~ql!14

(I

7 .'.hi
(1.(11)
.1 . 1~

1. 45
2.. 55 :1 . 2[>

~ 13~

:\.1)8
3. !15

8.11:\
g.(1 4

-=
~

___.. ""'
;:
~

4.0H

ll.4t.7
(1, ~~-4~1
CU!3~

3 51)
7.9ti 7 .5fl

.5:

0 1 2

...;

4. t1

'.fl7
(I

t~

(I

0.316

0 -'1 .45
- 2. 5!)

1 )

7 .\!1.\

-1

-t.I.H5
- :~.33

Q. fi:-l

0.555
0.7tl7

-4
- !'I

5. J5 r). 7.)
-3. ~18

(1.7(17

5 .63
4.1g

:;
;:::

"
/j

O.liOO
0.~14

lo . O :J
i:!. :i6

0.800 0.85B
1).89~

-::1 .25 -3.6!;!

- :-!.!15

-tl. 3ti
-~l .lil.l

- Hi
-~5

- 12.!';0

(j

0.4-17

- 4 11

- BO

-1f:i.0()

- S.tj'' - 12.71 --16.1\4

r!'prl>l'l'lltld io Fi~ . t\ . 11 o! 'P1t1hlcm i. 'l'llll ith$d-.~a ul th b 1;(\(;licm will hl ~~~ k"n l'{Jllal L tlw qmtt Llr sp.tll o[ the arcl1, 1.c .. tu I) w. 'T'h<' cJIIl>tl'ltcliun ,,r mnucut"

Pig. JIU 1

linN: wi ll he cauhd out \t sin~t the molltod of o]a.~t ic lll~ds. T hl' lir~t 1f the appruximnlll mothods fl c.>I'Cribed iu the present nrtidl will !Jr. II!K'd throu~;llflllt :uul in a1ldi t i<l11 tl w i11fiU<mco li11o for the unlwown X:: will be dct.crminNI usi11g llw ~econd of t he appro:timu te methods.

[.>06

U-.dundrwt

Arche.~

Solrttion. The coordinaoo~ of the inscribed polygon apieeR us well as the ordinl\te y$ of the. elastic t\ontrn of tht" arch were ~alculaLod in Problem 1. These coordinatQs aro gtv{>n n Figs. 8.11 and 9 .11. whirh repr>-"'(>nt >qually the snnple ~tructure used in tl1is problem and the honding moment djagrams induced
1'abl!: 12.11

""

c z "' 0 tl .,

"' I

...
l<

I
J "" '"'

1<1'11...,

1 U1 1"-:a

.......

"'

=
- 5ii.Hl - 81,..77

"' I

.. "'
I

rwl....,
I<

:j;

.:!

"" ..,
.!::

..

'<h

"'
1

-76 1.!\9
;1~3

<;; 0 ~ .1

.....
C.

...J

.... ...
E: ;.J

e 2 ~
0

3 :1
5

-5.40 0 10.4 - 4.90 - 3 17.3 -:;.t~o -G 15 8 - 0.!'1<) -9 15.1

0
-51..~1

-t.3.li7
- 23 .1of!

-..::::
~

tJ

-53.72 -!H.S -25.35 -13.59 -135 . :) -19. 2:. 2.60 -- 12 14.6 37.!)6 -175.2 -!>. 1.9 1t} ,g3 7.10 .. 15 118 s:u?:S - 177.0 12.00 -18 6.!! 813 .94 - 124 .2 ;,l;.8t
(I

768 991. 1 362

j

-i~2

1 219
241)3

2(;2 - l9'i 1410 4070

2616
()()\)

-401) -4(1 -2:11

- 2!:170

-581ii.
0 2(M I
2 4!>1

2
.i
-}.

..<=. .~li

"' ...

-5.40 -4 tK) -3.40 -0. 90 2.61)

7.10 12.130

104 -56 1ii 3 17.3 -84. 77 6 15.8 -53. 72 9 15.1 -13.59

:l7. 9(l

(l

-13.C7

51..~

a.so
25.85

7G8
- 327 -13ti!J - 58!!
1 5fi4

-14~ (!7

94.8
135.!-l

43.30
~1.21

5884
7 220
-2~1

4118 G54
('o(i2

.5
(i

t::::

l[, 11.8 18 6.9

'T''

83.78
8fi.94

i 75. 2 177.0

-L42 124.2 -111 59

-11.9
-\!80.2

-i3f!5l!

-17 -770

Total

1-121\)5 + 22903 ; t-2 253 - 12422 - 23003

- :!27

I
I

1- 2245
I
~.g

- 100

by unit ilctions X 1 , X 2 and X3 applied aloug Lhe rudundant constraints. The simplifwd cxpresswn for the clastic loads wag given in Art. 12.8
~ w,.= 'E~In
t)
11

(Mn- !+2.Mn)+ ,:u n+t (2Mn+M,.+1)-e,. tan ~ . +en+ t tan vc. 1 n+l

\i,.+,
that

N~glecting

tho

r
'

t he longitudinal strains of tho arch and

bectlm~s

rememhl'rin~

t'atios rl?main constant and equal to ; , this L lxpr,;ssiou is further

. c

simplified and

Wn= 0:lc (Mn-t+4.'t-fn+Mn+t ) (5.11) At th() crown nnd at the abutmonts Sn=O and s,.+ 1 ~~o, and tlwrefore. the clastic load~ will equal W0 = 6
a . . /!:J (2M0 + lf1) c (6.11)

W, = : c (M3+ 2,'1-f~) 6 1

(7.11)

d.ll . Approximate Methods of Design and Alla.lysis of

Arr.IP-~

ftf )7

Let us computl> the ordinate y 8 of the elastic centro using the cqu:ttion 0. For this purpose let us determine the claf!tic loads corre::;ponding t<l the bending momont diagram induced in the c.onjugate simple structure by a unit couple X 3 = 1 (Fig. 9J.1c). U!'ing exprfossiouR (5.11) through (7.11) we fu1d
() 13

Wo=sE;; <:tx 1+ J= 2BJc

a.

i.

W 1 = ~1-'2 =1.'J.'3 "'- G:lc (1 +

4X-l+1) =

E~('

W 4 = G;Jc (1 +2X 1)=

2 ;!~.

The now imaginai'Y struc.ture will c.onsist of two semiarches held fast ut the elastic centro as indicated in Fig. 17 .11. The imaginary bending moment at lhe ftxtd ends of theso scmiarc.hes loaded by a syatem of l'lnmic ll'ads paralllll lo L11e

~I

P;g. 17.11

required displacement: o, 13 11nd ac Lh1g at points 0. 1, :J, o\.c. , must ht> ml, thus
permitting thl' llelermination of Ys

2 H'o (Ys-6) + W, ( Ys- ;) +W2

or

( l!s-i) +

H ' 3 ( y8 - ~)

+ Wt.vs ~ O

'I.Ea!c [<us-Gl+2 (u. - ) +2 (Ys- ;) i;2 (!Is - ~) -;. !ls}=o

wh!:'refrom

and
!Js

33 = 16 = 2.0625 Im>tres

Tho value. of y s obtained in this way coincides exactly \lith the one.mPJttione.d in Psoblt>m 1 though the t wo were calculat.ed by ontirely different. methods. The simultaneous equations pennitting the determlnation of tho redundant reactions dm1 to a moving load unity P become
Xt6u+<'~tp=0;

X2622 -l- <l2p=O

Xa6aa+b3p=0

nerllwd,mt

Arches

:l~ z

6z.,,
<)22

X :;
<I I'

6.~ /'
{)JJ

-1 2=

-+; u22

b,.~

6 t3
a= -

t>33

Til() t{ru[l!t;-; < f lip, &p 3 iHitl bp 3 J'ot various }'CtSiLion~ of the h tHl m it. y P n u;;;l.il.ul< t.IH ddh:ctl')II graph!:' of Lhc SiJH )li <) strD cturo <lt.Jl' t.ct t'lw ap}llicllt iIH .r (.he l'ttltwcl<w~ l'<:'!lclivnl; x, = 1 , X 2 - 1 and x3 = 1. l'l'SJI()CLivdy. Di vi<I NI by - 6 11 , -b?:! and - 6 s:1 the ord inu to~ t o tlwso graph::; will l'"prr.sent the onlinal!."' tr the-tn ll lll:nce l ine~; fo t' nnc\ x~ .

l"t'lWiotJ ' IY wQ I n\"~ 1.1(:-t'N)d t.o call t.h i~ lll<'t.hod. of r..tlll~Lr uction or til(\ dt11Nt iCII graph ~ imlucctl hy unit loa< ]., by the (.t.' t'HI k irtf.mrlllc mrthod. TIJ<' ~"" ' ' flcfl.,, l i(Jn g ttt j h s c.ou hl ho al~o ohto intul t.y t.ht elusLk Joacl.~ llH~thocl. H lltnl,

x,, x.

~tnl't hy con:'!trnd iltg t.h e> jij'" J:1~ an il 1 W3 ~t~ph~.< ' " " t.o mt il. hud~< X 1 X .. ami X 3 c.alc.ulnthtg t.h crcnflC~r Lll<' C(ll'l'll~pondiTtg rla~ l it l(iHi ii wit.h t.lt o il -,,r expre~sion;~ (5.11) t ht'(>ugh (7.11\ (.~ N~ Fig. 9. 11!. T it Y<tlws <f ll11: 0 c t~l a.~ t. ic lfl<lll~ multiplic(l hy E .T c on giv(n in Table 13 .1'1. Tl ttt",

w,.,.., l'"ll'!.Hl, nc ~>hO\tlrl

Tr.!blt. ' .13. 71 V:tluP uf glnst.it Load (multipl i<'d hy z.;./,.}

l..u;td ttol nt.

-- ...--
I)

Xo

J.Y:z
-a::~

x~

7;3 . ;:.
~
1 5'.1 113

-y. 51

()

'"T
.. H t 3

-2(\
~

16-75

.. 21

T
-1 ~

c)
~

----vi
-<\li.5

T
- :) - 2-

2 >

1"6

T
.-...

1111 <:laLt r. l(lnrl W2 !at jl<liul: ::) whon til l' ~irnplo ~lructuru i~ h a<ltl by X 1 l.oc F'tt,:. !). lilt) i~ gi\'t.:lt by n. !I 21 Hz .. UEJc (.tl, 1 421-'12 l -,'1-f3.l~~ti!c 'll.i - 4X16 - Hi '=- 1\l.l::'lc

(:u

21 )

nnd lua;l lr 4 (;ot. Jl~int. .I) duCl lo t.he app li cation o f forc.es X 2 = 1 t(l Ll11: :> iup I s!r uc.tur(' ( St~! ~lg H .llb ami l~t.t. 7.11) ~~ ill amot.euL t J
... a. ... . 2"' ) 3 ( "t, = nE.Tcl11 3 .;- ;YI 4 = OE'!r.

.) - a+ 2 X CJ ~. 'J

2 J:::Jc

1. ..11. Al'}Jro:cimtlf(' Jfet/t.mls II/ Drstgn Mid A n. rlly.<is o.f Ari"li.es

r.o~

< H'kil)ll X .1 Tl!ese ela8tic loail:-: rnu~t

In order Lo obtain the doflt>ction cliagram bp 1 we most apply l<l l.h~ ldt-harod purl <f t.lw itna~inary ~t.ructttre thl) !'lastic. l oad ~ c.orJ'NilnHiing t.o th~ >tnil

1,,, parall~l

Lo tho li spl!u:.<~llll'ttl iu <fll!'~ti o n

Sincl t.lw rigid bracket fi.q>rl t.o the ~imple struc.tun' muy not lie rotatl)d t:hc> uni t load X,. t.he algolwtic sum of all the elnst.ic loads uppliecl tu lhe !':,'4<'"' of Fig. t8.1"1a m ust. l)I]U:Il :tero
h~

< llld m11st bo litl~ t,,d t.owards the moro c )xt.,ndccl hlol'c$1 of tho <;i mtol( tl'llr.\.ttl'l' ( l" ig . J8.1l<l't.

:Ell ~ 16EJ., + HiEJc.- iliEfc -16F:lc- "lliElc =O

{>la~tir.

73.5

1)9

:.!1

7i'J

~,lUi

'.l'hi:< rdation will hn ut-ilized for a check on Ul() accuracy of the compul<:<l loads. 1'he vertic.al d.isplacements llp 1 of tho simple structure <hlE' t<l t l1'' un it act.i<n X, will Nlllal t.lw ordinates to the diagrnm of bcncling moments indnc-<Hl in llw imagiunoy ,;;tn1cture by thE' ~>lnstic loads. Let us detel'mino tho v;thw~; <lf t.he~e ordina\e.-> at diffel'ent eros~ ::.octions, the position of the~' c.ro!lS s1x. liuu~,; bdr1g inc licatE\11 hy t.ho uppet' index in pal'enthe~~;

m_73.f>X3 _ 220.5 ll.!Jt- 1.6Elc - 1iiEJ.,

b,n =
Vpl-

121

73.5 x G+G9 x 3
16EJ0

64~

HiEJ<'

,_laJ_73.5 X !l+69x6-21 X 3 16/iJ c

1012.5
HiE lc

. 5 X 12+69x9-2i x 6-75 x :~ _ 1.152 6w_73 111 i6Elc -16Elc

Redund4nt Arclu:&

diagram 1\{lJlOOring in Fig. 1!J.l1 b has bt>en obtained ~Otting off calculated as ju~'t described on the side of tho moro extended flhres of the simple ~tructure (Fig. 18.11a) . tho The
ordinat~:~s

o,>l

'

( C)

/)r (l<?Ct~tlf

(d}

Ftg. 19.11
This diagram shows th:~t forces X 1 = 1 move the neutral line ol the arch upwards. This movomont will be reckon~ negative, the positive 1lirection " The ordinatos nppenring in Fig. 19. Hb are multiplied hy 16TU c

4 .11. Approx imate. Metho1ls of Design and Analysis of Arch.P.s

511

coinciding as convEined with the direction of Hle unit load P , that menns dowuwards. Consequently, the wholo nroa of the diagram will also be reckoned nto.gative. The clisplacomont 6 11 will be ohtnined rotating the imaginary loadJ3 through an angle of 90 until they become hori?.ontal as inolic.a\ed in Fig. 1.8.11b. Thi;; b()ing o lone, calculate the moment of the.~ loads about the olnstic r.entrc and dou hleo its value, for theo displacement <'lu reprosonts the total changeo in thn distrmco h<'tween the lower ond.s of the brac.ket.s along the llirection of the horizont al un it' lonlls X 1 b _ 2 [ 73.5 (~-16.5) +~ (E__HI.S) +

u-

16Elc

16Elc

~ (1.() .5 _E._)+~ (16.5 +16Elc 8 8 16Elc 8

_2_) 8

...L

46.5 ' 16EJ 0 X

tr~ 5 ]= 8 xi~EJc

(73.5x3L5+(l9X10.5-._ztx4.5-

+75 X 1:U +46.5 X 16.5) = +~~j:

Tht> value of 6 11 obtainerl above coincides EC~xactly with the one l'.ompute.d in Problem 1. using an eutjrelY different procedure. Dividing all the oriltnnws to tloo llp 1 graph hy (-ou) we obUiin the ordinates to tho influence line for X 1 This influence line will show the v11riation of X 1 when the unit load P trav-

els along the arch (Fig. 20.11b). . Following the samE> procodure, we shall find tho d isplacemcmt 1)1'2 The olastic loads wiJJ be applied oncll more to tho imaginary structure and tho cos~ responding bending momo.n t will bo det-ermined. In this case the extellCI<rf fibres of tho s imple structure ac.ted upon by the for~e X 2 will be situated at tho. oxt.rndos (see r'ig. 9.Hb) and therefore the elastic loads must h1 diroc.ted upwarols (Fig. 18.Hc). Tho values of the bending moments induced by these loarll! in the imaginnry stru~turo will fucnish the values of the ordinates to the dc.flect.im graph foe the simple structure undor c.onsideration

&<O
"2

11
1>2

<2>
1>2

ss x s 99 = 2EJ 0 =zEJ c 33 x 6-(-54x3 300

2EJ, 'r,2f!J,,

o<BJ 33x9+ MxG+3G x 3

=
&<~>
P2

729 2EJ" -- 2Elr. 33 x1 2+54X9+36xv +18 Xil 1.,152 2E J c = 2EJ-;,

Retting off these ordinate!; on the side of the extended f1hres of tho simplt struc.ture w~ obtain the dingr_am r(lyreset~\ocl in Fig. 19.11l'. It- wiU ho oLsorv<:d t hat the dtagram thus obtalllad ts nntJsvmmctrical. Tho di~placement &22 mpresc:mting t11o- mutual translation of the fr~ l'nds of tho hrac.kets al ong the direction of X 2 , this displacemcmt mus\ he tho donhlo of 6~~

All the ordinates indicated in Fig. 19.11c have been multiplied by 2EJ0

R etlundtml

A rd11~

Tl1is v:Ji uC> t'oinciclcs again \\ith liHJt o ltninctl. in l'roblorn L m u htpl ~ing th o ht'nll ing mm1~n(. rli1tgrnms. ThCI orrliunti'S to the innuenc.o Jin1.1 rill' _r,, mav wo w 1,.! ohtnilll:<l cliv icli ng lho~l.' to tloo 6p 2 gt'll l' " hy ( - o., . J. The rom""JI'.'ittling inl1u:n<!l' liuc appBai'S hl Pig. 20.11c.

...,

/r.(luer:c-e lwe for .X3

trf}

Fig. 20.11

In order to fiml the displacement graph 6pa lho elastic loads must be applied onc.< t again to the imngin:uy stmcture (Fig. 18. Hd), l1u~SIJ loads b<ting cli r<~eted M usnnl towards the extoncled fthrcs, lhat menns clownwarcl:<. The del.'i ro~ di:;placements will be furnished by tho values of the bt'nding moment$ ;~cting at the

J .ll . ilfpro:riow/P M elhods of Du111n a11d Analysis of

Arch~.,

513

corre:;p<'n ding sect ions of the imoginary strucLUre

ben- 3 x 3 _ _
ra -

- -2EJ c it,.'r ,,g 'i.EJ c 2EJ o Tloesc C'rtliua~l.'~ mu~t be ~>t>t (Iff a bove tho :thsr,i~sn axis [or t.lat'l l):lotendnd fb1e:-; of t.ho s imp)) st.l'llctun> Ill'(\ at th o extrados. The di11pi11cllment. graph for bp 3 thu s (1l1Lainctl. is ropru:<ontcd iu Fig, HJ .'l Jet.* Thll disp!nccmont 6 33 repre~euting the mutual angu lar rotation of the btatkot!' tin nth1r wnl'cls. thut of ftH::t=" 4 und !I' the semiarcnlls), it.; value will I''' cquul to tht> ~ltm nr t.h(' t>lasti e loads, i.l! , 2 :.!!o 033 = 2 2EJc ' 2EJc EJ, The same nlue has be._,u obtllint>d pteviously by the method o graph multiplicllt.lon. 'l'he ordinates to the influpnce line for Xl! (Fig. 20.tld) were uht ainl.'d dividing the ordinat.t:s to the 6p 1 grapll by (-6 3a). 0!1<'(' the influcncl' lines for rill tht'l redundant reactions nn<l Ira\'() hecn ronnd. we may proceed wHh the c.onstruc.tion of the infiut'nc!' l ines for benol ing moments, shearing forces and normal stresses at any cro~s Rec.twn of t.hs: ~rch. !.~t vs cunstruct these three illfltumce lines for stc/lon K situated 6 llll!l.l'CS to tile right. [rom tho left-hand nlmt.ment (section 2 of 1-'ig. 8.11 b). Th< unglc 'l':l betw~.>en the tangnnt to the neut.rnl line of the an~h und thtl l1oriwntal oqn;als fell' t.his ~c.tion 21134'. sin IJ'~ = 0.447 and c.os op 2 = ll.S9'o (,;eo T Able 1 . H (l( Pwh!Hm n. The li.'Ycr arm or the: force X 1 wit.h referonco to 1><1c~ion K tqnals

ot2)= 3 x t1 + 6x3 r :J- '.!.BJc - '.!.EJ c P~ 'l.EJc bt3)_3 x 9+il X G+ GX 3 _ 81

2EJ,

!_,_

36
2EJc

6(4)=3 X 12-'-fo X !l+llxO+CIX3

or

( sx

ox s)

x, . x2

x3

und the le\'t>r :~m1 o[ fMcc X~ with l'eferencl' to the same section equal!- G m()trl.'.~. The ordinatPS t() th e influence lines for Mh. Qh and ,vk will bo cnkulated using llw folluw1ng cxprt!Ss.ious: ** (;a) wh~n ~he tmH load I' is between tho ls:[t-lland abutment and S<!ctiun [{ ur wht>n it hns shifted to tbo) right-hans! sem iarch

9 - X2ti + X3 16 Q,. = - X1 siniJ'2+X2 cos trz = -X ,0.447 ~-Xz0 .8!M Nk =X 1 cos q,~+X2 sin 1J12-= X,0.894+ X20.447
Xi
1hl wbon the unit load P is botwoen soction K nnd the crown
Jlf~t =
whl.'r~

J\i~t= -

9 -X 1 {6-X26 + X3-1r

r is tho h Ycr arm of ~he unit 1011<1 P about section K and

Qh.= - X 10.447 + X 20.894 + 1 X 0.894

T hl' orrlinnt.es Lo Lhis graph l taV!' heun once again multiplil'd hy 2EJ c ,.. Normn l stresses will lW r<.ockoulld positivo when they cnn~ cumprc,.sive strosl!os i n the arc.h, 'the usual sign c.onvention being maiutainc :<l for boucling momonw IIT)d shlttrs.
3J - ~r.3

Nr. = -X10.894 + Xz0.4.47 + i X 0.447

Redulldan.t A 1 clL1< S

Tobie 11.11

- r

I
,.

onJ f llat.~s
~t) tl11~

.Mh.

in t'l uour;c
lfnt, ,

rnelres

1
2
J :1 4'

lo

o.:;215 I , 0.8242

0.17~15

o.mln

o.u:m
0.8242

0 - 0.101 - 0.297 - 0.41\4

(I

- 0.04::10 - 0 .1562 - 0 .3Hi4

- 0 .! 1000

ll 0 . 25tl
0.~37

(I

0.187
( 1. 750

o.:H-1
0

1.390
(1.124
-ll.52~

LS!i?:S
3 .(10()

'l. t\87

- 3
-li

H'
2'
I'

-0.528 -0.528 -0. 461!

- 0.207 - 0.101
()

(). 5000 0. 3164

0.15()2

-3.0(1(1

:.uoo
1. 1)87 0.750
().-187 (I

::1.000

- (l , ;i28

0.!)275
0. 17!)5

-1.8!.tli - 0. !137

-0. i\75
..-~U 84

0'

'0
Ordh\atcs

O.CV.30 0

- 0.258
(J

-(1.172
(I

tQ

t he (! N l nllucnco Li ne
(,)n1in :JLfs

Lnad pvhll

Xt

-X1 O. t.H

.Yz

Y 2 O. fl%

0.89 .',

tJ tlJe line

(~h

iuCIU I.:'uct~

0
I
J.mrm<liatf.'ly tl> Lhl' ldt

(l

!)

(I
-0.\V.~(I

0 .17% 0.5:!75

- O.ORO
-0.23()

(I - 0.0:-l(l

(I
-0. 11 ~

- U. Jj(i2

- 0.140

- 0.376

of ~c:cti>u 2 Immediately to tho:. tight (lj' ,_.:ctior1 2

:1 4
:1'

o.5:m
(1.8242 0.9377
0.!.1377 0.8242
0 . 5~75

- (1.2311

-0.15132

-(1 .11,!)

(1.8!\'1

(.l.:iHI

-0.3UR
~0.4HI

- IJ.3tl\l.

-LI . 2~!.\

-0.5000
0.5000

- <i.-'.47
0.41,7

0.894 0.1\tl'o

lt.;!f,3

-0,1, 1()

3'
2'

-0. 368
-0.2&i

o.a1M
O. 'l5ti2

{.2Hi:l li.HU

(1.028 (1.(128
-II,(Jll:J

1' 0'

0 .1795 0

-0.080 0

0.043()
0

0.030 0

- II.O!lli

-O.V41
()

4.11. Approximall! Methods of 0 1!sign and AnalJJSi.s of Arches

515

Tablt! J(J.Jl

On linntes to f.he .V1,, l nlluenl'C JAne

to tbe Nk Influence
Hue
Ordinat~s

I.olld point

Xt

x1 o.s94

X~

X::. 0.447

O.H7

0
1 lmm<'dhltoly to tho loft of section 2 Immcdiatdy

()

I)

0
-n.o~tso

0.1795

0.5275
0.5275

0.160 0 . 1,71

-0.1562

0 -0 .019 - 0.070

O.t\17

0 0.11,1

0.401
O.&i8

0.471

-0.'151)2

-0.070

to

right o soction 2 3
4

th<~

0.8242
0 . 9377 0.!1377 0.821o2 0.52i5 ll.17!l.i
I)

0.737 0 . 838

-0.3113'1

- 0.141

4' 3'
2'

0.838

-0.5000 0.5000
0 316ft t.l.t562
0

-0.2:!3

0.447 0. 4<\7

1.ll!.a
1.0{it 1.061 0.878.

0.223
0.141.

0.73i
0.4H 0.16) 0

1'
0'

0 . 01\30
I)

0.070 O.OHI
t}

0.!'4'1

O.t'i1
ll

H will be observt>d that the o.xpt't>ssiun~ obtai11ed for caso (b) diff<:r from for caso (a) only by the presence of a t.el'm accounting for the un iformly clistribUL!ld load. '!'he Ol'llinat-e$ to the influenc.e line~ for Mho o~ mld Nk will he obtninecl intorlucing in t.he above oqnat.ion~ tho values of X 1 , X 2 and X,. sc.~tlell llff tlw corresponding inlluenra liul!<.~ givon in Fig. 20.1L It i~ nrlviS<HI to Cflfl' Y out all ~he cnlculnliun$ in tahular form ns indicatl)d in Tables t4.1t, 1!:l. 1'1 and 10;1'J. 'l'he entries itt tho last r.c>lnmn of cad1 o[ th().~o thr<J {' t.ahl~>s have heen used for the const l'uction ol influonco lines uppeariug
t.lto~<)

in }'ig. 2'1.11 . Usiug t.hesc influonc~ lines let us find thl! magrHtrules of ;\Jh, (lk arul N k induct!d by uniformly distributed loads acting or:er the whole of th~< left semitH'<h, the. intenstt.y of this loadi ng being eqr1al to Z tons fJer metre (see Fig. 8.11,~'). 1<'01' th is )ntrpose we Hhall Qp)ac.e the uniformly di~triLuled loads by concentrated (\Ill'S acting at point~ a. 1, 2, !i nuJ ~l of the polygonal arr..h . Thewcouc~~ntratetl load!! will auwunt to

P0 =1\ = g

a 2 X3 - =3 tons 2 =-2

P 1 =P2 =P3 =qlt =2.X3=li tnns

33"'

516

RPdundant Arr.h

Tho desired values of i'rf1,, Q~;. and N 1, will be obtnin()d multiplying the Dlngnitudcs <Jf the!;() c.oncentrated loads by the corri.'S)Iont.ling ordinall.'~ to the influenc.e line!!, which are thl.'n summ<:'d up
as indicated holow ;'l.f~t=3 X 0 +6 X 0. 344+ f) X 1.390+6 X x fl.12't- 3 X 0. 528= 9.564 tou-mctre:; Qh =3 X 0-G X 0.119 + 6 X -l- 0. 5t8 -1-{j 0 0 2'3 I 3 f) O?!S ~ . -0 .3i6 X 2 ' .. X . I T X . ~
l-{h =

+ 6 X 0. 111, + G X .X 0.<101 + z 0.848 + ('X 1 . O!.'' .._, _ 3 X l .llf. I ..

3X0
1'bC!~e

= 1. 254

tons

= 1.4.034 tons values are prac.tically the same as tho5e given in Table~ 2 :11 , 3.11 and 4.11 and in Fig. 12.'1J of Problem 1. 'fhe inlhanco line-~ f~~r the r(l<l undant c-onstraint~ X 1 , X z an () X 3 permit Ntunlly thl' r.vn~truct.ion ol' stress liAgrn rns in!lnced in Lilli nrd1 b~ vor tical lo;His. l>'or that lnrJlOSC the actual loading will be replaer:d ~ 11 systtm of llquivalent conct>nt.r~ted load~ a~ting ilt the apices of the polygonal ach. The magnitu<lel! of X, X 2 and X 3 corresponding to each o t ho conconlratod loads will h o;sily Ioun1l11Sing the said infinonce lin<Jo. The diagrams of the stresse.~ induced in the differetit sections of tho arch will t.hen h() obtained in thl) usuul way appl:,..;ng f.() tlw conjug:1t! l>implo ~Lructur1) both actual loads and redundant rcact.ions. <;; ~ ~ ~ Let us consider :m cxmnplo of tho con~ <:::> -. struction of the influence line for X 2 using <::i -: - : <:::; <".$ <:::; the second of the approximato Dl(lthods lescr ihed in tho first par~ of the present Pig. 21.11 article. "' Neglr-eLing comprea~ion s trains, the exprt>llSion for the elastic loads will hecomo in this case

""

..,

W,.= !lf,. EJn

s,l

where Sn = Sn-l;Sn.+ t is t'he mean of the segment lengths contiguous to

~ection n. The values of

S1

may be approximately taken ~qual to

4 ;

a so---- 2cns<p0 '

S 1 =-cos q: l

S2=--"-; cos <'P2

a s -' -2 cos cp4

" The same meth od was used in Pl'obl~m 2.

1.11. A pJJro:cimat.- MethQd of Detlgu and Analysis of Arci~R

517

a.no l ~inco J ,...,,____:!s__, coust.>quently

COS!j;

tz 3 . S1 J'2 S3 tt a To~ J" =2J "=u"~= ~=~s= Tc=Tc The clustic lono ls corr~svotJ<Iiog to tltc a pplication of unit forces X 3 lo t.llo simplo structure will he ssi ,oo \ by tseo Fig. 9. tib)

S'0

s,

~,

~ o= M o Elo = - 12'UU c = - EJ<

Sv

18

IT1=M~--~- ...
E/1

- 9--=-E"'El c J
0

?7

s2 a W2=.41?--= -6 - -=
~ EJ~

EJ,

18 --Elc

S3 3 9 la=4a~ -. EJ 3 =-3--= EJe - EJc

i

H,= J. \ BI,,

Y.

= O 'l.EJc

a =0

'J'hu (l(lfl ecLions 6 2a will be obtt\ilwd nl'!)lying thc~1 loads to tho ltnngiJHlr y slrucLnrt> of Fig. 22.1-1 nud computing tho IJenJing moments induced

18

0
Flg. 22.11 F ig. 23.11

hy th esc loads

. 0.co __ 1s xa_
P 2 - RJ , <

51,
EJr.

:~ 189 =-EJ r l:.Jc ti< 31 __ t8 x 9+27x6+t8 x3_ 378 P2 EJ , - EJ,

.~11'1.=

-1'8 X 6...!.. 27 X

6112

! 4) - t8 X 12 ......_ 27
-

X 0+ 1 8 X 6 ..:.. 9 X 3 _ 5!H EJc - EJ,

Setting o[ the bending moment vtdut~> thu~ obtainod nn the ~ide u! the ostendNl Jihr~;~s of the imaginary structure, we shall ohtain the dcRcctitln grnJ'h for 6 ~1 , nJlfll'll!'ing in Fig. 2:-!.U .

518

Rcdut!dant Arches

6v 2 graph by (-622) hce..auoe X 2 = - 21' 2 This infhwnc.o line apJlcars in V02 Fig. 24.1 t. Jt is practic.ally tbe same as the onf.\ obtained by UH>. firs~ of the methods
dl'SCribed in tho
pr~>.sent

1 'l'he llispl:lcoJOL'llt 6 22 is Lhe double of bp~. Thus, 6 2 2 ~.>quais 2~~: or ;;: . Tht) influence line o1' X 2 will he obt.ainod divitling all Lite ordinatl's to tho

article and !'()presented in Fig. 20.11c.

Influence ll11P. for ,rz

o;::;

~
Fig. 2<1.11

5.11. EFFECT OF SHIUNKACE AND TnrPERATURE CHANGI!:S

ON FIXED END REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCHES

Temperature changes. Every temperature change leads to the appearance of stresses i.n ft xed end arches. Let us establish the expressions permitti ng to 'predh~ t these stresses. for this purpose Jet us assume that t he tempe~aturc at the extrados has been increased

Fig. 25.11

Ftg. 20 .11

by l\ while that at the int.ratlos by (Fig. 25.11). We shall abo adroit 'Lhat within the thickness of the arch the tcmperaturll varies linearly and therefore the increase in temperature at the neutral line (provided the latter t~oinddes with the centm line of the r..ross section) will equal t,

t;

ttz .

For tho simplicity let liS denote the difference (t 1 - t 2) by !H and half tbe sum of these temperatures by t. The simultaneous

5.11. Effect of Shrinkage and Temperature Changes

51!\

cqunUons expressing lhnt the displacements a long the reduudant constraints transferred to the elastic centre of the arch arc nil (l'ig. 26.11) become in t his case

XJt611 +~II = 0 } (H. 11) + ~21 = 0 x3,63a + 631 = 0 Since a ll the displacements of the arch caused by the said tempetatu re change are syrnmelricul, the displacement L\ 12 must a lso equal zero and consequently X 21 is equally nil. Using the oxpre::ssions devoloped in Ar t. 7.8 we may determine the dP-fioc tioHs due to a
Xzt6~~

temperature change which are given by

- ds t1+"zs--; 611 =C (tl - tz} \ J' .MIT + ct2- N t ds

ilat =ct(tl - tz)

or

~M3 ~
s

~ 1 1 = - aM~ (y - y$) ~:
s

- ctt

~cos ff!x ds

.1st =- - ct6t ~

~~

Tn these cxpressious h represents the thick ness of t he arch , and a is the coeffidcnt or l.hermal expansion . The value of~~~ (with due rcgnrd to the infl uence of normal stresses) is given by

811 =

~ (y- y,}~ ;~
s

+ ~ c.os2 !px
s

whilo the value of 633 is provided by the expression

~33 = ~ ;~
Jut.r uduciug t he values of ,:\lit .131, all and 633 in equations (9.11) Wl' obtain

Rednudallt Arches

Thl;l fix <.>d end moment due to a temperature change can ])e computed using the exprogsion
Jlrf,\1

= X3t -1- Xtt (! - y$)

Let us examine a parabolic arch whost1 nl"ulral line follo1vs a curve given by y= ~t x 2 and whose cross-s~ctional momeu!s or inf:.<rti<t and thickness vary in accordance with

J- ~
COS<J>x '

h=~
COS<p~"t

of inerl,ia and the thickness of the arch at the crown sectioJl. fort~S Xu aud X 31 will be given in that case by the follow ing expressions**

Tn thl'se expressions lc and he reJ,resent respe0tively the moment

(10.11)

~ cn:;2.<p;c ~
w IWtll
J.L
8 = -:::------;--

~(Y-Ys)2

The first of the expressions (10.1j) indicates that the thrust dtle to a temperature change increases together with the l'igidity of the a1c.ft and with the reduction of its rise. On the coutrary, a rectuc.t.ion in the closs-sectional dimensions and the use of the materials with a lower mocllJlus of elasticity will reduce tho stresses caused by tomperaturo changes. Shrinkage. Strcssos set up in a roinforc.ed c.oncrete arch IJy tfw shrinkage. of mnr.reta eau he calculated in t.ho same way as thosE>. due to a temperature change. Indeed if a were Lhe coefficiont or t hermn l expansion of concrete, at would repreSQnt tho strain pe. unit lougt.h 1 ;uused by a ~;fl ange in t.em]lCraturc oqual to tC.

+
For a rec.tangular arch of r.onstant dept.h these two oxprt>!;Sions an.> contr(tdict.ol'y, tho litst leading to h=
3 . ~

the assumption that h l.'quals c--- is negligible, ~.>spcr.ially in the

OS

cos <f!x
<!'x

he

Nt>Vl!J't.hole,<;.<; th(l ()J'ror

introduc,~d hy
c:1 C

of fiat

lii'Chi)S.

*" Il willl>o tememht>red that for this typt> of a1ches Ys= ~

6.11 . Direct CoiiiJmlation of Parabolic Flud End Arcltu

52!

T ho !!hrinkage of concreto leads w a shortening of all linoar dinumsions by appr<>ximately 0.025 per cent. 1f we admit Lhat the coeffi cient of thotmnl expansion of concrete is equal to 0.00001, the sltdnkage may be regarded as equivalent to a drop in tornpe1ature of nbou t 25"C. ln actunt dosign pr.actica this is usually reduced to 10 or 15,C, for in r~:~a li ty the arches aro cast section by section 1md therefore only a certain fraction of the total shrinkage must ~ tnkon into consideration. Thus, t ho stresses sot up by shrinkage in a llx'd end arc.h may be computed in exactly the sarne wny a~ thf' i;[.rcsses due to a d rop in temperature from 10 tu 15.,C. lL is worth mentioning that thee oxist moans and ways of co rnponsating at toast part.ially the shl'inkago effect tltrough a rtiti da l variation of inLcmnl stresses.
6.11. DIRECT CO~IPUTATl ON OF PARABOLIC FIXED END ARCHES

\<\. 11\u the nout.ral line of an arch follows a conic parabola and its eros.s-se(;tionnl moment~ of inertia vary in nc.cord o n ct~ with

J ,. =- __!s_, wh~ro J 0 is the moment of inertia at the crown, all

cos')::.:

the cocftieients to tb"' unknowns aJld all the free terms of the sinwltancous t~q11ations can be determined by direct computa ti()ll. H ('IlCt', fo r this particular case it becomE.'S possible to obtain maLiwmalica l relations between the redundant reactions acting at the ela:stic cen tre of the a rch and tho applied loads. J..,ct U!'l lind these relations assuming that a vertieal load unity fJ acts a distance a from the left-hand abutment (Fig. 27.11a.).

522

R edundant Arches

The canonical equations relating to the conjugate simple structure of Fig. 27.Hb become

Xs4'5u -J-6sp=0
Xz~u +02p=O

Y,c5. 3+ 6a~ = 0

wherefrom

(11.11)

T he displacements 01 p, 6211 and ow will be calculated Jlcglecti ng tho effect of nonnal str~:sses, that means, u!'ling the expr essiou
l>tp =

~M,Mp E~x
0

where Mp = bending moment induced in the simple struct.uro by t he load unity P M 1 = bending moment due to the unit reaction X 1 . Subsl;ituting tl1e values of Jltl'p, M 1 , ds a nd EJ x in t:he expression for 6 1p and remembering that for this particulllt type o f nrc.llcs the elastic centre ordinate Ys CQILals we obtain

cStp=

~ MsMp E~x
0
Q

=-

~ ( ~ f - y)
0

1 X 1 (a-x)

c:::~j: =

= ~
0

(x - a) [

1- 7 {l- x)x]
IL' l. ) l1

: ;,

~ (2~ - 1- 3EJc l
since Y= v(l-x)x. Denoting by '11 the ratio
4/

-T

we obtain fi nally

<'isp=-

3~~. 'YJt('r(~-2'11 + 1)

6.1}. T>i rr.ct Com.putf!tion of Paraboli c F ixed E11d Arches

523

'fbe value of t) 11 is given lJy

!

l
u2

vu= j

.~:

~
0

l>'Jl

ds EJx

= J ( ~ f- Y)
('
0

2 (

Ea;c ) =

;5 . ~~0
(t2.11)

Introducing O jp and Ou in expref;Sion (11.11) for X 1 w e oht.aiu immed i a.tely

X1=

61p - -... - =
UU

+ 7I x 1

15

'l'J~ ( l'J2 -2'11+1)

Tllis exprassion can be conveniently used for the construction of the int1uence line for X 1 . The ord inates to this line for the left semiarc.h will he obtained varyi ng 11 from 0 to 0.5. For t.ht1 right scrniarch they will be symmetric.al to those already found. Ncxl let us det.ermine the value of displawment 0 2 p
o

0 2 p;;=

~
0

M2Mp

;;x = + ~ (+- x)
()

(a-x)

;;r. =

= ~ ,12
EJe

(..1._!_) 6 4

where T J r epresents as previously the Tho value of 6 22 is obtained fr.om

!
I

T ratio.

622 = 2

~ Mi ;;,. = 2 ~ ( ~
0 0

-x r ;;c -== -12~;,c

(_}_-~) 6 4
(13.11)

llenc.c
X 2 =-

62

~22

- 12T)2

U sing the latter ex pression we may construct the influence liue for X 2 varying again 11 from 0 to 0.5 . The ordinates to the same !inc for 0.5-< 'YJ-< 1 wi ll be equal in value but opposite in sign for the right-hand part of the influence line for X 2 is antisymmetrical with reference to its left-hand part. ~ow determine & 3p

631,= ~ M 3 Mp ;;,. = ~

~
0

1 (a-x)

:;c
=

=-

2;~c

J\s for 633 it equals

va3 = .) Ms E!x
0

.~:

~ -~

ds

=J
0

1 Elc

dx

EJ <

524 whkh leads to

lle.dlmdrwt

Arch~s

('1 4.11)

T his

~~quation

pormits t he construction of tho X 3 infl uence li no

for tho tuft.-hand semiarch. This influence line will he symmctrkal

with reft.mmce to the vertical pass ing through t he crown.

Fig. 28.11

ptttat.ion the stresses acting at any eross section of the ardt or t o construct the intl uencc lines fo1 these snmo stresses provided the applied loads remain vertical. Fig. 28.11 repl'osents the influence lines ror tbc thrust JJ, fol' Lhe vo1tic.al reaction Va and for the fixed end moment l't! a acting at the lefL-hand abutment as well as the influence li ne for the bending

The equations giv ing the values of the redundant roactious X 1. X 2 ancl X 3 being known, it becomog possible to find by direct com-

6.11. Direct Computatton of Parabolic Fi:red 8ruJ. Arches

525

ntome.nt .Jitfc acting at the c.rown section. The ordinates to these infh1enc.e lines have been found using the above equations for the rodundant reactions applied at the elastic centre. 1'hese influence lines (Fig. 28.11} may be used for the design of all fixed end arches whose centre line follows a conic patabola and whose cross-sectional moment!; of inertia vary in accordance wi tb tho relation specified at the beginning of this article. These infh.~onco

Fig. 29.11

l ines permit the determination of stresse~ acttng at any cro55 .seetion <>f the arch as long as the loads remain vertical. ~['be following procedure should be adopted for these computations. First determine the values of Va. H and 111,. for the given system ()f loads multiplying each of the latter by the corresponding ordinate to the appropriate influence line. For uniformly distributed loads, their intensity will he multiplied by the areas bound~<l by Lhe .segments of the influence line:>. ~fhe values of Va, Hand .'11n will bo then applied to the left end of tbe arc.b libera ted previously frorn all the existing constraints.. Thereafter tho stresses at any seet,ion will be easily c.omputed assuming that tlie are.h is a st.atically determinate curved beam built in at its right end and acted upon both by the applied loads and by the redundant reactions determined as explained previously and applied to 1 ;he left end . Thus, for instance, if the fixed end arch were acted upon by LW() <~o ncontrated loads P 1 and P 2 (Fig. 29.11) the bend ing mornont in any arbitrary section K will be given by

M"= Vo.xk-Hy,.+Mo.-P 1 (x" -a 1)

Problem. A parabolic arch (Fig. 30.11.a) is act<!d upon by two ver\icalloails 1' 1 = 10 tons and Pz = 20 tons as well as by a unifonn toad of two tons per metre distributed over the quarter span situatod immcdiatoly to the left of tbe c.r<)Wn. Re<Juircd: (1) the thrust H, the vertical reaction 1',. and tne t'Jxcd <mil moment M 0 .; (2) tl1e hending.moment, the snear and the n01mnl str<.1~s acting

at the crown section. The neutral line of the arch follows the equntion
V=

{l-z) X=0.2(10-x)

52(i

R edunda11t A rclus

and the cross-sectional moments of inertia aro giwn by

lx =....!..s_
COS!po:

Solution . S t~wt by roustructing t.he inOucuco line for the tllrust lf. For this Plrpo.!l<. multiply ull the ordinates to the influence line of Fig. 28.11 by tho

fa)

I'T"'!'"''-ri+.-.

q Zt/m

- ratio \\hich in lbis particular 1

case equals 2 for l = 1(} metres and j = 5 m~tres. Tl1c inOucnc~ lino for the thrust 11 obtained as j ust oxplainl'td is shown in Fig. 30.11b. Tho inl1uE!nc.e line for 111,, will be obtained }Jy multipl yi u~t all tho mdinatcs t.o the nppropl'iaLO influence linl't of Fig. :.!8. LI hy the "~pan length l. Tho completecl inflnencl' line is !'l1own in Fig . :-10.11c. line f!Jr V,. in t.h e event or a parabolic arch nr< indlIcmd~nt of the

(b)

!(1{luf!f1ce line {or thrust H

"

The ordinat.us to the influl'tlJCO

ratio and t.horcforo Ll o influence

(C)

liu o givm1 in Fig. 28.11 may he used without any allerati11ns. Let us determine l!OW tho thru~;t dnt' to the ln:ul.\1 in dicated in Fig. :~U.1ltt. ll-< vulue will be equal to the .swn of tho product of

responding influcoco liuc !JI'dinnt~ with thu produ ct of the lm:n honn!lcd hv the inflnonr,e liM over that jJOrtion of th e omh canying the dislributod load by the iui-<Jn s i ty !1 the Ia U.tw . The area mentiunc<l may be calculated aJlpro~imutely r~phtci ug c ur\il iucar S<!gtnents o[ tht inflttence line het.Fl~ 30. TI Wt\4ln \wo neighbouring ordina tes b~ !!traight lines. If the dist.anco '' -"O ta.ra I ing t.bc:-.sc orrlinatcs remains constant, tho luea bo11nded by two onlitat~~" h., llll tl hm will ho given by
(d)

each concentrated load by tho

cor~

(wi~' = a { 1~

h,.) +h,..H + l,..z+ .. 1 -h m-i+z

0 2 2

llunce the thrnsl U will C'<JURI

fof

= f> 10.1020 4- P20.1220 + q ( 6t,O +0.3310+0.3880+ +0.4320+0.4.590+

0

~188 )

0.5 = 6.::13().1 tons

6.11. Direct Contputation of Parabolic: Ftxed E11d Archl's

527

'l'be magnitude of the verticA l reaction Vu will be obtained in exactl y the

same way
Va ... PI0.896+1'20.061

+q ( 0 ~ 4 + O. 784 +O. 718+

..,... 0 oV't

500 - = 1.. '"8+0 fi-" 3 577 1<>-r (!, --;r- ) 0 . ;)

I

t ons

AS for tho btndi ng moment. M,. it will nmotmt to

Jf.., = Pt ( - O.f>40) + P1/.215 + q

( -'~ 528 -

0.368-0. 1!l4 +
0

+ U.000 + 0.174.+

12

) 0.5 =- - 2. 586 ton-metros

'l'his ho iug dou<~, lihornto t.lw IQ(t ond of ttL' nrch from :~II con$trai n ll! and _ roplacc thH lat tc e lly t ho rt>actiw forccil just found (l' ' ig. 3Ll1 ). The JJOndlllg tuomt>nt acting at tin c rowu st>ction will then equal

il-111 = -,Va -1 va l - Ht-P 1 ( l -2)

l l - q2'a=

""'-2.586+13.57i X 5 - 6.3364 X 5- IO X:S-

~~(II} = -2 . f>33

tort-mett-es

= (i.33M

The nnrmal s t.ress nct ing across the satntl section will be obtaiue< l proj:cting all thf:j forces lo tho left ot ~his cro~s S<lCL ion on tho horLwn tal: /'lk = II =
t.<lJl!; (compre$.~ion).

Tho shear wiU bo givon by tbo vertic-al projection of t.he same forces

10 Q~t=Va-Pt -q+=13.517-10- 2 X = - i .!,23 tous 4

In actual prac.tico the design of redundant arches for bridge cons tl'11Ct.ion and elsewhere is frequently carried out with the nid of spucial t<~bles. Such ta hles have been propar.ed for widt>.ly varyinJ.('

geometl'ical parameters of arches such as their ratio, the law governing the variatio n of their cross-sectional dimensions, etc. The use of such tables reduces very c.onsiderably the time rcq11ired for computation work and thereby eliminates in a large measure tile risk of errors always present when calculations are long and laborious.

528

R eaunda11 t A rchu

7.11. TWO-HINGED ARCHES

In the case of two-hinged al'chos the stress

anr~l ysis

is usua lly

carri ed out adopting for simple l'tati<:ally determina Le s tructure the curved bar shown in Fig. 32.11.Tbe equation expressing that tho hot'i1100tal displacCJnl~nt along the direction Of X1 is nil becomeS

x,au + L\1p = o
for flat arches lhe valut~s of 611 and ll 1p will be calcu In t ed with due consideration to the eff->et of normal stresses , i .t.<., us ing the oxpossions

L\ 1 p= ~ M1Mv :~
0

+ 1: N,Np ;~.
0

[ n r.Me direct int.ogr.ation of these expressions becomes too complicatt!d resort should be made to numerical method~ or to the

111cthod of elastic. loads.

Fig. 32. 11

Fig. 33. 11

Cross-sectional moments of inertia in two-hinged arches remain constnnt or vary in accordance with

J"' = J 0 COS <rx whore J 0 is the moment of inertia at the cr own section (Fig. 33. H ).
Alternatively the cross-sect ional areas of two-hinged arches may vary following the expression

F" = F 0 COSCJ>x
where Pc is again the cross-sectional area at the crown

12.

ANALYSIS OF HIGHLY

REDUNDANT STRUCTURES

1.12. USE OF SYMMETRY

W hen analyzing the stresses ansmg in slructuro8 wilh a large numbc.r of redundant constraints one is usually called upon to solve a number of simul taneous equations equal to the structtll'c's d~gree of redundancy, each of the~ equations containing l~he same number of unknowns. Let us investigate, for instance, the frame appearing in l''ig. 1.12 which consists of two closed r.ontours and consequently is redundant to the sixth degrtle. If all the c.ompotations pertaining to th i!l frame were canied out. adopting as con jugate statically determinate sttucture the one given in l"ig. 2.12, it would be ne(~s~ary to form and to solve a system of six simultaneous equations with six unknowns each X1&11 +Xz&tz+XaOts+X~&,. +Xs6t5+XG6te+ .ltp = 0

X 10z1 + X !162:~ + Xs6u + X,626 + X~62 5 + Xec5ze + ~2P = 0 X16a1 + Xz<'~a2 +Xa6a3+X46a4 +X56as + Xo6.,e+L'l:fp= 0 X1ou +Xz~4~ + X3~43-j-X4&44 + Xs645 + Xe64e + ~,p =O } ~1651 +X1hz+Xl>5s +X,654 +Xsllss + X66sG~~f>P = 0 (1.12) - X 2662 + Xao6:1 +X 4~6~ + XsOes + X666o -r ~e" = 0 X t6o, -1
The solution of such a system of equations would btl ex.tremcly laborious and would require a lot of time. The work can be simplified very considerably due to tho symmetry of the structure. H should be remembered t hat in a symmetrical structure not only the a.rrangemmt of its memb,;-rs but also their cross-sectional rigiditic~~~ arc symmetrical a.bout a certain a.J;is. The simplif1cation is based on the possibi lity of finding a conjugate statieally detorminato structure for which the 1fft diagram for cac.h redundant reaction Xi = 1 will be either symmetrical or antisymmetricaL T hus, for t hu frame under consideration (see Fig. 1.12) ono could adopt for simple structure the one appearing in .l<'ig. 3.12a. In this
34-s~ a

530

Annlytts of ll ighlv Redu11da11t S trU<"turcs

case the M 2 , M 3 , M 5 and Jltf 8 diagrams due to symmetrical uuit forces X 2 , X 3 , X 5 and X 8 would be themselves sym metrical (Fig. 3.12c, d, f and g) whilo the M 1 and tho 1114 diagrams induced by antisymmetrical unit force.s X 1 and X 4 would be also antisymmetrical (Fig . 3.12b and e). 1t is well known that the product of a symmetrical graph by antisymme trical one is always nil. Thus, for i nstance, if ot1e were to muJtiply the M 1 graph (Fig. 3.12b) by the M 2 graph (l<'ig. 3.12c)
Simple structure
I/edt, ndanl .rtruclure

ibts of s.vmmelry

---'- t!~J

x /

"1-h

tx,~

r
Ftg. 1.12 Ftg. 2.12

tho product pertaining to the left-hand half f.ra.me would equal 2 h ~ = + 2h 2 h~l while that pertaining t o tho right-h and ' .half

frame would amount to - 2h 22 = - h 2l . Consequently, the displacement 5 12 equal to t he algebraic l'Um of these two amounts will be nil. For the same reason all the other secondary displacements whose values are obtained mult ip lyi ng symmetrical graphs by antisymmetrical ones will also red.uco to zero. For the .frame under consideration s nch will be the case .for displacements 512, 6ts OtG 6a, & 211 02 ~ 631 034, 5,2, &,a. 045 &,o. Ostt 654 , 6 01 and 84 . It follows that syst.em of simultancons eqw1tions would become

2k l

Xt6u + X46t4 + -l1p = 0 X1622 + X3023 + X66t5 + XecSw + tl2r = 0 X 28:12 + X~o33 + X s035 +Xelise+ .13p = 0 X 16,1+X,6u + fl 411 =0

1.12. Use of

Syn~mctry

531

X./>t>2+Xa663 + Xs6s5+Xo<'~~s+ ~5P = 0

X 2062 X36o3 + Xs<'l6s + Xo6os-\- ~&J> = 0 aud would COJtsequrmtly fa.ll into two independt\nt systems
Xt6u :x~<Sa + .lw = 0 } X t041 T Xl'J44 .l,p = 0

(2.12)

~:~:,::~::::~~:~:::~:~::~:::::~
X2<'~s2

+ Xa6s3 + Xsbss + XaOs6 + ~5P = 0

I
I

(3.12)

Xz&G: -I- Xal5a3-\- X~6es +Xa6aa -i- t-ap = 0

The first of th~se systems l~Ontains two equations with two antisymmet.rical unkilowns and Lhe sewnd four equations with four symmcttical unknowns .

( d)

( (~ I

Fig. 3.12

Thus, the choice of an adequate simple structure of symmetrlcal pattern has resulted in the replacement of a system of six simultaneous equation.f containing six anlcnoums each by two independent systems, the first comprising two equations wtth two unknowns and tlte second jour equa34*

532

Analysis of Highly Redundant Structures

tions wtth jour unknowns. 'l'his simplifies enormously the computations, enhancing at the same time very considerably the precision of the results obtained. An additional reduction of computation wo1k has been obtained due to the fact that all the displacements can he calculated -for one half of the conj ugate simple structure only. The total displacement will be the double of that ror the half-fratne.
p
( aJ

r
-<:: !
I

(b)

'.:..4-

--.J.A XJ

fx,

...

fi

(C )

/ dJ

((> )

,. """1 . 2
IV XJ=J
Fig. 4.12

z ..

x,=J

If th!l symmetrical frame contains a central column, the displacedue to the redundant antisymmetrical reactions can be compnlNl multiplying at first the diagrams relative to one half of the fr:1me (without tho centralcoltunn) ; whereafter the product obtained should be doubled and increased by the product of gl'aph multiplication pertaining to tho central column. AnoiJu~r example of a symmetrical frame is afforded by the frame shown in .Fig 4.12a. It is oasily seen that this frame is redundant to the third degree. Fig. 4.12b represents one of the conjugate simpl!.' structures which coulrl be adopted in the present Cllse. This structure is not symmetrical for the lower ends of the extreme columns have different supports. 1t follows that the redundant reactions xi> x~ and X 3 themselves will be also nonsymmetrical. Nevertheless the diagrams of the bending moments induced in this simple structure
ment~

2.12. Groupin g of th e

llnkr~owlt$

533

by uni.t reactions X 1 ancl X 2 (Fig. 4.12c and d) will be symmetrical while the diagram of the bending moment due to X 3 = 1 (Fig. 1~.12e) will be antisymmctrical. Consequently, for the given simple structures the simultaneous equations will again full into two different independent groups X liS II+ X26l2 ~li' = 0 X182, -T-Xz<'>22+6.2p = O and Xa83a+~31,=0 jnf"t ns though all the unknowns were symmetric.al or antisymmetrical.

2.12. GROUL11NG Of' THE UNKNOWNS

Jf the slructure which is boing analyzed consists of several spans it becomes impossible to transfer the points of application of a ll the redundant reactions to the axis of symmetry (Fig. 5.12a). However, symmetrical and antisymmetrical bending moment diagrams may !!till be obtained if the unknowns representing a single force or couple are replaced by unknowns representing whole groups oj forces. Let us examine, for example, the six times redundant frame appearing in Fig. 5.12a. Should we adopt for conjugate simple structure tho one appearing in Fig. 5.12b we would have to solve six simultaneous equations with six nonsymmotrical unknowns X 1 , X 2 , X:J, X 4 , X 5 and X 6 given below Xl'H + X2612 + Xallta + X4614 Xsllw+ Xo&t6 + u,p = 0 I

X 11l 21 +X2622 ~Xs8u+ X,62~ +Xsl'lzs +~'6626 + Uap = 0 X/l:Jt +X , allsa-rX36sa + X(<os, +Xs63s + Xe&ae + 6.3p = 0 } X1ou +X :~oil, a+ Xs>4:, + X,llu + Xs6,~ + Xeo, 6 + u~p = 0 X1 os, +X26s2 +X38ss+ X,lls, +X5<'lss+X60se+~sp-= 0 X,lla, +X2Ils2+ Xs6e3+X,6s, +X51las + Xelles+ ~ap =0

(4.12)

Jr\ these l~ quati ons none of the coeffficients o would normally equal zero. On tho other hand, if the groups of unknown forces z., Z 2 , Z 3 , z,, Z 5 and Z0 shown in Fig. 5 .12c were adopted as the unknowns, a very large number of secondary displacements in the simultaneou:; equations (4.12) would reduce to zero, for these displacements (coefficients) would result from the multiplication of symmetrical graphs by antisymmotrical ones. Here the unknown Z 1 reprosonts two horizontal forces X 1 and X 4 equal in value and opposite in sign, the unknown Z 2 - two horizontal forces equal both in value and iu sign, Z 3 -two vertical forces of equal amount, both directed upwards, Z,-two vertical forces equal in amount and opposite in direction, Z 5 -two couples equal in amount and opposite in direction, and Z 6 -two couples of the same magnitude and ac.ting in the same di-

534

Ana.lyi of Highly

R~druulane

Structures
(c. JSifFlple structure

fa) Rcdtmdcmt structure

(b)Slmple structure

Ftg. 5.12

2l

23=1

Fig. 6.12

2.12. Grouping of the Unknowns

535

rection. The bending moment diagrams due to the above groups of unit forces are given in Fig. 6.12. It is readily observed that the Mh 1113 and 1115 diagrams are symmetrical while the .M 2 , M 4 and lrf 8 diagrams aro antisymmetrical. Comparing the two simple structures appearing in Fig. 5.12b and c we realize that the following relations exist between the unknowns X and Z* X .=Z.-1 -Zz; X4=Zt-Zz

X2=Za + Z,; Xs=Zs-Z, Xa=Zs+Za; Xa=Zs-Za

The above relations may be rewritten as follows
_X1+X4. 2 ' _Xt-X4. Z

z, -- X2-Xfi

z---2-,

_X2+Xs , Z3 ~

z. =Xa-1-Xa , 2 z6=--2X3 - Xa

Grouping the unknowns as indicated above permits the replacement of a single system formed by six simultaneous equations (4.12) by two independent ones (5.12) and (6.12), the first containing only symmetrical unknowns and the second the antisymmetrical ones. (a) The first system

Z1 (~a.) + Zs (Oss) + Zs ( Oss) (~sp) = 0 Zt ( 051) + Za (&s3) + Zs (oss) +(Asp) = 0

(b) The second systern

Z 1 (0u) + Za(o.J) + Zs(01G)+(~to)=O }

(5.12)

Z2 (622) + Z4 (o24) + Ze(l'lu)+(~2p) {6.12) z~ (o 42)+ Z4 (tlu) Ze (o4o) (~4p) = 0 Z 2 (86Z) Z4 (os.J + Z6 (o6a) (~ap) = 0 It is c lear that in the above expressions the coefficients (tl 1k) and the free terms (~;p) represent the displacements induced by and along the aforesaid groups of unknown forces. We have thus succeeded in reducing a system of six equations with six unknowns to two independent systems of three equations with three wlknowns. The work required to solve the latter systems will be less important than that needed for the solution of the original one. Herell.fter we shall denote by the sign X al.L the unknowns

+ +

=0 }

The construction of stres5 diagrams does not require the determination o( the unknowns hclonging to the X group.

536

Anau;sis of Htghly Redundan.t Structures

regard less of whethor they represent single forces o-r whole groups of forces. We shall equally omit the parentheses int-rodnc.od into equations (5.12) and (6.12) in order to distinguish the displaeemenl~ due to groups of forces from those due to a single action. The determination of displacements arising in a statically determinate structure under tho action of groups of forces is no more comp licated than that of t he displacements producod by single actions. These displac.oments will be computed as usual, multiplying diagrams pertaining to one half of the structure and doubling tho result obtained . If the frame contains a central column. graphs pert-aining to one hall-frame (excluding the central column) will be ftrst multiplied one by tho other, the product will then be doubled, and tho result so obtained will he added to the product of graphs for tho central column .

3.12.

SYMMln'RICAJ~ AND ANTrSYMMETlliCAL

LOt\DING

If tho sysLem of loads acting on a structure is either symmetrical or nntisymmetrical all tho computations am fmtbor simplified, because in this case it becomes possible to lind a conjugate simple structure for which the bending moment diagrams due both to the unit actions and to the actual l oading become either symmetrical or antisymmct.rical. As a result, a number of free terms of the simultaneous equations together \\-ith some coeffi.cients to th~ unknowns will reduce to zero. Let u~ oxnwine t ho frame of Fig. 7.12a. This fram e is redundant to the sixth degree and is acttld upon by a system of symmctric.al loads. A symmetrkal statically determinate simple structure with symmetrical an<l antisyrrunetrical unknowns may he obtained cutting in two the upper crossbar and eliminating th.roo c.onstraints at t.he supports as indicated in Fig. 7.12b. The redundant reactions, which cannot be transfen-cd to the axis of symmetry, such as tho horizontal components of the left- and of the ri!{ht-hand colu mn reactions will be replaced by two groups of forces X and The bending moment diagrams for the conjugate structure due boLh to the unit~ actions following the direction of the unl<nowus and to tho actual loads are shown in Fig. 7. 12c, d, e, f, g, h and t. All tho unknowns being either symmetrical (X 1 , X 2 , X3 and X,) or antisymrnetrical (X 5 and X 6), tho simultaneous equations will form two independent systems given hereunder

x5.

Xt6u +Xz6n+Xa&ta+X,&" + .1ip =0

X1o21 + Xzo2t +X3&2a+ X,l>t4 + Azp = 0

9.12. Symmt<lrical arul Antisymmttr!cal l-oading

537

X16a1 +Xao82 + XsOss + X,6a4 + 6ap= 0 X,6 41 + X2Su + XaOa+X40u + .1,p=0 X~Sss +X&6s6 +.1sp = 0 } X s685 + X o86ll + .16p = 0

(7.12}

ln the last of the two systoms tho displacemants .l~p and 6 6 r are bolh nil, t heir value being obtainad multiplying a ntisyrnmo-

(f)

Fig. 7.12

trical graphs Ms and M 6 by the symmetrical graph .Mp due to the applied loads (li'ig. 7.12i). Consequently, these two equations become

Xs66s+Xfllse = 0 XsOes + Xe6eo = 0

.A nalvsll of Highl!l R tdundant Structw'eR

which indicates that. both the antisymmotrical unknowns X 5 and Xa nre al1'o nil. VVero the frame of Fig. 7.12a acted upon by a sy.s tom of antisymmctricalloads it would be the symmetrical unknowns thaL would become nil. Genera1i~ing the aLovo we may formulate the two following rules: 1. When a symmetrical structure ts acted upon by a symmetrical system of loads only those of th~ unknowns which represent the symmetrical redundant reactions remain different fro m zero, wbil~ all the unknowns representing antisymmetrical react ions become nil. 2. When a symmetrical structure is acted upon by an antisymmetrical .$ystem of loads, only those of the unknowns which represent the anti.symm f!trical redundant reactions remain different from zero, while all the unknowns representing symmetrical unknowns becomo nil. 4.12 . LOAD TRANSFORMA'flON The two rules formulated ahove are applicable to any symme trical :structure regardless of the actual dis tribution of loading, for the sirn pie reason that any system of l oads can be easily replaced by an
p

1-----!:...---' i -

],

7.

""
Ftg. 8.12
~qnivalent

J~ .

combination of two separate systems, one of which is symmetrical and the other anti:symmetrical. Indeed, let us consider the symmetrical structure of Fig. 8.12 acted upon by one concentrated load P and the uniformly distributed load of q kg per unit length, both are nonsymmetrical. The two loads may be replaced by two groups of components appearing 'in Fig. 9.12a and b, the first of those groups being symmetrical aud the ~cond antisyrnmotrical, It is c learly seen that the superposition {)[ thl',so two syste m ~ of loads leads to a loading absolutely identical t o the original one shown in Fig. 8.12. W o have seen in the preceding nrticle that when a symmetrical .st,rncturc is acted upon by symmetrical loads alone the symmetrical \mlmowns remain diforent from zero. ConscquenLly, for tho simple

4.12. Load Transjormatton

53\)

statically deteLminate structure {Fig. 10.1 2a) acted upon by the loads appearing in Fig. 9.12a only t he symmetrical unknowns
;:.

F g. 9 ..12

X 1 , X 2 and X 3 must be calculated. Tho corresponding equations

bt~come

X,<':lu + X2<':l,~ + Xa<':ll3 + t.,p = 0 X,821 +X~B~: + Xa<':la3 + t.~p = 0 X tBat +X3Baa + X:lJss + 63p = 0

For the same reason the system o loads appearing in Fig. 9:12b applied to the $imple structur() of Fig. 10.12b will provide three
p

!.
l ,

q /
'l

c .

x,
Xz

XI (C)

XJ

x.
.r~

x.
~.'

kc

,.,

\
.1~

x.

(01

F tg. 10.12

antisymmetrical unknowns X 4 , x~ and X 6 , all tho other unknowns being nil. Consequently, these equa Lions become

X,8 44 +X~84 ~ +Xe<':l4 a+6p= 0 X465& +Xs665 +Xa8ss+65p = 0 X,Bs, + X66as + Xa&ee + {).ap = 0
It should be observed, however, that in certain cases the replace~ ment of loads by t heir symme trical and aotisymmetrical components may complicate the computations instead of simplifying them and consequently t he application of this procedure cannot be recl)mmandeu unconditionally.

540

A nalyris of Htt:hlv Redundant Structures

Fig. 11.12a represents a symmet-rical portal frame loaded by one nonsyrnmetrical forco P. If we a.dopt for simple statically determinate structure the one shown in F ig. 11.12b, the simultaneous equations will fall into two independent systems, one containing a single antisymmetrical unknown X 1 and the other two symmetricnl unknowns and Nevertheless, i t is much easier to construct one diagram of thl:l hHH1ing moments due to the single load P (Fig. 11.12c) then two llending moment diagrams due to its symmetrical (Fig. 11.12d) ancl antisymmetrical (Fig. 11.12e} components. HowcvtJr, in the first case the displacements Ll 2p and Ll 3p will be compuLcd multiplying the bending moment graphs pertaining to both columns while tho use of diagrams of the symmetrical and antisymmotrical components will permit tho multiplication of bending moment graphs for one of the columns only. On the other hand, the Mp and the M~ diagl'ams are somewhat complicated in outline and for rnultiplicntion purposes they must bo subdivided into two portions, onE! rectangular and the other parabolic, which would be unnecessary wore the original loading retained. On the whole, in this particular case the replacement of tht load P by its symmetrical and antisymmetrical components will mol\e the calculations rather more complicated instead of simplifying them. Let us now investigate the framo represented in Fig 12.12a loaded by one horizontal force P. The degree of redundancy of this fl'ame is equal to six. Fig. 12.12b and c shows the same struct11re loaded by the symmetrit~al and the antisymmotrical components of force p , The symmetrical components will cause no displacement of tho top point o[ the central column and consequently we may admit that this point is held fast as shown in Fig. 12.12d. Hence tho structure given in the latter figure can be adopted as conjugate simple structure for the cal6c under consideration. Tho bending moments induced in this stn1c.ture by the symmetrical components of load P will remain nil throughout and thetcfore tho displacements Ll produced by these components as well as all the symmetric-al unknowns ntust be equally nil. The same will apply of course to the antisymmctrical unknowns. It follows t hat all tho frame members will be acted upoo sololy by bending moments induced by tho antisymTitetrical components of load P sit own in Fig. 12.12c. * For the latter system of loads we may adopt the simple statically doteJminate structure represented in Fig. 12.12e with unknowns

x2

x3.

Strllins duo to direct stres.<;es are neglected as usual.

4.12. Load TransjormatlM

ML

structure

CN ven

tb>

x, x~t) {_!.2

Simple

x ), T
" p

~.

ruelure

Pig. 11.12

542

Analysis of llighly Redundant Structures

formed by the groups of forces X 1 , X 2 and X 3 Thus, for the frame of Fig. 12.12 tho transformation of the applied loads into their
p

(a)

( b)

(/ )
Ftg. 12.12

symmetrical and antisymmctrical components leads to the reduction of the number of the unknowns from six to three. The resulting simplill~ation of all the c.omputations is therefore quite considerable.
3.12. ACCUBACY CONTROL OF ALL THE TERMS
ENTElUNG THE SIMULTANEOUS EQUA'l'fONS

It will be remembered that the coefficients to the unknowns and tho free tel'lliS of the simultanouos equations roplosent displacements induced in tho simple st-atically dotenninaLe s Lruciurc by

.'5.12. Ac<'uracy Comrol of Equattons

543

uni t forces acting along the direction of the unknown reactions, as. well as those due to the actual loads. 1'hesc displacements arc usually obtained through the multiplication of the corresponding bending moment diagrams. Errors which occur while carrying out these operations influence further calculations and therefore render erroneous the values of the redundant reactions iinally obtalllCd. Errors in the displacement values can be usually detected using the procedure described hereunder. Suppose that for the analysis of a str ucture redundant t o the nth. dogrec reactions or groups of reactions X 1 , X 2 , , X 1, , X.,.. have been adopted as the unknowns. Let us apply to t he simple stat ically determinate structure all the unit fott:es corresponding to these reactions and let us com1kuct the diagrarn of the resulting bonding moment. Wo shall call this diagram the summary unit bending moment diagram designating its ordinates by Jl-fs In any cross sec~io n the ordinate 1Vl8 will thus equal the algebraic sumo all the ordinates .1111 , M 2 , , ilfj, ... , M,.. If we multiply suc.cessively the M;, graph area by the unit br.nding moment diagrams M" M2 , etc., each of the product~; tb.us obtained will be equal to the algebraic sum of aU the coefflc.ionts to the unknowns of the corresponding equation b&c.ause

+ ~ ~ MlM2 :y + .. .+ ~ ~ MtM, ;~ ,,.

- LJ
-~

('-

J Mt(Mt+Mz+ ... + Mn)

EJ =

ds

.LlJ jl:J,M8

~ ('-:--

EJ .." 61,.

tls

For the same reason we may write

6~1 + 622+623 + ... +li2n=6zs

It follws that the algebraic sum of all tho coefficients to th"- ur1knowns contained in equation i must he equal to 6i 6 where

(8.12} Hence the valn~s of all the unit displacements forming the r..oeffic.icnts to the unknowns of the first of the simultnneous equntions can be chec.ked comparing their surn with the value of t\. (9.12)

.54.4

Analysu of Rtghly Redundant Stmctures

The algebraic sums of the coefficients to tho unknowns of all the other simultaneous equations may be checked in exactly Lhe same way. The above procedure pt)rmiLs us to verify the coerftcionts t.o the unknowns of each equation separately . Lol us now sum up all tho values of 6 1., 623 , , llna denoting thi:s surn by l:6. In that case
2:0 = 0u -l- 0:~-8 +6a.r +

... -I-Ons

But since

6,8 = 2: J M ,.M,
we find that

\--

EJ

ds

~6=2: ~ M,M, ;~ +~ ~ NlsM2 :~

+ ...
.. . + M")

... + ~ ~ MsM,, ;~ = ~ ~ M .(l\f d- Mt+

Ccmscqut'utly
s. _ ,~ f ~"~ ds v,. -- J 1YJ . 7fT
~

;~ =

= ~ ~ M; :~ = ll
( 10.12)

and

(11.12)
Tho last oxpression punniLs a simultaneous check on the ae.c. urll.<~ Y of a ll the cuofllcicnts to the unknowus contained in a ll. the oqualions of tho given system. This cheek will bo carl'icd out as follows : (a) Find the algebraic sum of all Lhc coefftcicnts t o the unkrtowns (unit displacements) contained in all the equations of the given system

16 = (15,., + 6 22 -1 ll.,s-1- ...

+ o,,rt) + 2 (Ou -1- il 1a T- . ..

. + 6t,l + <'l2s-1-6u+ ... -f-62n+6~, + ... +O,.-t,n) lu tho above expres-;ion the iirst in parentheses coutaius all tho princ.ipal dis plac.omonts, i.e. , those :situated on lho rnain diagoual and tho other term all the secondary dis placemonts s ituated on both sidM of this diagonal (i.e., on secondary diagonals}.

C.12. Abridgr.d

SoluUot~

of Canon ical Equations

545

(b) Using the method of diagram multiplir.ation fmd the values of

6,., = ~ Mi ;~
(c) C<>mpnrt> the two values obtained as described above. I n 11 number or c..ascs tho following iuequality may help in finding t.lse enoncou1< coefficients to the unknowns

l>u X {)M :? 6111

The control of the free t erms of the canonical equations will he carried out in a similar way: (a) First c.ompute the value of

~~v = ~ ~ M 4 Mp ;~

(12.12)

whore MI' r epresents the bending moments induced in t he conjugal o simple structure by the act ual loads. (h) Check whether (13. 12)
In geueral it is quite suiicient to verify simultaneously the coefficicnls to the unknowns of t he whole system of equations. If this check reveals an error. it is recommended to verify ~hese coefficients equation by equation as describnd at t he beginning o[ the present article. 6.12. ABR I DGED SOLUTION OF CANONICAL EQUATIONS Hereunder we shall describe very brieOy the abridged method of solving simultaneous canonical equations which wa~ propoood by Gauss. In this method the unknowns are eliminated one by on!! using a set of certain coeffici~nt.s. All the operations are carried out in tabular form and checked constantly.* Let us conside r four canonical equations (1), (2), (3) and (4} with fou r unknowm;. ** It will bo remembered that each pair of cocffi.cient.s to the unknowns symmotdcal about tho main diagonal are equal to one another as stipulated by the theorem of reciprocal displacements. The froo terms have been transferred to the right-hand part or tlle equations and are donoted by K 1 , K 2 etc. T he solution of this system
In this book we shall D OL consider tho ""unabridged" method of solving canonical eq:uatioos, the latter being seldomly used in stress analysis of redundant structures. ..The first of these four equations will be designated by a Roman figure.
36-853

546

Analysis of /ligltlv Redundant Strudurcs

or canonical equations will be carried out&$ indicated in Table 1.12.

All the entries in column 1 can be made off hand. The number of

columns and lines of the table is directly dependent on tho number of simultaneous equations. Thus, for instance, if our system couto.i ned live equations instead of foUl we should J1ave nine columns in::~tead o( tlie eight conlai ned in Table 1.12. These nine columns would be under the following headings: Equation No.; X 1 ; X 2 ; X 3 ; X 4 ; X~; multipliers a 1ki S, and K. Similarly instead of 13 lines of Table 1.12 we would have 19, these lines being designated by (I); (2); (I) 0.12; (II);(3); (I) ct13 ; (II) a23 ; (III); (4); (T) au; (IJ) 0.2. 4 i (III)a.H; (IV); (5); (l)a15 ; (Il)a 25 ; (III) etasi (IV)a.5; (V). Ilaving prepared the table, enter the coefficients and the values or K taken directly from the simultaneous equations into lines (I), (2), {3) and (4} . No entries are made at this stage i n the column for the multipliers a;k Column S will be filled in with t.he values of s" s 2 , s3 , , sn which represent Ss=6u+6t~+6t3+ . . . +6tn s2 = 621 + 622 + 6za + ... + 6tn etc. Further operations are carried out in the following sequence: (a) Compute the values of a 12 , a 13 , a nd a 14 , using the expressions indica tecl in the corresponding lines under the heading ''multipliors a 1h''. (l>) Fill line (I) au with tho values of the products obtained by the multiplication of all tho entries of line (I) by a 12 (c) Calculate the values of l)' , 6; , etc. , given in Jioo (II) adding two by two tho entries contained in fine (2) with those of line (I) c.t12 No operations are carriod out in columns X 1 and "mult ipliers a,"~. {d) Proceeding in the same way determine the values a 23 , a 24 , etc., using expressions contained in the column "multipliers o.11/'. Gradually the whol e of the table will be filled in that way. Whenever it is known beforehand that the value of an entry equals ~ero, this entry is replaced by a dot. Such is the case of numerous entries

Table 1.12
EQnRtlon No.

Xt

x,

x,

x~

-a"
6u

Mult!pllftt 'Xtk

Ct tz = - -

(I)

611

a,2

all

Ctl3=-Cf.H= -~

au a,3 a,,
~"

6u

s,

K,

+ { ~I)CXtz
( II )

~21

(122

6z.1
~13 '(% 12

a ,2.a12

<IJ4 Ctt2

s2 s,a,2
r
,<X23 = -

Kz K 1a12

.
631

a;!
llaz

I)
~3

~;.

a;. 6t2
6;.

s;
s~

K!
K3 K 1a 13 Kia23

r3)

633
I)J3 'Cl f 3

a ,,
6wal3

az~=-~

(l) au

s ,a,3

(fl)Cl23 {III)

~'>Is 1%23

ll!. Cl2J
U34

s;a23
1%3~=

.'

833
6"
6,1

""

6;; - 6;;;

,, 3

""

K3'
I K,.

+
~

6,3

B u
/ll4 . (ll4

( l)au,
(II ) a.u (JJI )as,
(IV)

a;~a:u

a;. at
I)~"
-

s;a24
s; a3~

s,a,4

s,

fK,a,4 K;a24

K3'a3,
K;" -

----

. --,

- -

--

--

, -S~"

-----

548

Anal!fsis of lligltllf Redrwdant S tructure$

in lines (II), (III) and (I V). Eac.h of tho lines marked with a Roman fi gure represents one of the equations to bo solved. Thus, for im;tauce, lirle (HJ) represents the equation

X311;3 +

X,o;;._ = K3

When all the operations arc carried out correctly the sum of all the coefficients to the unknowns of each equation will equaL the entry in t:he same line in c:.olumn S. Thus. for instance, for equation ([l I) it mu~t be found that

s;,+o;. =s;
This control should be carried ou.t each time the corresponding line has been completely filled in. The last; of the oquations {in our case equation (IV) I will t<)llt.ai.n only one unknown yielding the value of X 4 :Equat ion (TTI) ('Ontaiuing two unknowns X a and X, will be easily ~wived leading thoreaft.er to the solution of equations (II) and (!) thus providing the val uos nf the unknowns X 3 , X 2 and X 1 in succession. The fina l results are checked by the introduction of a ll the unknowns thu8 found inlo the original system of simultaneous equations. 'J'o illustrate the above let us usc the method just described for the solution of the following equations

2X 1 -X2 +3X 3 -X4 =5

- X 1 -,-3X 2 - 2Xa-5X,. = - 21 3X1 -2X2 -5X8 +4X,=0 - X 1 - :1Xz+4Xa+X4 =5

(1) 8 1 =2 - 1+3-1 =3 (2) 82= - 1+3-2-5= -5 (3) 8 3 =3 - 2-5+4=0 (4) S ,. = -1-5+4+1=-1

All the coofflcients lo t he unknown8 o[ these cqtlalions satisfy the pl'inciple of reciprocal uispJacements. The ahbrevialed solution of this system of simuJtaneou!3 equations is contained in Table 2.12. Having filled in this table, proceed as indicaterl ahove with the solution of tho equations contained in Jines (I.), (II), (fi1) and (IV) starting wit.h the last ono
_ 575 X __ 60 , _ 10 2,300 . 60

X _

-4 9B

-~X 3 +~xt.= _'112 . X 3 =112+Hfi 1

10 '

1.0 '

2.5X 2 = -18.5+0.5x3 + 5.5 X 4; X 2 =2 2X1 =5 + 2-3x3 +4: X,=1

To verify all the operations en ter the values of t he unknowns into the original equations.

Tc,ble 2.12
P.quauon No.

Xt

Xt

X~

x~

MIIIUpllf'~ O;k

s
3
=~

('I)

- 1

I
t

a,z~ T

a,_~= - --z

- t

a,4 ..,. T
(2)

(1)aa2

I
I

- i

I -2
l
5

-2
3

-5

--z
H
a:z~ ""'5

- 5 3

- 21 5

2
0 15 - 2 37

(II )

r
( (4)

2
3

-2

1-+ I - 2 I
-5
4
-

It a2= 5

1-+ 1-
-:r 7 - ro
0 l:l
- 1()
-----

(fl -a a 3 (II)- a 23

--z I -:w
-ro
96

$)

-w
44
1 1

11

(llf)
- I

ro

a34 = 24

- - -

-m
1

52
3

-10
5 5

1i2

- 5

.r,

+J
1

( l ) a 1,

-:r

(ll)au

-w
121

J21

-v.
H3
(j()

77

-w
-

407
154
31)

(ll l)a3,
(lV)

-w

--:J7o

60

a75 no

1 _ 2.300 {>0

A n.alvsis of 11 ighlv Redundant Structures

Table 1. 12 shows that an alternation in the values of tha fl'ee IA:>tms wi ll be reflected only in the outries of the last column K. For th i!S reason t.he method just doscri bed becomes particularly wo1l lit for the stre:;s analysis of redundant structures when t heStl arc called upon to carry clil'fcrent loads.
7.12. SEVEHAL PROBLBMS IN STRESS ANALYSIS OF RE DUNDANT FRAI.'IES Problem 1. Construct and chock the M, Q and N diagrams for the ilou blespnu syiUmetricaJ frame shown In Fig. 13.12. Solution.. The framo is three times static~tlly indeterminate. l<'ig. 14.12 sltows one of the simple structures which c11Uld be adoptod for the solution of the problem. However, that would involve the simultaneous solution of \hree equa\lons with t hrco unknowns. The problem will bo considerl\bly simplified if tho unknowns are grouped as indicntod in Fig. 15.12. In the latter case the canonieal equations bocome

.\' tbu+X26 tz+6tp=O X1621-!-X262.2+6z11 =0 Xaba3+As 11 = 0

The unit bending moment diagrams .iii,, M2 and Ms corresponding_ to tho c.aso und~r considoration are given in Flg. 1():l2a., b and c while tho dingntnt due to tile appliod load is prescuted iu Fig. 17 .12. Mtllliplying the npproprioto graphs one by the other we shall obtain the values both of the coefficient-S to tho unknowns und of Lhe (me terms oE the above equations. It should not ho forgotten that the moments of inertia o the columns are only half as great as thoso o( the crossbcam!: a 2 1 1 ) Sa~ ll11=2 ( a.2.3a E J t +aaa 2EJt = 31!/s

a 612 = 2

2a

'T'

a a3 2::1 1 = 41?1 1

a u. 2 a. 1 aa 622= 2 2'2'3'. 2 ' 2EJ =126 /s 1 . ( a 2 1 , 1 ) a 2 1 a.3 63s=2 a2'3a Bit Ta aa 21Ut +2a232a Elt =3 lilt
6 s,.=

--s- -.,-

aPa

2a

a 3PaS 2fU 1 = -t6EJ,

1 [ 62P=- 2El 1

3Pa a 1 2 a , a ( 3 a -s-2"2""'3'4' 2-G 2 '8Pa4+

4

1 a 3 tt 1 a ) 1 + 2 TPa2+-g Pa2+4PaT +TP

2 . ..3'T
1
a)

HPuS =-192Elt

t:.sp- ( 8Pay 2+

~Pa ;-..!.. 8 4 Pa
2

z-4 Pa2

a Pa3 2lU 1 ._10Els

7.12. Several Problems in Strest A11alysts of Rtdundant Framu

551

p
f)

~- Axu
. 1

of symmetry

.- ' Jz:

v, f
)'

I?

Fit. 19. 12 p

Pig. U. 1:!

(a)

Fig. 16. 12

Analgsts of Highly Redundant StructurtS

Tho di:.placemont:J thus computed will be checked using the ''suru.o1ary'' unit bending momout diagram M & due to th~: simultaneous application of all lho unit forcos acting along th e wtkrwwns (Fig. 18.12) .
p

./~a

Ftg. 17.12

Fig. 18.12

Tho value of f>., is ob\ained raising to the st,cond powor t.hc ,\1. diagram:
,~ ds [ a a 2 a a ( !i ~.. -= l. j M! 7fT= T "T 'T' 2 + 11 2 'T
4

'2a +
3

1 l-22a2a +2 ~ a2a)J- +" 2a~ .3._ ~ = 41::/t 21.n 2 'J.E'lt 2 3 /!/1

Checking that condition (11.12) is satisfied we find

~~ 5~

4/5/1 _, 3EJ1

+ 12E/1 -t

3~

/1

+Z 4J.tJ1

or

2ta3 2t a3 4Elt = 4Elt

It follows that all t.he unit displacements are- correct. L..et us det~.>rmino now tho value or Asp multiplying the (Fig. 18.12) by tho M P one (Pig. 17.12)
~ds - 1 [ 3 L\p = ~ JM "MJJ J::l = 211 1 T
r ' _a_

M, diagram

Pa T'T"T'T +

2tS

(2_!. Pa ~ ~z._!_ Pa .!...+.l_ pq. ~+..!..-Pu ra ) + 8 4 4 2 R 2 4 4

I

2" + 4 Pa2 aTa+;r<

Check whether e<>ndltion (13.12) is also satisftod
3:if'a3 3Pa3 - HJ2Elt = -16EJ 1 Aap =l; A 11Pa:l Pa3

a (2

1.

)]

35Pa3 = - t9zEJ I

11J2Blt

+16E J 1

35Pa3

35PaS

oc - 192.h:/J = - 1U2Elt

'rhis indicates ili11t the displ11cements due to the applied loads are also corn>et. Wo may now introduce tho values of the cooffteionts t o the unknowns and of the froo tonns into our systllm of canonical equations. Multiplying the first

7.12. S cvrrat Problems

itt

Stres.< A nulysts of R edundant Frames

553

. i!l2EJ f6Elt two of thcso oquatums by - --3- 1 and lhc last one by ----ciS we obtain 4 320X 1 +48X2-3GP=O

48X1 +16X 2 -11P =0

4BX~+ P=0

The solu t ion of theso

nquations leads to 3P 7P , P Xs= 176 ; X2=u; X 3= -~

thr~'c

Tllo construction of Lho resulting bending momm1t ili:~grnm f<w til<~ given redundant structure will be carriotl out in the following Sliquencc. Fir:;t, llotormino the bending mvments inducod in tho H imple structure by the rodUt1d11nt

i'iti

JP

17
Ftg. 19.12

7P

Fig. 20.12

rt>.actions X 11 X 2 and X 3 obtained above. For iliis purpose multiply all th& ordinates to the unit bending moment graphs M1 , M2 and !.73 by the ros1 1ecti"e magnitudes of thcso reactions. The lhrt>o diagrams thus oblaincd nro represented in Figs. 19.12. 20.12 and 21.12. The ordinate.'! to tho resulting bending moment diagram can now be obtained summing up the ordinates to thcso thn!o Jin,grnms with thoge to the ltfp diagram given previously in Fig. 17.t2. (In Fig. i 3.12 we have rnnl'ked by an ;lsteri:;k t.hoso or tho ends of tlie columns which nro considered as being Lbo illfL-hnnd ones for tho c<mStfuction of bending momont diagrams.)
Iff

co= cl>=- 176 - ---:r.r-48

3Pa

1Pa

Pa

+ :~Pa

s -=~

41Pa

;'r1JJA

3Pa Pa SPa =Mile=- 17{) -f-0-4if'+O=- 132

= _ 3Pa _ ?Pa _

00

1W
3Pa

M Dz=--176
Moa ~ O + O +

--w.-T+-r= Po. 2-4

Pa +O~ 24

Pa ~ 1Pa , Pa

+ Pa =
4
Pa

-~

H
i7Pa
2()11

M zo-Mz 1

3Pa , Pa Pa .=-"'1'it! + Or4if'-l- 0= 264

554

A naly1is of II ighly R l!dundan t S tmctures

ln all tho above expr!lssions M DA denotes tho ht'lliling moment at cross section B of morn her n A. M no denotes the moment at cross secti<Jn B of member .BC nnd so forth. The diagram of the resulting bending ltl<llllonts plott~ as <'Xplained above is ropresonted in Fig. 22.12. [n order to cht.u:k the accuracy of this diagram lf.'t us compute the mutual displacomont t.po o points F and G (see Fig. 13.1.2). This displa<:oment must be necessarily nil for boL11 point~ are held fast hy the Sllpforts of the frame. n ord&r to llnd the said dlsplnct~ment wo shall eliminat.c all three constraint.s at the lower end of the righl-hancl column, transforming thereby the right half of the structuro into a statically determinate polygonal honm shown in Fig. 23.12. Let us now apply two unit forc-es act.ing along the directions

Mgroph
A
Pi~t.

21.12

Fig. 22.12

of the de.o;ired disphu:ement. The bending moment diagram duo to these forces 1s shown in this figure. ~lultiplying this dingram by tho diagnun or tho resuWng bonding moments given in Fig. 22.12. wo obtain

Ayo=-a ~ :S~ E\ +aa( i~~a :~.!) x 1 1 x- -a ...!:...~. ~ . ---~ (-J:_..._..!Z__.!__.!!.) ~o 2Elt 2 3 24 E1 - ~wJElt 3 ' ~ 4 3
1

+-

rt will be rewombered that the product of the resulting bending moment graph of Fig. 22.12 by the UDit diagrams given in Fig. 16.12 must be also nil. Lel us procC<!d now with the determination of the shearing forces Mru. -.M .AB
4

QAli=QnA

132 --a--

~-0

-fiP

132
57P 75p

47Pa 5Pa ) 1. Qnc=QcD = ( 264 + 1.32 aj2

=i32'

Qcl>=QDc= - ( 6(f'-~' "264 QDH=QEo= ( 2H4

1Pa . 47f>a }

afl. = - 13:1.

Pa ..._ 17Pa ) 1

'204 4=44

3P

Pn. QRF=Qps=- 264

a= .P
24

264

Pa 1 QDo ~ Qao= 24 ao:o

7.72. Severat Problems in Stre$S Analulr of Redundant Prauu:1

555

The signs of the ~hearing forces can be checked remembering that the shear 1s reckoned positive whon the nxis of the element must bt> rotatod clockwise t hrougl an angle smaller than 90 in order to come in coincidunco with the t angent to t,ho bending moment diagram at the section undor considl'rntion.

e
SP

'ME
132

$
p

e
p

IJZ
Fig. 23.12

v,
Fig. 24.12

ZOif

The magnitudes of tho shearing forc11s Q obtained above hnve lod to the eonstruction of the diagl'aJU shown in Fi~. 24.12. The values of t he normal forces wtll be derived from tho cquilibrillill of joint.~ IJ, D and E isolated in succession (Fig. 25.12a, b nnd c). I n these

Fig. 25. 12
computations unknown normal stresses will be always re.ckoned positive, i.o., causing the extension of the corresponding member. The values or shearing forces are taken directly from the ~hear diagram of Fig. 24.1 2. The equilibrjum oquA.tions become: Joint B {Fig. 25.12a)

w horottom
NBA

=-

EX=

5P +NBD = 0 132

57P ( compreSSiOD . ) 132 SP therefore NBD=-(comprcssion) 132

J oint D (Fig. 25.12b)

556

Analg$is of Highly

R~dundant

Structures

whvrorom 1P Nvo=- -tT (comprussion)

2':X = -Nv 8 +Nvzwe finally have

~
SP
132

=0

but si nce N08 =Nno

P N DB= 24 Joint E (Fig. 25.12c) 3P

~Y=/;4-Ng,.-O

=264"

(extensiOn)

Since NED = N oe the latter rosult muy be regarded as confirming the accuracy of previous coUlputations. The diagram of tbe normal s tresses giv~ in Fig. 26.12 has been constructed using tho data just obtained.

/f
:}!!. Flg. 26.12

""

Ftg. 27.12

Lot us check tho nccuracy of t.ho M. Q nnol N diagram 8 using lhe mllthud based on equilibl'iun1 considerations. Isolating the upper half of tho frame wo must find that tho actual loads applied to that part of the st'ructurc are bulnnced exactly by tho stre~cs acting nt thl' cuts, i.e., at mldb eight of tho columns (Fig. 27.12). The values of thoso stre.<ses will be scaled otr tho corr~ spond ing diagr:uns (soo Figs. 2:!..12, 24.1.2 aud 26.12). Indeed '9;e fmd that

5P l:X.., 132

-24-r

I' P 264..., 26/t (10-11+1)=0

~Y= -1'+ ~1~ + ~~ - ~~ ...

'M

:t

( - 132 +57-t-84-~) - 0
Pa _ Pa = 48 528

u= - 1::s2

fop

, P -tK -

264

) a + p a

T-

_E_
U a

+ 3P
44

2a _ SPa

2()4

... Pa (-tO+H-l + 26fa-336+72-t0+11- 1)=11 528 li1>nce all the (~quilibrium requirements aro satisfied.

7.12. Several (>robltm.t

it~

Strtss

A nalysi~<

of R edundant Frnmes

557

The M , Q a nd N tlingrams r,ould be obtain11d using a somewhat different procedure. Jndl'ed we could H(lp]y to tho conjugate statically de tormlnot{l slluclure tho rodnntl nu t rclu:.tiuns and togethor with tbe actualloHds as shown in Fig. 28.1211 and b. Therca[lur wc could (:1\lculato tile values o f thn cnctious devcl opO<l at the supports of th o I:1Uer structure undor tho simultantous action o( all the forc.es mentioned 11 bovo.
p

t;8 IJ7

JP

;;
{O )

7P

JP p

" 17$ 7;8

,.
"

fbi
Fig. 28.12

TT

7P

'

'/ 'l.GI;

Th o dingrams o.f l.hl' hon ding moments, shJnring forC('S and nnrmal ~t,.cs~cs obtained in that way for t11o simple statically dotcrmiualc structm< wou ld coincide exactly with the corresponding re~ulting slross diagrnms for the givr~n rodnndant stn1ctt1re. Problem 2. Rcquirud lllt' complete s!.rcss rlnn)y!'iS for th e two-siory frame of a fanlory lm ilding lo:tdld unsymmetrirally along the top crosshcam. Th e diffcrtlOL rcgidiLics of all tho frame mcmLcrs are indic ated in Fig. 29.12.

""
c::, '<:i
~

.J
'If

J;

2J Redundant

structure

<::;

(b)

Ftg. 29. 72
f\ros~boams

Solution. Tho conjugate simple structure will he obtained snctioning both

at midspan (Fig. 29.12b). Tho honding moment diagrnms duo

:i58

A11alysts of Highly R eduudant

Strtutur~s

to uuknown unit forces are given in Fig. 30.12. The diagram tli the bendin~ IIIO tneuls inducod in tho same :!imple structure by the actual loading is given.
t, l XzT .....J:-'f'>)

Xz'

_.,._f-r

XJl XJ I I

~~

-:: 1 -

{C)

(e)

(f)

Fig. 30.12

in Fig. 31.12. Owing to the proper choico of the simple structu re all the following secondary displacements rcduco to zoro

&12

&u,

62s

62~

620

6J~

6,6

and

6~&

Pig. 31.12

F lg. 32.12

J;!roups, the first containing four unknowns out of tho six and th e sceond two

I n this case the systom of simultane(HJS equations will foil into two sepnrat.o-

7.12. Sr.vcral Problem.< in Stress Analysis of Redundant Frames

559>

unknowns only: (n) thtl first group

X1 11 11 +X~6 1 ~+X 4 6a+Xeote= -t.\tp
X 16s1 -\-Xa()3:J+X4634+Xo6ao= - flap

X,641 +X3& 4d-X;.ou+Xe6 4e= -A.11 X tOot +Xa6sa+ X46a,+Xellse= -llsp (b) the second group

X2622"f Xs62s=
X~11sz+Xs11ss=

- t>2p

- asp

All the displnC(liD<'DtS will be calculated assuming that El=1 ton sq m, 4x4 2 2 B , 2 ~ 2 Ou = - -x 3 x 4XT+G(2X4 -\-2X102 + 2X4X10) 2 =3!1.1.1 2 -'o X <i 2 4+10 2 6 13 = -- X 1 X T + 6X----z-X i. X "2=58 2

6x6 ( 2 ) 2 614.=- 2 4-\--gXG z-=14.4 4 + 10 2 . llte=---:r- xvx '1 Xz-=42

ll33 =6 x 1 xtx

-\- 4xtx l x2 + 6x1x1 x1='l7

6s~=-- x
6 36 ~ 1

6x6

2 x2=18
2=6

o,~ = - 2

x sx 21 x sx 6 2
2

2 X "3 X 6 X 2

= 72
~

6X6 1 il,e=--XyX2=18 O(l6=6 X 1X1 XT+6X1 X1X

622=--

X2 =7.5

3x3 2 1 x 2 3 xax 2 x2+4x3x3x2+6x3 xax 1=135

62~=3X6X3Xz-X2=54

6ss= - - x

13X31 2

3 xax 4 x2+6x3x3x 2 x2=58.5

4X'X9 2x1 6(10-I-4)X9 2x2 -ZSi -199.12

'1

iltv = -

9x3 3 6X9X3 a2p= - axz x 2 4 x3-lt.x9x3-

S60

Analysis of Hiahly Rtdundant

St.rlu:t~trt>~

-67.5

6x9x 3 .... _

81

uap= - IIX9Xi -27 2 In order to check tho valu~s of those dlapJac"ments construct Lhe summnry unit bending moment dingrnm M, d uo to the simultaneous ltction of all the unit reactions shown in Fig. 32.12. Tho value of 6n will bo obtained raising to the second power tho ftf 8 diagram whill.' the val ue of A 1 p multirlying the M, !ingram by tho Mp one

6,.=1:

~ M! ~~

6!2 (2XI~+222-4X2X2)+
6

+ r,~ 1
-1- -

t2x42+2 x 82+4x8 x 2)+

(2xt22+ 2 x242-1-12xV..x2)+

6 - (2 X 42 + 2 X 22- 4 X 2X2) +_2_(2 X 22+ 2 x 22-2X2 X 2) + IIX4 6X 1 6X12X2 12 = 132-1 7 2 X2XS X J.

{' ds 3x9 ( 4x9 6p -1: JMt;MP 7J7 ...,_ SX 2 1-1-T X S - -(1+8) 2

s)

~~~

(12+24>=-716.62
lndeed

Cond ition (11.12) requires t hat

<'lu=~.S.

1324. 7 =354.7 + 1.7 + 72+ 7.fl+ 135+58.5+2 (58+ 144-1-42+ +18-1- 6 + 18 -1- 54) or 1320=1324.7 -Condition (13.12) r equires t hat Asp-= :ZL\. l ndl'ed

-7 16.62= -261-199.12 - 67.5-81-81.-27 = -71.6.62

Bo~h of these condHions being satlstlcd, we may be ~>1lfe tbu.t no error has been committl.'!l in calculating tho unlt displacements. Substituting the values of !helle displ:tr.CJrnonts in the two groups of simultaneous eqUD\ ions, we obtain

354.7Xt+58Xa+i44X 4 -I-42X8 = +261 58X1 17X3 +f8X4 +6Xe+ =67.5 f44X 1 +18X3 +72X 4 +t8X 8 =8LO 42X1 +6Xa+ i 8X 4 + 7.5X6 ... -1-27.0 135X2 + MX6 - +199.12

54X2-1- 58.5X6 c:o + 81.0

7.12. St'l'trnl Problems

ttl

Strt!SS

Analy.~is

of R rdand11nt Frames

Sf,{

T l1E> solution of t.lwso equations (omitted hero) )('ads to the followi ng ' 'ulncs o thl' redunchm t tLactions X 1 = +0.607 ton K~-:: - 0.1\!l2 ton X2 .:+ 1.460 ton~ Xs= + 0.037 ton X 3 >a +2.753 l{)o-mntl'('s X6 = -0.340 ton-rn('tre
c~tku l;~ting tbl! (lnc! th~ actunl

Applying all t.ht forces lo t.lw ~imple stat.i ~ ll y dol"nninalc structure ~nd bowli ng moments inducr.d both h y tlto r!lactions ju,t ohtaintd Loads we lind 11156 ..,. +1 ,1,60 X 3+2.753 - 9 = -1.87 t OIIIDt>tms M 65 = -1 ..'.C.O X 3+ 2. 753= -1.63 ton -motres M 34 = +0.037 x 3-0.340--0.2-3 ton-motrc M, 3 = - 0.037 X 3 - 0.310""' -0.45 ton-metre M:~;'''" 7 0.607 X 4+ l. 4GO X 3+2.753-H- + 0.56 ton-mctr() M 4c = -!- l).ll<l7 X4-l.460X3+2.753= + IUlCl ton-metre

Fig. 33.12.]
11/31 = +0.607 X 1+1.460 X 3 + 2.753+ 0.037 X 3-0.340-

- 9= 0.3~ t.on-metre M, 2 +0.607 x 4-Lio60 x 3 + 2.753-0.037 x 3 -0.a.:o= +0.36 ton-mmo 1 H 13= +0.607 X 10+1.ti60 X 3 +2.753-0.692 X 6+ +0.037 x 3- 0.340-9= -0.18 ton- metre 111u.= +0.('>07 X 10- t AGO X 3+2.753 -0.692 X (i - 0.03i x 3-0.~0= -0.16 ton-metro

The samo bonding moment~ coulcl he obtained as follows: firs t multi ply the unit bending moment graphs of Fig. 30.12 hy tho correspond ing values
36-8fl3

562

Analysts of Highly

Redwtdant__:.S_tr _u~c.;..tu.;..r~e-s_ _ _ _ _ __

of the unknowns. Thus, all tho ordinates to the diagram indu:od !Jy X l = 1 (see Fig. 30.12a) should be multipl ied by 0.607. the ordinates ttl tho graph induced by X 2 = 1 (Fig. 30.12b) by +1.4ti0, and so forth . This will give the bending moment diagrams shown in Fig. 33.12a, b, c, d, e an<l 1 . This being done, add up the ordinates to aH of these diagrams together wHh thoso to the diagram due to the actual Loads (see Fig. 31 .1.2). The resulting ordinates will represent the ordinates to the bonding moment diugrarn corresponding to tho givm1 redundant structure. It will be readily observed that the he111ding mcmu:nts at Lho joiuts are the same as determined previously M~a= 4.38+2.75-9= -1 .87 ton-metres .t/34 = +0.11-0.34 = -0.23 ton-metre .M35 = +2.43+4.38+2.75-9= +0.56 ton-metro M 31 = + 2.43 + 4.38+2.75+0.11-0.34-9= + 0.33 ton-metre .M 13 = +6.07 + 4.38+ 2.75-4.15+0.11 - 0.34 - 9 = - 0.18 ton-metre and so forth. The resulting 1Hmding moment c1iagrrun for the framo undo1 ' cunsidel'aLion is givon in Fig. i!3: 12g. Problem a. Hequired tha complete analysis of a clou!Jlc-span symmetrical frame loaded with one horizontal for~ (Fig. 34.i2a). Solution. The frame under consideration is redundant in tho third degree. The tiimplo ~taticaUydeterminate stl'ucture adopted is rt"presented in Fig . 34.12 b. Tho bonding mornont diagrams induced by unit reactions will bo C.Ottslructed for tho following gtoups of unknowns: X 1 consisting of two horizontal untisymmotrical forces, X 2 consisting of ono vertical roaction at tho C(lntral support, X 3 consisting of two symmetrical horizontal forces. Tho corrosponding unit bending moment diagram~ are 8hown in Fig. 35.12. Let us rcsolvo tho force acting on tho frame also in two groups of r.omponent$, one symmetrical and t.he othor anti.syn1metrical as indicated in Fig. 3tU2o and b. The bending moment diagrams duo to these components are al!io given in the same figure.

{ Oi

(b)

Pig. 34. 12 The displacements ~ induced by the actua l loads wiiJ he obtained multiplying tho bonding moment graph due to nnt.isymmetric.al unit forc.es X 1 (Fig. 35.12a) by the graph of Fig. 36.12!1 due to the anti~1'Tilmetrical component of iho actual Loacl. The same operation will be repeated with the graph:> due to t.ho symmcLrical unknowns Xz = t and X~ = 1 on one hand. ~nil tl](\ graph due to the ~ymmetricnl components of force P givep in Fig. 36.1 2a, on tht) ot.hcr. It is obvious that both secondary displacements <'l 12 and <'l 13 will red ur.n is not advisable to change the scales of the unit diagrams insteac\ e of frequent ()rJ'orR. of constructing new one.'l, this procedure constituting a sourc [t

7 .12. SeL'eral Problems in Stress Analysis of Redundant Frames

5(\3

Pig. 15. 12

llig.~0. 12

3G*

51\4

Anal!!sis of Highly Redltndant Stnutztres

to zero. Con!'equently, the th ret> simultaneous cquationg become

X16 11 -f-6tp=O
Xzbz2+Xa~2J + ~zl'= 0

X2632-f- X 3633 + b 3p =0

Let us calc.ulato all the displncernonts assuming that EJ = 1 ton !iq m = 2 X t0.4/~x7.5x9 + 10.fo/~ x3x 9.5 +Z 2X 611 3 2X3 X
7.5 X 7.5 X 5 -f- 1.0.5 X 21 X 14 _
X 2X2
.!. :1.2.53

2X1

'

10.44 x sx
<'~2z = 2 X
033

2X3

xs
-!-58

=zx Hi.loft x 7.5x9

3

+Z

10Jt4x3x9.5 2x3

+2

7.5 x i.5 x 5
X 2X2

+ 709.6

f).

x3 10.t.t. x 15.75x9.5+10.5 x3L5 xH tw- 2 X 2x 3 2 X 'l

,_

62:~~=2X i0/4;5x9.5 . +165.3

f-52.2
6.
3P=

zX

10./o!t X 4.5 X 9.5 =

z x :~

+148_77

Substitut ing these values into the :tbove system of <>quations wu oblnin 22.')3.1X 1 = -2835.9 58X2 + 165.3X3 = -52.2 165.3X2 +709.6X3 = - 1t.S.i7 The solut.ion of these equatior1s yields

X 1 = -L259:

X2=-0.900=-0.!1;

X3 =0

Till) l><nrling momMts at ciHferont cross sections of tho struc Lill'~ will be M 45 ~ .J.. 1.25!) X 7.5 = 0.44 ton-metres - 2.5.'1 ton-nwtr<'S - 1.259 X 10.5 + 0.9 X5-41.5 7 15.i5= + 2.53 ton -me l res Mes= -1.25() X7.5= -!J.<'l4 ton-motnJS 1,/ ~2 = -1.259 X 21 + iH .5 = + 5.06 ton-metros
M.~o =
;l1 ;,~ =

+ + '1.259 X 10.5 -f- 0.9 X 5-4.5 -15.75 =

Tho same b!mding ml)ments tlould be obtained using the proctldlll'l' adopted in the wovious problem, that is multiplying th() or(linate~ to the unit graphs by the magnitudes of tho appropriate unknowns aml then summing up all

* Thi!i !Mans that tl1e ordinates to the M1 diagram will he multiplied by (- 1.259) and those to the M2 diagram by (-0.9).

7.12. Several

PruiJlem.~ i11

Stre.ss

AuJly~i$ Qj

R edundant Frame.

565

Lbeso ordinates together with t.ho odtnutos to the diagram due to tho ac.Lual loading. Th1~ n>sulting honding mom ont ilingraru is giVl'n in Fig. 37 .12. Cettain simplilicutions could ho introduc.cd in the above C {!utpulalions on the followiug grounds. '"'hen the given s tructur<! 11f l!' ig. 31.12a is lllltcd upon by two sy rnrnotl'ical horizontal forces !IS :\hovm in Jo' ig. 3{U2a 11lon" tile iuc.lim>.< l memhors will work iu diroct cumpross.ion , all other nHmhtrs r.,mainiiJg id le. * For t.his reason the bending moment iliagram due to tho sing}(> loacl wiU be exuclly tho samo us tho uno produced by tho applicntion of its autisymmctrical componf,!nts. It follmvs that the llori?.ontul reac~ions at the supports of tho bWt'>

F ig 97.12

outsid<! columns ntu11t lit\ eqtlal bot.h in Ya luo and in dit'l'Ctit)n, which means that X 3 = 0. l'rovious\y we lanve arri ved at the same conclusion at the outcome of ral.her l:thol'iou!< cnlc.ulation~. Tile symmetrical c.umpouent~ or forcu p will pi'OVOko DIJ }>ending at j oint :i. However, we have found proviously t.hat th1~ ht>n ding morncnts in t.Jw adjacent
c roRs !'ect.ions of the inc.lincd memhurs duo to thl' antisymmctrical c.omJ>ononts uqu11l -4.5 ton-m t>tres ( Fig. 3!>.12<1). These UlOIMUts must be balanced hy the momt\nt:~ ill<hiC(>ol by the redundant reaction~. Of thl'se only X 2 and X 3 can giv t ri~e to l>ending in the inclinl!d rocmll(~rs immcdiuldy to tho ltrt aml to tho l'iglot of joint S. Con~C<IfUently , tho bending moments induce!l hy lwt.h of these
l'l.\3c) t ions f\L t.h c c.ross section~ just mentioned must equal 4.5 ton-mt'tres. And 1!i11c1 X 3 = fJ we may write that -5X 2 ~ 4.5 whercfrou1

..1.'2 = ---= - 0.!! ton 5 In tl\() above cqua l ion tlw coefficient (-5) to the unknown X 2 <E>Jlro~nt!l tl1e value of tho hnndii1g mom ont at the cro~s :;ection uniler con~iilor11t.ion tlue to a unit load fo!Jowiog \he d ire.cti(lll of X 2 (see Fig. 35.12b). Thus, out of thtco
proved by the in troduction of imaginary hinges at joints 4 and 6 a u<l bv the elimination o[ t.he horizonl.nl constraint. at joint 2. '!'be appl ic.ation of tbe ~ymmetrica l comwments will produCA:! no bending in any mombe1 of the latter structure. The>refore, all tho Ircu tCl1llS of the canonical equlltions become nil. wh ic h requires that all the reac.t.ions of the redundan t

-'5

* This is easily

constraints should he equally nil.

566

Analysis of Highly Redu.ndant St1ucture$

Fig. 38.12

(e!

Fig . 19.12

'1.12. Several Pro/1lem1 in Stress Analysl1 of Redundant Framts

567

unknowns two may oe determined off hand leaving only one unknown X 1 This will requiro ~lHl co~putation of two displacements 611 and ~.P and the solution of one cquatton w1th ono unknown. The abovo example shows that In certain case.' quite complicated problems can bt> t!Olved very simply. Pr oblem '' Hequirod tho stress diagrams for both vertical nod horizontal mombor:> of a thrco-span highway brid~e schematloally represented in Fig. 38.12a carrying on tho first two spans a umformly distributed load of throe t on:! por motra. Solu tion. Tho simple statically determinate structure to be adopted is Indicated in Fig. 38.12b. Tho bQnding moment diagrams duo to unit reactions &I'll J t/m

1 BHlJIB 1JUUIUlllUIUDuumuu 1

l. $t/m

J5tfm

Ftg. 40.12
given in Fig. 39.12. 'l'ho diagrams duo to the symmetrical and antisymmetric11l components of the actualluads nre represented in Fig. 40.12 *. An examinnllon of tho above-mentioned bending moment diagrams loads immediately to the <:onclul'ion that Tho replacement of the actual loading by its symmetrical and antisymmutrlcal components will entail lu the prosent caso hardly any simplification at ull.

a,3=6u = ~Z3 = 6u""' 634- 6ts=0

5!i8
iml~>pendenl

Analysis of Highly Re.drmdant Structures

systoms, uno contain in~ two E~quations and lho oth<!r t.hrne. T ho fi 1 'St systl'm will COll L Ain unly unknown~ with symrnol.r ic.al diagrnms

Cun~equtmtly,

lho five simultaneous

equation~

will subclivicle into two

X1liu + X26tz + X4,,14= - ll1p X 1&21+X2622+X,,624= -llzp Xlllu X2o~2 + X,Ii~~= -6 4 p 1111d tho second on ly lht' an t isymmotrieal ones X3liarl- X.:.lias = - l!.3p Xaliaa+X~IIss= - i.\sp Lot U$ proceod wi t h the calculation of all the displacemcuts ussuming that E J 1 -= 1 tm sq m

9X6 6 H = ., ,.. 2 X 92X X 1.5

+ 16 X40 X~ =
_ 432

-r I

, G4S

-+ 2 X ~nx1.+ t6 x !lx1 6'12 "2X1.5 4

014

+90

= _1sx ~x 1 2

1122 =+ 2 X 9 x \ x t 1

+ 16 X~l X 1

..

+1.6

"'2Jr -

' - + (Hlx108-2/3 X 16 X fl6)l - +J"l' 4 I>

.l
3p

= +Z sxtO!l x 2;3 =+ 14.~,

X 2X-1
3

L\

_ _ 2 4P -

12X tu8x fl -/.. 2X 2/3X12 X 27 X G

2xa

(1tiX10ll-2/3 X H>X90)12 = _ 4 7nr,

(I

a5

= - Z X t2X10llX8

2X3

+2 X

2/3 X 'l2 X 27 X li 8 X 108 X 8 3 - 2X 2X 4

=-

, 3''r;
t, '

7.12. Several Pr fJblems in Stress Analysis of Redundant Frames lnLroduc.iug tht>so valuos ill the e-qunlions givon abovo we. ohtain

569

B48X I+ 90X2 - 432X. = -l,:'iSI, nox, +16X2 -48X4= -17H - 132X1 - !t8X 2 +$1GOX 4 = -1-4,701, 13.333X3 -1GXs= -144 -J6XJ+-576X5 = + 4,320
Dividing all the terms o[ tl1e first eq uation lly 18. of tho second hy 2, of th<> llli,~l hy 1,8, of the fo11rth by 8/3 and vf lht~ fifth lby 1ti, we lind

36Xt+:JX2-2!J.X4= - 88 45Xt+8X2-24X4= -81:1 -OX1 -X2+20x,= +98 5X3 -6X5 = -54 -X3 +36X 5 =270
Tho solution of theso oquatioos yields

X 1 = +2.145 tons X2= -6.435 ton-metre~ X 3 = -i.862 ton-metres X4= +5.543 tons X5 = -7.41t8 too~
Jn (Jrdor t.o fmd tho ordinates to tuo diagram of the resulting honrliug moments actiJ1g along the members of the te1h111lant structure we may now add the ordinatcs to thl unit graphs multiplicq by the valuo of the corresponding unknowr

Fig. 41. 12 to those. of the bending moment uingl'nm due to the actual lORding. This resulting bonding moment dingrum is ropn>Sl> ntod in Fi~ . 4 1 .12. As for the slwal'ing forces, immediatoly to the right of tho lct almtmcnt we havo

Q34 = -- -

3Xi2 2

1 2=12.09 tons

60.i1

570 In
th~

Analysis of Highly Redundant Structuru

dook member to the left of joint 4 wo find

Q1.3=

- 3 ~ 12 - 6 ~; 1

==-23.01 tons

tlnd to tho right of the s:uno joint _3X16+71.12 - 37.S9 t Q~iS = 2610 . ODS 2
Continuing in the same wa.y wo shall obtain all the data necessary for the ('.onstruc tion of the shonr diagram rep r&Sentod in Fig. ~2.1 2a. This diagram

Pig.

~2 . 12

will Jll:'rmit the construetion oE tho diagram for normal strosse~ given in Fig. 42.12b. . In order to fincl the position of tho maximum bonding mmnc:nt8 let us determino tho points whore shearing forces reduce to zero: X 1 t rosand X 2
211.10 = 3:0 =

= ;.~J9

= 4.!!3 me-

8.70 metres (Fig. 42.12a) . The bending moments at those cross sections will amount to for the span 3-~: 4-3.1 2 M ma x=12.!Jll X 4.33- S.O X - -- = 28.12 t,on-mct rus 2 f or tht> span 4-.) 8 M,,.a:c= -7L12+26.10 X 8.70 -S.Ox ioz = 42.41 ton-metres
Tho reactions at tho supports ar o as follows

A 1 = +49. i1 tons; A2 = + 23,81 tons A3 = + 12.99 tons; ~= -1.91 t ons

7.12. Several Problems in Stress Analysis of Redundant Frames

571

The that

value~

of reactions A 3 and A 6 may be easily checked remcmbcriug

Ae = X~ - X 5 =

Aa=X4+X 5 = +5.543+7.448= +12.99 tons + 5.M3-7.448= - 1.91 tous

Problem 5. Required tho bending moment diagrams Cor all tho m~mbers of tho frame given in Fig. 43:12. This framo is redundanL to tho si:l:th degree and tho flelCural rigidity of all its members is the same. Solutton. Lot us adopt the simple statk,ally determinate structure i!hown in Fig. 44.12 and let us subdivide all the unknowns in two groups, t.ho first

x;-t t.x2
Xs

-;; t Xs
Fig. 114.12

JXG

-...J)(3

Fig. 43.12

('.ontaining only the anti~ymmetrical ones X 1 , X 2 and X 3 , and tho :recond containing all the symmetrical ones X 4 , X 5 and X 6 Since tho syst!lUI of loads .acting on the frame is antisymmetrical itself only the antisymm(ltrioal unknowns will differ from zero (soo Art. 3.12.) . It follows that the given problem can ho solved using one system ofthreo simultaneous equations witu three utlkMWllS only X1&1t +X26tz+Xi> ta+ Atp =0 X1621 + Xzii22+X 3623+ t.\21 , =0 X1ll31 + X2II32+X36a3+ l\3p =0
In order to obtain the values of all the free terms and tile coefficients to th(l unknowns we must construct the bending moment diagrams due both to the antisymmetrical unknowns and to the ac.t ual loads applied to the conjnglltn simple structure (Fig. 45.12). The multiplic.ation of the graphs will bo carriNI out using Veresh chagin 's motho!l, all tile bending moment uiugrams being bounded by straight linos. We shall ulso assume that EJ = 1 ton sq m. JJenc.e

5x5 2x5 &11 = 2 -- x 2 3

-+ 65

(2X 52 1 2x82+2x 5 x8) 2+

+
622=-2

1Gx8x2
2

x3

16=1,191)

4x5

X 3 X 4 X 2-1-8 X 8 X 8 = 565.3

572

;tnalysis of Highly Redundant StrU&tures

633 =1 x 5x 1 x4+2x8x2=52 2X 5 i6 X 8 . 612= - ~ (2X 4 X 8 +5 X 4)-- - X 8= -652

2

6ta = 1.:>x;
(>23= - -

x2+1x5x6.5x2+ 8 ~ =218

16

4X5 - x 1 x2-8X8X2= -148 2

The displacements i nducc1l in the simple structure by the actual lollds "iII h<' obtsiu!'d in a similar way
~ 1 1,= 2 X 51 6 (2

X 8 X 12+ 5 X 12) t-8/6 (2 X 16X 24-16 X 72)= -92 12 X 5 2 (72 -24) ~2p=----r-XTX4X2+8X8X 1,376 2 12X 5 . u3p =---r- X 1 X 2-2 X8 X 24= - 324

Tho eb<IVC vnllll!S may be checked using the summary b~ndiug mom(1nt diugram duo to tho siumltaneous application of all the unit reactions giv(1D

Fig. 45.12

in r'ig. 46.12. Let us see whether condi\ioa (11.12) is fulfilled

~0= 1,196+5!1:i.3+ 52 +

l:/1 = 611 +o:a +(> 33 +2 (6jz+ 6,a+623) 2 ( -652+ 2'18-148) =649.3

7.12. ScLwol Prob'U-nu in StrBss Analysil of Redunda n' Framl!s

r.73

At the same tim<'

.t , ~.- .<II$ xS? u 88 =~J ~rl;EJ= -- (- X

I"+? - X 6"'" ~ 1-.<:X 1 X G) l

-j-

Z~fi (:!XIJ2+:1 >< 52-J-2 X6X!'i)+8i6(2 X 10~ -T-

+2X 62 - 2XG X 1 0) ~ 1l'o!l.3- ~6 Consrquen\ly, all tho coefficients t o tho unknowns arc correct. Ch~k i n t he same way t h< displuwmt>nts due to the npplie-d loads 1t!liug ..rpros-

Fig. 46,12

sion (13.1.2)

!A =-=ll.sp + A2p+ll.3p= -9'.!+ t,37G-324=960

-~ ds 2X5 t..p-l': J M~Mp EJ = - -(2X5x12+6X12)+

+BIG(2 X lO X 24+2 X 6X 72-10 X 72-6 X 21o)-9t10=~ll.

Having made sure that all the op(!rations cnrricd out thus far oro correct, w<1 may introduc() the vnlncs of the displaceme nts into the syslum of (our s imultaneous equations 1.196Xt-652X2 +218X 3 = 92 - ll52X 1 565.3X2 -1.48X3 ... 1,37G 218 X 1 - i.48X2 52X 3 = ;{24 Upon simp\ificntiou \h llso r.quati ons become 598X 1 - 326X2 + 109X3 =46 - 3:.!6Xs-I-283Xz-74X3 -=688 109Xt -71J2+26X3 "" 162 Thllir solution will be c.arriod out in tnbular fnrm using th o nbbr~v in tcd method as indicated hereundtr . Sol vi ng E>q\tatiou (HI) wu ohtain 4. 1X 3 = 61 .4; X 3 = t4.!l7 lon-molrcs Therea[tcr from eq uation { J I)

Xz= -4.231

tun~

574

Analysis of Ilighly Redundant Structures Table 3.12

Eq11ation No.

Xa
5!)8

(I)

-32G

100

Ctj2=0.546 C(l3= -0.182

381

46

(2) {I) al2

(II)

283 -177
10()

-7!i 59

-117 208
'X23 ....,.

-()88
25

1-15 1
2li I -19.8 -2.1 I

o.14.1

91

l-6li3
i(i2

(:~)

(I) Ctj3 (I J) a:~.~

I I
I

()1
-6~1.5

-8.4

12.7

-113
61.4

(Ill)

4.1

4.21

:nul fuu.t lly f rmn equation (l) 598X1 32H X 4.237 109 X 14.97 = 46: x1 = -4.961 tcms In ord(1r to nutkll sure that the roots of tho tJquations are correct let us introduc1~ thr.m int() one of the simultuncous equations, say, the third ono

graph~

It

r~:>nH in!' now to multiply

-4.961 X 109+4.23i X 74+ 14.97 X 26- Hi2 = 0.009 ~ 0 the ordinates to l."ach of the unit bend'ing momont hy tlw magnitude of the corresponding J'edundant reaction as shown.

..

h zs?''" 4 ZJ7t
Fig. 47.12
in Fig. 47.1.2, anfl to add all of these ordhuttos togothcrwiLh those to tho bend-

ing moment diagram due to the applied loads

* H is moro advisable to substitute thesQ roots into oqualions.

(~ee

Fig. -15.12). The ordinates.

11ll

of tho simultaneous.

8.12. Statically /ndctermirtatc

1'ruw~&

Si~

situated to tho right and below the corrcsrJonding members will be rcckone<l positive

-14.!>7 M21 = - 14.97+24.80 =9.83 M 82 = -14.97-{6.95+ 36.69-12.00 = -'t.23 ftf S4 = 29.94+33.90- 79.38 24.00 =-8. ft{j M43 =29.94+33.90-72.00= - 8.1(i
M12 =

Thl' ordinate~ t.o tho resulting bending moment diagram will bo plotted on the side of ~he more cxtondetltlhres (Fig. 48.12) .

Fig. 11.8.12

P ig 19.12

llpon com ple tion of this di~gram it is nccl'!lsM y t.u checl< tltc accuracy tbcrcu!: (1) Chec.k t he equilibrium of joint 9 ( Fig. 49.12)

EMs= -4.23-4.23 + 8.40 =0

(2) Check whether t.he algebraic sum o[ gr11.ph areas along a clowd contuur equals 1.ero. This is carriE<d out bearing in mind that lhe rigidity of all olements of contour 1-it-/J-4 l'omains constant and l'eclroniug positive the parts of tlw are.as sitnat.Eid outside or tho contour

14.97-9.83!'i + 4.23-9.835 x;:, "+ 8.46- 8.1u4 X 8 = 0,. ~ . 00 . ~ 0 X5 2 2 2

8. 12. STATfCALLY INDETERMINA'l'E TRUSSES

By statically indeterminate trusses we mean suc.h goometric.ally stable hlngo-connecl.od framed structures for which neither t bo stresses, nor tho reactions can be found without the knowledge or the deflections sustained. Each statica lly indeterminate lruss (as well as any other redundant st~:ncture) may be transformed into a simple statically determinate ono by tho elimination of tho redundant constraint!'l pro-

57G _ _ _ _A_n_aly.~is

~I

lflghly Redrmdant Struct_w_ e_ .s _ _ _ _

vidcd S\ICh constraints are not. indisptnsablo from the viewpoint of the slabili ty of that structure. The n umber of eliminate!l constraints will al ways reprosent the degree o f redundancy of the trtL<;s undet cousidemtion. Hodundllnt tru~i.<;cl! may be sLatically ind. etcrmitulLO both inU>rna.lly and externally just as the framed strw;turos with rigid joints stnclied i n provious articles. Jn l:he f1rst case the constrai nts al; Lhc snppo rts

Fig. 50.12

.aro in !:IUch a numb~tr that their roat:tioos may not be dNluced from statical conF;idcrations :alone , while in tho second c.a~ thcrod undn.nt <~onstra in ts are inherent to the truss itself. l~ig. 50.12 represents a lrus~ redundant in the first degree for whk h only the reae.t.ions a t the supports are stat.icn lly indoter minato. This truss may be c.onsidored as oxternally redundant if 0111~

Fig. 51.12

of. tho v ..~ rt.ical supporting bars is rcgnrdod as forming the roduntlant c.onstruint. If on t.he contrary it were a~~umod that this l'e<luntla,nt constraint is t>Onstitutod by one of the lower Ghord mem hers, the t.r :urs will become interna lly redundant. Fig. 51..12 represents anothOt' statically indeterminate trl.LSS which is externally stn ~ically dotorminato but internally redundant to the eighth dogrf'e. As already stated in Art. 1.9, one o the most essential pectlliarities u redunda nt structures resides in that the stresses devoloped in their members depend on the cross-sectional <limen~ions and llngths of the~e members. Whon different material~ arc u!'Cd, t he stress distribution becomes also a function of the modu'li of elasticiLy of these materials. In addition, redundant structures are subjected to secondary stresses duo to erection defect~, movement of supports, tcmperalure sl.rnins, etc., which makes them less de-

8.12. Stati'ally I r&dtlerminalt TruMes

577

sirablo than stoLit:nlly determinote ones, as the latter are ahsolutoly unaffcctt'd hv all Lhe above mentioned factors. On t.ht- other hand. statjcally indewrminate t.rus~.s arc endowed equally with C -6rtaiu advantages. Thus , continuous trus.ses provide better rolliug condit.ions !'or t rains passing over railway hrirlgt>s for their elasUc l i111:1 will present no peaks at the supports such as exist necessarily in Lhe elastic lines of a series of staticnlly dotcnninnto tru!:!se::~. Acco rdir1 gl y, traius passing over these support..<; will fool no shoc:.ks or bumps. I n ad dHion , a continuous truss will always rpqniro Je:::s rnntoria l for its construction than a seJ'ies of st.nLically doterminale trusses c.overing the same span. Cont.inuous tt'U$SCS are a lso simpler to build than the statj (:a ll y de t~rminato ones, [or the e limination of redu ndan t cons traint~ requires Lhc introduction of spocial hinges which ar~ usually ra ther complicat.P.rl. The ~tress analysis of redundant str uctures becomes more and more complicated with the incrMse in the number of redundant l:onstraints. lu Art. 1.9 it was showu that the stresses or rcaction~J devolopcd by the not~Cs!;a ry constraints cnn a lways be determined on the basis of equilibrium considerat ion, while those of the rc.dundant conslraints con be computed only if the deflections of the structure are Jwown. It .follows that cross-sectio nal areas of the necessary members of ro<lundant trusses may be ~ lcctcd in exactly the same way as for the statically determinate ones, the stresses in these me ru hers baing independent ot their rigidity. As for the redundant members, their cross sections must be chosen in su ch a way t hat the unit strnssef: developed therein should be as clo~ as possible to the permissible nncs for that particular material. lu ordcn l;o arrive. at this result tho following proc.edure may be. rec-ommended: c li rninat~ in the first inst.ancc all tho redundant mornbers of t he truss c.onverting it into a statica lly determinate :syst.em whi<:h will be t.hereaft.or regarded os constituti ng tbe conjuga.t' simple str ucturo. The cross-sectional dimen~ i ons for alt tho nwmhers of th~ latter structure will thon be computed in the usual way. If t.he trn~s is subjected to moving loads, influenc.c linas will ht u~c rl. The cross-sect ional dimensions of the necessary members hav ing been found. chuose more or less arbitrarily the c.ross-seclional dimenf:ions of all the redundant members of the truss and the n r()(nlcnlate all the stresses using any oi the methods po,~uliar to redundant structures. If the unil stresses thus obtained differ substantially from the allov,ablo ones, the cross-sec.Lional areas must be corrected accordingly and the structure should be recalcnlnted ~gain . :1r- ar.s

578

An11lysi3 of Highly Redundant

Stmctnre.~

Approximat.c values of strosscs devclopecl in members of statically indeterminaU) trusses may be obtained comparing these trusses with solid w0b beams covering the same numbct of span~ and supporting the same loads. T hus, the co.nt.inuous truss shown i n Fig. 52.12 could be replaced in the lirst inslanr.e by a solid web continuous beam res ting on four supports for which the bending moment and shear diagrams conld be easily obtaitwd using one of the methods descriOud in Chap tor 10. Thereafter t he stresses developed in both chords could be obtained

Fig. 62.12

dividing the corresponding ordinates to the bending moment diagram by the lever arm of tho stress under conside>rllt.iou about the appropriate joint. Tho stresses existing in 'the vertica ls and diagona ls will he ohtainod in a si milar way using t he ~>hear diagram. A similar procedure can be used for estimating stresses developod in rotluudnnt tnsscd arches. The accurac.y of stresses acting in members or redundant trussos is controlled in the same way as in the case of redundant structuns with rigid joints such as portal and building frames, otc. One nust: make sure that all tho joints and portions oftbe truss are 'in equilibrium anti l.bat the deflections of the system are co usis!Rnt with the stipu lations of the problem. Thus, for instance, all thu dcflec.tions nt the suppor ts must be found nil.
l'roblem. Dclcrminc tho stresses in oll the members of a one timo stnLk11lly indctE>rrninntu lruss represented in Fig. 53.12. The truss carries fiv1~ eoncell-

Fig.59. 12 trat.ed londs of len ton~ oach. All tho members of Ib is truss are of the same cross section.

8.12. Statically I ndtt::e:..: rm:::..:.:lfl.:.: ,n~t::...t....:1:....:'r..:" ::':;.:te:.:s_ _ _ _ __ _;5:..;.;:7 !)

Solution . If we ~sume that the vert \cui nt midspan con!'til ut cs tho rodurulant membur, we may adopt as conjugate ~imp lo ::.t.ructure th e one shown in Fig 54.12.
I

F ig. 54.12

The unkuown X 1 will rt'pre..sent the strc.ss developed in the In thi~ caS<> the canonical equation becomes
X,l> 11 +~ 1 p=0

nfc1re~"<~id

nrlieal.

wherefrom X 1 = -- 0u

~lp

(loth tlcflec.tlous 6., and A1p will ho determined using t.wo Maxwe"!I-Crf.'mona diagn1ms, one of which will he constructed for Lhc actual loads all<l thu othor

Ftg . 5.5.12

Flg. .'i6..12

for t.he unil load X 1 = 1 ( Figs. 5!:i.12 and 56.12, rospeet.ivcly). Tho values of theso deflections are given by and wlwn S
reprt'~;ents

the length of each member.

All the computations v,.;JI be carriod out in tabular form as lnllicatl!d herounder (~~ THlllt' 4.t2). Summing up all the entries of columns 5 and ti, M' ohtaln EFo 11 = 240<J.12; f.'FI:itp= - l56!JG.O
It follows that

Xt =
Strt'SS~S cxpr~s~ivn

.0 +15696 2404 . 12 =- 6.53 tons

1

in a ll lbll ot hur members cnn be '<.letor'fnincd easily using tho

580

_ _

_ A~?lysis of Highly R cd11ndlllll Stru,_c_tu_r_ es_

_ __ _
Tab/~

1.12

K.~r

No.

I s.

Unr

Str~~s

lengLb

,-.;v

Strrss

l QOS

tons

N,.

; qs

,,.JJN tS

;\tons

"'

..

..v~N ,+J\~txt.

Total st.ress"s

1lOllS

I
5 2(17
4.'17
-4 .1)!)5

[- (1.

u
IJ
(l

1 II
J ('

1-r.t I -t

4.055
4 . 47

0
(l (I

-3.tl - :U:i -3.05 - 3.05

a1o.2 51).1 37.7

0
(I

37.7
50.1
34.2

0 0
(l

- 25.1, -21.9 --19.9 - H/.9

-21.~

-2:JJ, -21 !)
- l l:i. tl

- 1!1.9

1-t

a-g b..t
c-k
d-1 t'-n

5.207 4. (M)

4.00
UXJ

-3.'1.:-1 -53 .fi

-3 .&"1 - 3. 9 6.3..'-l 8.33

160.3

4.00 !o.UO
/1,(1()

1-fl
h.-11
t lf m- f I

-60.0 - IJI1.0 - 53.r, -33. :-1

33.:-1 fiii.S

9.00
l.l.OO

278.0 324.()
321t.O

8.33
(i.33
-3.33

278.(1
1()1) ,

- 8.H - 17ll2 - 21GO -2100 - 2782

- 25.4 '.1.3 5~'. .'t

- 21.!! -25.4
8. 1 )

11 ,{1

58.8
5~ .8

-1.2
- 1.2 0 .\J 8.Ll 1L 6

51, .4
t,l,ll

r..oo
't.Otl UXt 1. 0\1

3 !,!, .4

- 8H
- 444
- 1140 - t 140

-5.33
- 5.33
- 3.33 - 4.15 -2.5 - 0.83

()-lf
g-1 1 l-h
k-J

5.00
5.110
500

53.5 33.3 41. 5

11!. . () 114.0

- 21.7 - M.S

18. 7

-34 .8
- 21.i

i8.7
11.6 1tt.li

25.0
8 .3

14.4 8!l .O 3t.2

- 444
-861.
-3'1~.5

- 27. 1

l-m
n-Il

5.00
5.00 5 .00

8.3
25 .0 41.5 - :lS.(J -15 .(1
- t tl.O

- 0.83
-2.5 - US

3.5 3.5
31.2
81Ltl

-34 .5
-31.5 -312.5
-8111

- 16.3 - 5.4
-:i.4
- 1 6.:~

8.7
2. tl 2. 11 8.7 1'. .1
- l:J.7

p-Jl
g-Il

-Zi . l

a.oo
3 .00
/i .(I(J

t-1
k-t
11111

2.5 1.5 LO
1.5 '1..5

18 .8 6.7

-187 . .)
- 67.5 - 30,0

ltL3

9.8
1).5 tl.8 10.3 ti.5 ().5 ().5
li.fl

-5.2

()p a -b b-e
c-d

3.Ull 3.0lJ

-i5.0 - 25.0
0

' 18.8

3 .0 6.,

- 6i .5 -187.5
0 0 0 0 0

:;.:l::s

3.33

1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 i.. O

3.33
5 . :~3

- ::..5 - 5 .2 -8. 7 tt. 5

11. 5 li . S
13.:)

0
(J

G.OO
5.33 3.3:1

().00
~U~3

d-e

e-f

0 0

3.33

6.5

lL5

}';

i""' 121-15696

9.12. Computation of Statically lntktcrminatr. StmctltrN

581

The values of.;. obL<\ined in this w11y slwu ltl he entered into coluutu 7 of 'fah](l 4 .12. At.ltling Uw magnitude of thest stro:;so:s L(l Lhosl\ induc.ed in the simple struc.t.uro hy r.hu uctunlloarb (t.h(> valnes ot llwso sl.russ,~s an.- giv111n in column 3) we shall obtain llw lot.al st.ressr:s dcvolnpod in all t.he mmnhers (>[tho rNlundnnt tros~. These stres.~es atc l'Cprcst>ul.t~d in cnlumn 8. ln the case of stressc.'$ due to tolllpcnrLure c.hangt>s the canonic-al equation for a one tim< stat-ically ind()Lcnnimoll) st.l'uchtre will become

X 16u + ~ 1 t =0

when~ ~tt=o.EN 1 tS

whcrr. ex = codi\c.i(>nt o[ Uwrmal oxpausiou t = temporaturt~ ehange in degrees. Let II:> st.udv nlso the streS!<E.>S induced in all tl10 mcmhors of the smno t.russ by an oroct.ion defec.t. As~uuw tlJat tho vortica l mn has been madt> a units longer (or shorter) than r(>quired, which is cquivnlcn~ to a thennal (>Xpan:;ion or contrnc.tio n of this vertic.al equalling a = a t8, while the values of thermal e::xpansion <lr contraction for ull othor t.russ memhcl'S rnmrtin nil. In tlti':' cas11 l.ho above
equation
b~come.s

X 1ljH+~u=0

Att =alJ1 tS =-N. 1a

whorl Nr is llte titrcss induced ill lho same verLical mn by n unit ,0)'(!() X 1 ~Hrcss analysis for t.ruases of a higl1er degrco of redundancy can he c.arrled out in oxactly tho same wa y. Hesort can he made to t.hc grouping of unknowns aml to the rephH~ernent of the applied loads by equivalm1t symm<'t.ric.al and antisyllluletric.al systQIUS as de~c.ribed in tbt> p1eccding atticll~ .
i ndt~lmrui u nte

An example of influoncc line construct.ion for a one time statically t.russ has bec.n given in Art. 9.9.
9. 12 . CO;\Il'lJTA'rtO;'Il OF STATICALLY 1:.'\DI!:TElll\ill'iATE .STn UCTUR ES \VITH THE AID 01>' SI::'IfPLER STRUCTURES REDUNDA NT TO A LOWJ~n ogGnt~l~

Simultaneous ~olntion of several cquati1>ns with several unknowns

may he avoided if t.he conjugate st.~ucturc used is one degree lower in. redundancy than th.o one analy7.ed.
1'bo Stft'SS C.Omputation of a Sll'llCI:lll'O tedundnnt ill t h e nth de.gl'(!O will r(~du ce lo lho solution of a single equation with ono unknown if lhe eonjugal.t} simple structure itself possesses (n- 1) redundant c1, qstraiuts. This single equation
Xtl>u -7- ~\ll> ~ o

will show that the displacement of the (n - 1) times statically indcterminare conjugate structure along the d i rcetion of the addil.ional constraint who&~ reaction equals X 1 is nil.
In the above expression 6u and

the (n- 1) times statically indeterminate struc.ture along the

j, 11,

represcut t.he defiQctions of

di~

rection of t his < :onstraint (~aused by the unit rcac.tion X 1 and by the applied loads, respec.tively.

9.12. Compllt!;HorL of Statical!y lndeterminate_8_fruC'Wres

583

produced therein by the load xj is triangular in shape with u maximum oruinul:ll equal t<J l aL joint c. It follows that the said j1>int witl be acted upun

Ftg. 58.12
by a c.ouplc 9R = l and the !lending moment dil!gram relative to portion acb of Lhe :;tructure may therefore be obtained multiplying aU the ordinates to the

r.

X,

Fig. 59.12

Fig. 60.12

diagrams shown in Fig. 58.1-'!b by l. Such a diagram is given in Fig. 60.12. T he amount of di!iplacement 6 11 is equal to the second power or this diagram. Using Vereshdwgin's method we obtain

The same rt>sult could bo arrived at by the multiplication of the M'1 graph (Fig. 60.12) by the graph of Fi~J 61.12 dufJ to tho application or a unit. 1<1ad X 1 to tho staticnl ly dctcrmmatc structure shown in the sam1 figure ll 2 l Hl3 6u = 2 >: 3 l t- (l /2-1!4) x l= V.I?J

,l11alysts of Highly Rcd1.nda11t Sl.r_u...:_c_tu_r_<!S _ __ __ __ l)isplacuLOCIIl

by the d iagt'llm

~l p giv~u

will bl found multiplying tbc diagram of F ig. 58. 1la iu Pig. 60.12

Th(l samo rcl)tdt CtJul.l be rlchicvcd using tho diagrams o[ Fig:;. :)8.1:/a

Ftg. 6.1.12

Ftf!. 62 ..72

Fig. 6.9.12

and 61.12

.6.tp= (
or tllsc th<Jse

-16+32

PI

Pl ) l l pza 2'EJ = -G4.EJ

or

Figs. 60.12 and 62.t2 (sl'e Art . 7.9)

6 1p

=- T

Pl

l t 1 P/3 XzX "2 (l/8 X t /3- l/4 X 2/3) EJ = -liftEJ

10.12. ht{luence Li1e i'vfodcls for Co11ttnuous Beams The introduction o f the values of 6 11 o.nd above yil\lds

585-

u111
8B

into th o cquat.ion giv<.n

X = -~lp =- Pl3.24EJ =~P

~u

li4EJ.Jil3

The resulting hcmding moment diugiam for the given redundant st>ud.nr(" will be ohtainod as usually multii>Iying ull tho ordinates to the Iii1 1liugram

Mgraph

Fig. (i4 ..12

3 t.il() unknown xj just found equal to 88 p (Fig. 63.12~ nnd thoret~ftor a1lding Lheso <lrdinatt's to thc.~t\ of U1e lr!p dingrnm of Fig. 5l:l.12a. Thn final diagram is shown in Fig. 64.12.

hy t.hl

magni~ude

.(If

10.!2. IN.f<'LUENCE LINE MODELS Jo'OR CONTINUOUS BEAMS

If the influonco line for a continuous beam red\Jndant to the nlh degree werB constructed using as conjuga to sttucture another. continuous beam (n-1) times statically indeterminate, the reactiou of nth constraint due to tb~ load unity P could be derived frorn t:hc equation
Xioil+otp=O

whence

X 1=-~
Replac.iag 61 p by 6p1 we may write
1 ~p uu

6tr

Xt= -

It will be remembered that 6r 1 given in the above equation represents the ordinate to the deflection line for a (n - 1) times statically indeterminate continuous beam due to the application of

5 _8 _6_ _ _ __ .:.A:.;.:n..:..al...::ll.t~ ::..:.. of Highly

Rt<dundant Structure.~

a load unity acting nloug the direction of X., while 6u mny be rogarded as the scale factor permiLting tile conversion of the rlefiection line to Lhe influence line. 'flUs method of i11fluence line construction we have named the kinematic method. It f\lrnishe~ an easy means

({))

{d)

(eJ

(()

(g}

Fig. 6.5. 12

of determining tho shape of the influence lines for continuous beams,

this shapo being exactly the same as that of the deflection line 6p 1 which can be obtained at very little cost. Fig. 65.12 shows tbe shape of the influence lines for support reactions. for bonding moments and shearing stresses pertain ing to a continuous beam resting on five supports. The shape of these

10.12. 1 n fluence Ltne Model$ - - --iuOu~ucc

for Conttnuor.s /Jeams

lines has been determ ined practically without nny computn tions using the deflection lines Jue to unit forces applied along the eliminated redundant reactions. Thus, the influence lino for the loft-end support reaction will be exactly of the same shapo a~ the deflection line o( the contin uous beam redundant in the second degree {Fig. 65. 12b) acted upon by a load unity X ,. 'l'his k inematic metltod providt!s ver y rapidly the shape of the influence lines which may be used as models when determining those portions of continuous beams which shou ld be loaded in order to obtain the extreme values of the stresses under consid~~rat ion.

13.

SLOPE AND DEFLECTIONS. COMBINED AND MIXED METHODS

1.13.

CHOICE OF UNKNOWNS

In Lhe meU10d force~ previously described the unknowns represented tho reactions (forc.es or moments) dovoloped by the redundant eonsttaints. When these unknowns were determined all the s lrt>sse.s at an y c.ro.s~ section of any member of the structure could he easily cnlculatc<l whereafter t.he dofleetiOn!l anri angular rotaLions could be obtained in the usual way. Thus, in the above method we started with the cornpu.tation of stress1< s and reactions proct.eding lhereafler to the determination of the rotation,~ and di![lections. Tho same problem could be tackled in the inverse order, that is first determining by any method ava.ilable the displacernt!nts a.nd proc<!rding tlureaft.er with the computation of the corresponding stresses. ''f hi~ scquonco of operations is adopted in tho mot.hod of stress analysis usually called the slope and de.flections method which we aro going to ~tudy in this chap tor. The unknowns of this method will represent the angles of twist and deflections induced by bending morntmt'>, while the ~trai n s and displaeements due to normal and s hearing forces will be negJec.t.ed. No ndditional error will be i ntroduced Lhereby in th0 c.ompntation of rigid joint sy~;tems for iu the method of: fotce.s we had equally neglected tho influence of direct and sheariu~ stresses. It wil l he aho assumed t.hat the difference in length between the original member and the chord of its elastic. line i:> practically nonexistent which means that the distance over which the ends of a deOccted HllHn her are draw n together is completely neglected. v\'e shall begin our study hy establishing those of t.he displaecmcnls of a member which must be known in order Lo flnrl the s tre&Scs acting at one of its cross section:>. For this purpose let us f'ttldy a rectilinear bar AB (Fig. 1.13a) isolated from any l'edundant strw~ lure. The stresses existing in this structure inducting 1Hlr AB itself will cause this har to deflect and to take up a new positiou A'B' as s hown in Fig. 1.1:3a. The movement of Lhe bar AB to its new position may be regarded as consisting of the following independent displacetnents:

or

1.18. Chotce of Unknowns

58!)

1. A translalion of all t he point;s o[ Lhe bar over the same di~>tance !l 4 (Fig. 1.13b}. During this translat.ion the bar remains straight and p11rallel to itself. The hcnding moments and the shears at all the Wl11S soclions of the b11r remain nil. 2. The defloctio n of one of the fixed ends of t he bar <~long :t dirliC tion normal to its axis (say, of the end B) over a dist.anc.o tl BAThe elastic line or the bar and the corre~ponding hen!l ing mom ent e.urv~ a!'e represented in Fig. 1.13c.

(b)

Ptg. 1. 19

3. A rotation of the end A of the bar through an anglo <fA- Tha elastic. line and Lhe COI'l'esponding bonding moment curve are given in Fig. 1.13d. 4. A rotat.ion of the end B of the bar through an ang-le (p 8 (Fig. 1.13e). 5. T h e defloclion of the axis of the fixed ond bar undlll' Lhe influence of the loads a pplied between points .1'1 and .B (Fig. 1.1 B!). The elastic. line o[ the bar AB rosul.ting from a translation llA, hom a defl.ec.tion of the end B a bout the end A over a d istancc ll .M . from the rotation of t.he end sections through angles <p ,1 and <p n and from the deflection due to the loads directly applied, will coincide exactly with the elastic line A'B' (Fig. 1.1.3a). Thus, iC we arrive by any m~:~ans to determine the magnitudes of !J. DA cpA and (j\ 0 we c.an thereafter easily find t.he values of M and Q acting at any crlJss section of that partic-ular bar, for the t.rnnslntion !J.A is not

connected with any stresses in the bar under c.ousiclerution. ConsoquenLi y, for each independent member of t he stwcturc we may adopt. as uuknown~ t he deflection ll lJA and the a ng ular ro ta tions or ang les of twist <PA a ud cp B Jn frcmwd struc.tttres with rigid joints (por tal fr&mas. b uildi ng fr!Hnes. etc.) t he dcflec.tions an d angll's of twist at the. end faces of aH the memhers meeting at tho same joint will always be exaclly the sa me. Consequently, when the method !Lnder consideration i.e; applied to framed structu.res with rigid jotnts th~ tmknown.s will always rl'prcsent the dcfleclion.~ and angles of twist of vatious joints.

2.W. DJo:TEHMJNA'l'ION OF THE NUM BER OF UNK JIIOWNS

r n t ho au a lys is or n redunda nt structure by t he slope and deflections mi'th od onl' must doter mine in th e very lirst place tho 1111mber of unknown!>. f n the prcc!!ding article it was shown llt11t tho 'mknowns will l'(pres~nt the angles of twist and the denocti.ons o( the joints t h i~ sLJ'uctuJ'O. it follows t hat the total ntl mhor n of u n know n ~ will ho cqunl to the n11mber of unknown deflectio ns n,1 nnrl anglns of
lwisL

or

n1

n=nd+nt

The number of unlmown angle.$ of twist is alwo.ys equ.al to the number of the rigid joints of the structure and therefo re tho determinat ion of n 1 reduces t.o a simple counting up of these joints. A join t is deemed rigid if at least two members rneeting :tt. this joi nt are rigidly connected to one nnoth.et. Exampl es of such joints IU'O affordr~d l1y join ts 1, 2, 3 and 4 of F ig. 4.13a , by joints land 2 of .Fig. 4 .1 :-If, an d by joint . 1 of F ig. 4.13g. H a join t is constituted by the meeting of soveral groups of memhors where all the mom hers
o Olll' gtoup are rigid ly Ctmnected together bnt all lhe separate g rou ps are hinge-c.onnocted between themselves, such a joint will bo regarded as equivalent to several joints the number of which is equn l Lo the number of groups. Thus , ror i nstanc.e., joint 1 of Fig. 4 .1 3h will he rec.konnd e.qual t.o two rig id j o in t~;, while joint 1 of Fig. 4. 13i equal Lo tht~<.> l'igid join Is. Let us dclennine now the number of independent joint deflections. [u Art. 1.13 we hnve mentioned thaL t he deformations of rigid s Lrucltii'O..<; cMsed by direct and $hearing sLl'e$SCS mny be nej[lt>ctcd
"'Thoo;e of the joiul.!>. whose ang!P.S o twi~t arc Jwown b~fnrohnnd snc:h as, for insta n<:G, tlw fixed end joint~. if they aro lse)ol absolutelY fl!St, should not bu i ncludrl<l.

2 ..13, Determination of the Number of UnknowM

5!)1

and that the difference in length between a straight .bar and the chord connecting the ends oi its elastic line may he regarded as nonexistent. Bearing this in mind, let tiS replace in imagination all thP- rigid joints of the given re-dundant structure with hinges. Tl~t~ different joints of the latter system will not be able to move independently for the displacement of one of them may entail the displacement of a certain number of other joints. What WtJ must find is the number of deflections which may occur independently. It is known that tho number of sueh deflections ill a hinge-connected structure is always equal t.o tho number of adu itional bars which should be introduc-ed to make the strueture geomcLricHlly

A "

T]
( a) }

c
f

A
f)
(C)

F tg, 2. 18

1?.1

sta.I.Jie. h follows that the number of independent joint defledlons is eq1~a.l to the degree of instability of the system obtained by the introduction of hingt!S at atl the rigid joints and supports of the original structure. As an example, let us examine the portal frame shown in Fig. 2.13a. This fra me contains Lwo rigid joints B aud C and consequently nt = 2. The number of indopeodent joint deflections na will be obtained replacing all rigid joints and fixed supports by hinges a:-: indic.at.cd in Fig. 2.13b. The system 'thus obt;dned is unstable hut. it will suffice t,o introduce a single additional bar to ensure its l'igidiLy. LeL H be an additional horizontal supporting bar CE as in Fig. 2..13c or a diagonal AC as in Fig. 2.13d. The dotted line~ of Fig. 2.13b show the possible displacements of the sides oi a hingoconnocLed quardranglc. It is ohvious that the joint B will move over l;he same distance as joint C and therefore thtJse two deflections cannot be regarded as independent. Thus, in t:htJ case under eousideration the number of independent joint deflections equals one (n-1 = t). The total number of unknown Lwistl! and dnflecLions will oqual n = n 1 + nd = 2 + 1 = ~~
As another example, let us investigate the moro coltlplicate frame of ~' ig. :3.13a where the nurnber of l'igid joint..<; totals six (n 1 = 6).

:'1!12

Slop~

nnd Dr/lt:ctions. Combined !."~d !di:ud llft<lltodl

T he hinge-connocted cou nter parl of this fr-ame would be variable in the third d t~gre e for its convel'sion into a stable stt'UCl ure would
J

"
G

s "
7
'/

'7.~

fa >

~~

(b )

"

Fig. Y. 19

l't.'{JUire the introduction of at lea~t three additioua l bars (Fig. 3.13b) . When these are presonL, joint 7 is connected to the ground by m~.>a ns of two concurrent bars rendering this connection st.able. Tht> same

' R " ' f h (dP=fi r 'f--9--*

~
(e)
' ' ' V '

.,.!,;

'

~ ~

~l

v~~
Fig. 1. 18

applies to joints 5 and 6 and sinc.e joints 2, 3 and 4 aro also connected by at least two concurrent bars to those just: mentioned , all t he system will be stable. It follows that the n umber of independent dcOt!Glions nJ will equal 3 and tht>refore the total num her of unl<nown~: for this s t,r uc.-ture bcc.omes

9.7.1. Tht Contugnte Systtnl of lltdundont Be,vns

593

In Table 1.1 a we PL'O~ont the number or unknown cl~Oeclio ns and angles of twist for Nlch of the redu nd ant ~truct.mtS of Fi!!. l,d3 t(Jg'Olltcr wit.h their d<,g-ree of redund/lncy.
Table 1.73
);\ltnher Of IHtJc'DO'A,l

l)rgrcc
Strn~Ln ro

or
Anglt'S of t WIRl

d!sptnccmeniJ;

1-c'dUU-

tlnnc)'

,.,..rltetiDR

Total

II

II

"
j

'

" 4
5 7 1 2
J

tl

a
2 2
f)
t)

7
~~

tl e R h
i

15 f)

2 5 1t
I)

1 2
I

{l

3 3

0 0

3
::s

3:13. TllE CONJ UGJ'\'T'E SYSTEM OF RED UNDA!\T Lll::A.\IS

The conjugate redundant syst-em lttilizcd in t,ho mel.hod of s lope

and deflections alw11y~ consisl.s of a 11\lmbcr of singlc-!>.pau redunilant. beams. Thc..c;c separate beams are obtained IJy t.lte inlotfuclion of additional con~t:rai11ts inlo the given slrncture. JJot WI cornporo the

simple slnlically detonni11nle structure used in t he motltod of fot'(;e.s with the coujugato redundant system utili:!:cd i1 1 tho ~;lo po a nl d(!fl ~ctions ruothnd. A good example is allorded hy the rocLangular potLal frame redu ndanl in Lho socond degree given in Fig. 5.1 ::Ia. T he si mplc structure of tho metl10d or forces could he derived from Lho above passing a ~ction through joint 2, which would be eqnivalcu t lo the elimination of two r.onstraints. The sim ple s tructure would thus consist of a knee frame and a straight boa rn both fixed at t heir lower ends (Fig. fd3b) and ltoth statically determinate. l\.f< fo1 t ho r,onj Jscate redundnnt, system. this would be obtained by the int1otlnetiort ot two add itional. constraint~; into t he given slrurturc011(' opposing tht> rotation of joint .Z and the other prevMJLJng the t-ranslation of joint~ l and 2 (Fig. 6.13). The system Lhul'l obLniuerl will he redundant to Lbe fourth degree.
Thus: (a) lltc conjugate si 1uplo strucLtU'O utili1.ed in Lhe nwlhol of forces is derived [rom tht! original one by tbc elimination of wclttll-

5(1/;

Sl(lf/1!- 11.11.d DMltcttons. Cflmb fn('d and Mixed Method.~

daul C\Onstrain ts, wherens t he redundant system perUiining L o Lho slopE' and defl ections method-by the tntroductton of add i tiona! eonstrai nts; (h) the conjugate stl'llcluro w~ed in the method of forces is o.l wa ys red undaut Lo a lou.Jer degree than the given struc.turc whereas the conj1tgnLo system used in the slope and deflections method is always of a higher degree of redundaucy. (t s hould b<.' noted tha t the constraints introduced tn order to prevf'l~t the rotation of rigid joints dlffer in certain respects from the sum of constraints provtding (1.$ed or built-tn ends. I ndeed, the additional c.onst.raints should prevent only the twis t m rotation of tho joint wi Lbont.

Fig. 519

Fig. 6.13

inte rforing iu any way with its linear translation. H enco, L ho only reactions these constraints are capable of developing co nsi ~L o( moments applied at the joints. As for tho constr11ints preventing t he deflection of joints, tiles() can be obtained in diffe rent ways. One c.ould, for iw!l.anr..c, introduce diagouuls 0-2 or 1-3 of Fig. 7.13a and b, o1 a horizon tal SUilportiug btu' Ill joint 2 as in Fig. i.13c Ol' alterna li voi y an inclined !naco nt joi nl 'I (Fig. 7.13d) . Thu constraint introduced in the shape o( diagonal . 1-3 (Fig. 7:1.3b} will not impeclo the displacement of joint 3 whic.h is held frtst in any way. This diagonal will prevent solely tho deflection of joint 1 along the directio n of the line passing through this joint and joint 3. From thi~ view-point the constra int pt'Ovjded by an incline d hrncl) of Fig. 7.13d is equi valent to the above diagona l. It is always preferable to introduce ndditional constraints opposing the deflection of joints in tho shape of supports connecting these joints Lo the ground. The introduction of additional bars connertillg <.li ffercnL joint,<; of tho structtuo between themselves should be avoided as mncb.

as

po&:~iblc.

H the giv('n struct.ure consists of vertical and horizontal m emuers proftll't>IH 'C s hould be given t o ad ditiona l suppor ts tlu. mselve,!; e ither

horizontal or vertical. 'l'he introduction of inclined bars is liable to cause c.ortain complications in subsequent computations. In order to obtain the conjugate redundant system the addttional constraints introduced must prevent the rotation of all the rigid joints

as well as all the. independent de.fle.ctions of these joiT!ts.

us examioc the two-storied frame of. Fig. 8.13a. This frame to the sixth degree and therefore ~he nun1hor of un koowns in tlte ructhod of forces would also equnl six. Jn the method
Lo~

is

rcdund~nt

(a}

221 ~z
I

(a!

" o

"

0
((.

Fig. 7.13

Fir:. lU8

under consideration the llllmhe.r of unknown displac.ornenls wil l also e.qual six and will cQnsist of four angles of twist and of two deflections. Tho conjugate system of redundant beams will be obtained by the introduction of four constraint-S precluding angu lar rotations of fou1 joints as well as of two additional horizontal supports prevenling all the independent deflections (Fig. 8.1:-~b). Lc.t us investigate in detail all t.he e.le.ments f.orming t.hc. latt.or systern. As stat.ed above, all of it.s mombers constitute siug!e-spnn $latically indoterrninalc beam. For this reason let us tuke up in the first place the construc.tion of br.nding moment diagrams for a single-span beam of constant rigidity having one fixNI and ont' fre.ely supporte.d end (Fig. 9.13a). Using tho W('] !-lmown method of forces, we may c.onstruc.t the diagrams for various types of external actions. The reactions directed upwards and the moments acting clockwise will he reckoned posil.ive. The simp](' str-uclur(' correspo11ding to this beam will be formed by it simple cantilever shown in F ig . 9 .13b. 'l'he reaction of the. roller support at B will

:;~~~

Slnl'fJ n11d D~flulions. Cumbi111'd a11d lvfued Ml'tilods

constitute the single unkno"''Tl X 1 of the equation

x1o11 + ~'"' ..... o

The Vllluc of coorndent Ou will bo g iv~n by tho SCC'onrl powet ol the M 1 graph (fig. 9.13c}. The extel'llal fotce~ will IH\\'tl no offoct on this coefficil!ul which will arnount to

ou=

/3

:sF.J

The ftl1e l.crm o[ t.ho equation will bu calct,tlatcd for difforout types of loMliug-: (n) The ln!ttm is unijorm.ly loadt!d ormr thr rdwk 1)/ it.~ lmgth (Fig. 10.13a). Till' vnlue o( ~1.1 will lhL\11 he ohl.aim~cl multiplying

ann
l

J?iK, 9.19

Ftg. 70.13

lla> Mq grHJ)h (Fig. 10J3b) by th~

1
,\ 1q= -

M,

diagram (Fig. !U3f).

1 'll~ '-1 EJ :J -:;:l~;

l= -MJ

ql1

l nlroducing this '1\lue into oxpr(ssion ('l .'l H) we lind immLdiately

X,=ll 8
wherefrom
tOlH: lit)lt

=:

ql
[j

nL point A hecomt'S
RA. = qZ-n11 =s ql

Tho fiJwd end rnomont aL: A will be: obtainoo !>urnmiu){ up Lhe momcuts iuducNl nt that seetiou b1.1lh hy tbt.t uppHcd lnads aud by tho fon:c X 1

(b) The beam carries one concmtratecl lood P actzng at any arbitrary point (Fig. 11.1 ~) . Displncement. L\ 1p will l~e equal to the produc t of the Mp graph hy the 1 \11 graph
PuZ/2 ( 2 ~, 1 ,= - ZJ::J l

) 3 u--v

Sinco ul+vl=l wheu cc v= 'i- u

.1,p = - 6eJ (3-u)
J>u2l3

Introducing t.his value il1to equation (1. 13) we ohtain

. J>u2 X 1= R1 1 = -r(3-z~)

'flw cencliou a l poin t 4 bec.omcs

RA ==:P-R 8

=P_;) (3-v2)
2) 1 1

and the fixed t>ud moment

, .Pu2l (a -u) =-T Pl v (i M , 1n = - P u l -r;z-

(c) The fixed end of the beam is deflected fn the dtrtction normnl to its axis ow.r a length .1 (Fig. 12.13). Tllis movement will induce no

~ - --- --- z -~

or.

fi'IIJ . 11.13

Ftp, 12. 1.'1

bending momen ts in the conjugate s impl o beam buL lhe ditSpl acement nlong the direction of X 1 will becom e

a ... . = a
From equa tion (1.13)

598

Slorr. and De{ledior1s. Combined and ,'l{txed Methods

which permits the immediate dotermiuation of the reactions developed hy a ll th~ other constraints

Rn=Xt=
.

_BEl 6
l3 3EJ

RA = -Xl = -ys6

J\.1AD =

3EJ

----p:- ~

(d) The fixed end of the beam is rotated through un angle rp (Fig. 13.13). l n that case lhe uisplacemeot at the right extremity

I
I

Jf,rp~
F tg. 19,18

M grqph

'7-'Jat.tEJ

I I

{j l 'f'

~ Zh~
Fig. 11..19

of t.he conjugate simple beam along the dircctiou or

xj

becomes

u1op= -!pl
in which case expression (L 13) yields

X 1= --zr 'P
leading to the following values of the reactions at the supports and of t.he fixed end moment

3EJ

R ... = -X1 = -l2cp

fl,fMJ= -~- q>

3EJ

3EJ

(Q) A di/]llrntce in temperature 6 1 = t1 - t 2 is introduced betwmm tln~ upper and lower fibres of the beam (Fig. 14.13}. The deflection along the direc.tion of xl of the simple struc.turo beoomos

N 19. The Cnniuf!al t! S11stem of

n~dzmdan t

/J t am.

5!l!l

in t hat cas e

.O.u= - TQ'M= - T T
where h ic:; the depth of the beam. SulviHg equation (1.13) we find

al\t

a"-t 2

xl =
whor~fro m

aa.~tEJ

2hl

RJJ

Sa6tEJ 2hl

RA=
MAs

3a.t.tE J
2hl Sa.t:.tEJ 'l.h

Let us s ludy next a beam wilh both ends built in (Fig. 15.1 3fl). As a si mple conjugate structure we shall adopt two cantilever beams

ta~~ ' ! l m u ~B
l
{b)

XJ

(C) : ~ /1, I~
X,

Xz

~I~ L____E
t
X2
1

I I

,., i I
,11111111 1 1
I

111111111 1 1 111/
I

i
I

~= - -- - ~ ., :.~ ~
W[j ~~
I

I I I

" ~

Mgroph

(e)

Ftg. 1.5. 13

IM =o
3

W tJ
Fig. JIU!J

of Fig. 15.13b obtained by cutting the given beam at midspau. The diagrams induced in the latter 11ystem by unit actions are represented in Fig. 15.13c, d and f. It will be immediately observed thnt the direct stress X 3 will remain nil as long as t he loads rE.\mnin

600

Slope and Dc_ flertlo"' Combinl'd aud M ixed Methods

vcrti~:.:d. T ho snme will apply to tho case when the fi xed ends are shifted wrtil~ll lly or sust.ain a ngular rotations. This btlt!Hucs qoil.~ clear if we take np the equaLion

X 1o 31 +X2l>3z I- X3b3:l + ~ 3 ,.=0

in which ho th c:.o t~ii ciouts to the unknowns 6a1 and 6 32 us wn\1 :ts 'J!J 3 t lto free term .1 3 "' must ro1l ucc to zero, for tbe hcnding moment 1 romains c~1nstantly nil it.soli. T he unknownf: X 1 nod Xz will he found from the equations X t6u .11m = 0 } (2.1 ~) X zt\22 2-zm = 0 ....,... I The coefficient s t o the unknowns in these two equations 8l't! given hy

A~~J_/" ~
~~ ~
I :

+ +

Jo/
l I 1 I
I

!
I I

6u

= 2 . :! . 2 .2. 3. ""I . HJ = 12!U

622= 1-l 1 J::J =
1

tS

eJ

Mgraph

As (ot tho free terms theil' vahJes will depend on loading conditions some of which are considered below. (a) B oth built-in ends are shifted a dib'tance 11 normally to the axis of the beam (Fig. 16.1 3). Thu defl ections 11ustained by the conjugate
simple structure along Lbe unknown reactions become

F'tg. 17.13

llttroducing these latter wu obtain

valu~:~s into t'quation (2.13) o.ntl solving

tltu

i 2E/ Xt = -1"3~;

whence
12EJ R0 =X.,= ---z'J ~; 6EJ J l -!Au= -IZ .1;
12/?J R.~~. = -X 1 = l"3~
MDA

= -

6EJ 7~

(b) Th(! fi:-ced e.ru:l at A is rotated through an angle <P (Fig. 17.13). In this cnsc the deflections of the simplo st.l\tieally determinate beo.m

along tho redundant reactioJtS become

~111' = -l/2<p;

Sol\riug onco again oqua Lions

(2 .1 ~)

we obtain
-l <p

/Xt=T q>;

6EJ

EJ

COlt~C<pH:-u t:ly, tlw rcat:tions at tltu monwnts become

(j}:;.f

~u pport

and U10 fixed <Hrl

RJJ = X 1 = -yr<J>

vEJ RA= -XI = - 71-ljl

M,1A = "T " <i>
The above dnta together with some addiLional vahws of sup pOl't reactions aurl ftxed end moments corresponding t.o a number of other loading condit ions arc presented in Table 2.13. This l;nbie will be of g rea t h olp for the stress analysis of portal and building fra mes by lho slope and deflections method. 'l'he analysis of a beam with both built-in ends snbjccted to other systems of loading is deemed uunec:.e!l..qllry.
li.i lL CAl"ON IGAL EQUAT IONS l' ECliLIAI\ TO THE SLOf'g AND Dl!:J:' LECTIONS i\iETHOD
2f:J

First let us darify th e general principles petmiWng to form t.he necessary equations from whic.h the angles of twist and the deflections of the rigid joints may be derived . F or this purpose lot u.s compare the given struc ture with t he conjugate system of rodund nut beams (Fig. 18.13). lt is obvious that the sole dillorcnco betWtltlfl t he two ~ystems residos iri the presence of additional c.onatr.ainls in L he Iutter, these fl.dditionnl constraints opjlosing t h1.1 rotation and tho dofiection of joints. 'Ihe existence of these constraints lends to lho appe11.ranee of reactive moments and forces which will become necessarily nil when each of the ftxed joints will b e rotated through an augle equal to the teal angle of twist and when t he deOec.t ions of ali the joints will betome equal to those sustained by the ~a rne joints of the original struc.turo. When this condi tion hs :>atisf 1ed, all the deformat ions and stresses set up in t he conjugate system of redundant beams will become exnctly tho same as the strefises and deformations of the g-iven structure.

7'1lble 2. 13
No.

Loading conditi ons

onllnates are set orr nc.tt to the

ex tended fi llres) and reactions

Derttl1ng n10weot graphs (t!Je

Expressions for bending nto'!Jients

nnd rfacllon"

~A

I
I

lll

r
I

M.._ = - .!{-1( ! -~-2)

,

'

Z!v--:
I

1
,

"~~

'

, <

" t R.A VfillVt

l'l Mc=-- u tv(3-ll) 2

l?g

R A -=-2l'v (3 -

c,.'') -

R 8 =1'ut 1+ -;r = -P~t2 -(3-u) 2

qP MA=---r

( v)

2 If
d 1fLJ JI '
'

.. , ,

,,

'

0'~

'

l~

M,~

"<CJJi:C"'t "a

RA = ifql

')

H.a

=1f ql

.... ~:,1'-r '

MA= 3EI
l

AJ,...~ ' l;9A'i l~ ; '

I

RA= -R B=- 3T:J

I~

!,

1,1
I

-=::::::::: ::t~.I
R . ; '!-:'31

14.

cf&?:>--..
INA

AI.., = _ 3/U
/Z

'

-+

I I?~

R.to. = -R.n=3/~J 13

5
Ttrr.peral.u.rt: pradt&<

''.to. = ~

3lat~l

1 '.

L,

tz l
l 1 -lz =131

~ .

where h is tle ,J()pLh of till" cross &>cti Jil, and et is thll cop.ffici~n~ \l( Llwrmal e-xpansion

R A-..

3Rl et M 2/d

6
,A

~ :;l !

l~
tti

B!!!.

MA

M A = - uv2Pl = u~vPl ;\1 n Mc-,.2u2u2Pl

RA ='2~1 -I- 2r:) P R.H= uZ (1 +2c) P

~~---:

Me

Tobie 2.T,V ((.oll.itrwtd}

~07

I
A~'

Loadii'IS' cond itions

or<lluo~s

e::nenr.lrt IJhresJ ..nd r<:'.;1Cllt1us

.tlending nwro~ot gmplls 11 11~ nre stt oil n <:tt to tr.e

EJCpressJoos lor b<!nrting moments

etnO reac tions

A..

f' '" I l~~!ill~ B,

.....,.;'4':":. ~~ c~
.

lf~~= - Mn=- ql~

12

RA=RR =.i!:_

~.. /PA =I I

1!.,_,,.-

~ ~m
! CfJA=f
t

tJ r&
I I

J 4EJ ,,1. " .-= ~~ J l- . ' I'I n = L -

R.' / ,,,;'
A

1 [ '

i' ,V

RA= - l i f t = - 6EJ
t~

IJ~ I F~(
L____:_ ~

M1 ~ i - ,'18 -.... . I )
f~J
4.,--.{

JIII=Mn '"'- -

ii/;'J

12

'
10
rffr:perol;..r: ,?r;)(,tl..'l't

t,i

nA= -

Jin =

j'/.F;f

13

l:.'J a.!:.t /.fA = -_+fIJ = - -h -

tJ

:~.
t, r.: - j l

I!

~~~ G.

'-.fiif:J!I. h!.h ..;J}

'y

wbet'l' h is tl11: d:pLh of tlw c ro.~s scction. and a i~ the C)tflicicnt of thcriJl<ll P-Xpansivu RA=RB=O

4 .13. EqU6tiOlt$ Puullar to 'lu Slope onrl

D~tlltt'l loru;

,'l{cthod

ti\15

1'he cqu.aticms of tlu ~lope and de.{lt!cttnn.~ method negate lhf' existence o/ rea.cUve moment:; and .forces developed by the imaginary con.~trainl"~ of the conjugate system of redundant beam.s just as the equations of the method of force.~ exprc<ss that the di.qplaccments of the conjugate simple structurP. a.loug lht< redundant reacttons rematu nil. Jn the most general form the.se l:'q\Hltions lllilY JJ~ wrHLen M follows

whet'tl

R~o

ll 2 , R 3 , ole., are

th~

l'eacli vo moments and forc.c:. clovcl-

opod hy the additional constraints of the coujugatl syslom or redun-

onnt beams clue both to t he acLuul loads uncl Lo \.he twisbs .tud del'lt!c l:iom:; !lnstained by the joints. 'l'he indico~ of these reu ~ lion~ wusl.
~

z,

Ftg. 18.19

<lr equaliorrs,
tions.

always rorres_ poucl tn tho indic~!'; of tho unknowns. As for tlrt' number it will be equal to the number of addHiQrHII eonsl,rainLs ot, in othel.' words, to the number of unknown rotation:> nnd llcfleoIt i~ worth mentioning that the equation~ u.sed in tha slope nrrd d~c~Oectious method are equations oi ~~1uilibrtum M compnrod ll> the t~quations o the mot,hotl of forces which were ktnemattc equations showing the existence of certain relations between l.h~ di~plnr.c mcrr Ls of various p:u-ts of the structure. Let us examine in detail Lhe first equat ion o f tho slope surd doflct:Lions mol.hoil (H 1 = 0) \Vi th rcferouctl to the eonjog(\lo sysl.H m of redundant booms given in Fig. 1 8.1:~. 'l'he reactiv( momr.rrt /l 1 may he replactd hy the algebraic sum

R, =

RlP

+ llu + n.~

Jn tho abovo expression Lhe second iurl~x nloLtlld to tho terms of the right.-hnnrl lHlrt serves to indicate l.he cause wh ieh has giveu ise to that particulot reaction.

r.oo
Thus:

Slopl' nnd T)c{lections. Comb111;d aud Mucd Jlfrtl < d

ll1 11 is the reac tive moment devel oped by Lhe additional constraint undct the nction of loads P (Fig. 1!U 3a); Rtt is t.be t'eaclive 1110ment of t he same consLrnint due to the
Q

rotalion of joinL .1 through a n anglo Z1 ; R t 2 is tho reJ\cHvo moment dueto the deflection of joints 1 and 2 over a length Z 2 T he reactive mom<.'nts H 11 and R 12 due to tho d isplacements zi and z2 may he replaced by Llw fo llo\ving cxpr<.'ssions

Ru = Z 1r 11

and

R 1t = Z:r12

wbcro r 11 is tht' reacti vo mom out due to tho rotation of t h e Jixed jojnt throng h 0.11 an~lc E1qual to unity, i.o., to 1 radian

(l'ig. 19. 13b), anrl ru is the

renc.tivll mome nt duo to n unit displacement o( joints 1 a ud 2 (Fig. 19.13c}. Subst.ih1ting those vnh t<.'l' into t he original <.'Quation W<.' oblait)
~
I
I I

!h..

Z1r 11 +Z2r 1 ~ -I- R 1 [' -= U The set~nrl equ :~t i on (R~=O) may lJe writton in o~ac.t.ly tbu same way

I
I

I I

H ~ro r 21 is Lh<.' reac tive for e& in lho im11ginary sup/ {c) port by tho rotation of joint t through an anglo equal l o unity Fi~t. 19. 73 (Fig. '19.13b), mtd r 22 is tho reactive force devolOilNl by the snruo support when joints 1 and 2 arc deflected ovor n distance equal lo a Mit lcngLh (Fig. HU3r), while R 2p is the reactive for~o at t he l'amc ~upport duo to the applied londs Wig. i9.13a) . 'rho ftrst of thl:'se eqttations oxpre..~es that i n reality no rl'active moment is dovcloperl at tho iml.\ginary constraint oppo..'>ing the rotation of join!; 1, and the second that t h e reacti ve force at the imnginnry snpport is oq w:tlly nil. The two equations form together
0

induct~d

.=.. / ,1. S taltu tl ;l/1'/hcd oj Determin i11g the Cnt/ficir-uts to Unlmowt1s

iili7

a system of simultaneous standard equations of the slopo and deflections m etl10d. E quatjons of the sa me typo could be obtained .for nny number of unknown displac-ements, the number of equ ntions in th e system and the n u mber of unknowns in each equation coincid ing exactly with the num ber of displ acemen ts mentioned. Thus , for inslance, in Lhc case of four unknowns L h e syslCJH of simultaneous equations of the slope and deflections mothod would become
Z 1ru +

Z1r2J

Z.tTat

!- Zaru + Z4r24 + R2v = 0 + Z z7'a~ + Z ar33 + Z 4r34 + H~p = I) Z,r~, + Z2r4!l .. L Zar ,3 + z l,.H + T?4p = 0

Zzr 12 +Zsrsa+Zlrt4 + Rtp = 0

+ Z2rz2

(3. 1 ~}

H ereunder the coefficients to the unknowns (unit reactions) r 1s. r 22 , etc., situated along the main diagonals will be termed main coctficumts, while t he coefficients to the unk nowns r12 , r 21 , r 13 r 31 , etc., ''i ll be termed secondary coefficients. Tho coefficients to LhPunknowns of the sl ope and deflections method when situatod symmetrically about the main diagonal are equal between themselves as. wns t ho caso with similar coeiflcicnts of the method of forces. lndeotl, these c.oefficients aro related to one another by the principle oi reciprocal works ~'mn = r 11 m (see Art. 6.13). It follows that the sysLem of simultaneous equations of the slope and denections method m:\y bo solved using the so-called abridged procedure described in Art. 6.1 2. Tho main coefficients of the equa tions under consicloratiou arc always positive. Tbe equations of t.he slope and deflections mel.hod differ fro m Lhoso pertaining to the method of forces by the fact that Lho coeflicicr,t.s to the unknowns 6nm and the free torms ~np represenLing un it displucemonts of the simple statically determinate structure arc replaced by the coefficients to the unknowns ~'nm and the free terms R11 p. representing the reactiong of imaginary constraints, which transform the given structure i nto the conjugate system of redundant beams. I n audition, the unknowns themselves represent in the latter case lhc slopes (angles of twist) and deflections of L ho conjugnlo system while in tho former they represented reactive forces.

5.1 3.

STATlCAL METHOD OF DETER .M I Nl NG THE CO~FFICIENTS TO nm UNKNOWNS AND THE FHEI!: I!WMS

Tho determin ation of the coefficients to the unknowu:-; uud o( L he free terms enLoring the equations of lite slope and deflections method requires the l<nowledge of the bending moments induced in nll the members o[ t he conjuga te system of redundant benrn~ both

lloS

Slop~

atld Dr{IPCtion.s. Combi11Pd nud ll(i:r:e.tl ,.,felhods

by lhl' applietl loads and by tho nui~ twists aa<l defiC!clions directed nloug lhe unknown reactions oE the iru<~ginary constraints. Tlle con~l. mc. tion of tho c01responding diagrams c.an Le easi ly carried out, u!<ing data contnined in Table 2.13. Assume, for inst,nnce, that it is required to construct the bending moment diagra ms for tlw ,..yslem of redundant hcatos given in F ig. 18.13b. The Mp diagram for Lhe left.-hand colu mn wi ll coincido with ~hat of a l'rxed erHl beam actod upou by a concentrawd load (sm~ line G (J[ 'l'uble 2.13). For the cro:ss-beam this diagram will coiudrlo with that of o. bcaru builL in nt its le[t end and [roely S11pportcd nL the n~ht one (soo line 2 of tho ~'\me ta bla). The ftxed end liiOl.lll:lnls Lv<'ome

Mot = -JI.f,0 :- -l'h ~_;.-;,~ ,t ''"}

lt = v =

1/2

Mu ., - '1~

The

Jfp

diagrams are represented in Fig.

20. 1.~.

The M 1 diagram due to the unit twist of joint 1 in n docl;wise direction will be obtained for t he crossbeam 1-2 using daLu contained j 1\ the 3rtl line 0 f 'l'a ble 2.13 and for the co hun 0-.7 in the 8th line of the sn ruc table. This diagram b represettecl in Fig. 20.13b. As [or tho bending moments }i/2 induced by a unit deOcctiou of joint.. ;t low~~rds the right. these will be fou111l using lines 4 nncl 9 of the saw<> table. The said deflection will induc.e no benrl.ing in beam 1-2, as it follows t he direction of the beam axis. The Nl2 dlt~gmm i~ giYI.'n iu Fig. 20.13c. Having completed tho bending moment diagrams dne holh to the applied loads and to t.ho \lniL displacemcttts of Uw systttrn of rcdulllnut be~tms we mny proceed with tht1 determinntioa of nil tlto co'fl'tcicuts to the unknown,c: and free terms of the s imultaneon~ equations. I' or this purpose subrli vide the Iattar int.n two di ffere ut gToups: (1) tuosc expressing reactivt\ momonls developed by tho imaginary constraints preventing U1e rot.11tion of the joints; (2) those represen ti ng reac.t.ive forces of. the imaginary sopport.!'; introuttced in order to Pl'OVlnl tht:.l deflcct.ion or joints. 1'he coefficimt.~ to the unknowns and the fr~e term.~ belonging to th< ! first group wtll be obtained isolating each of the joint.~ ttndl'l' con.~idera tion and forming the corresponding equttibrium equations of the type

't.. M =O

1'ht! coefficients and the jre.e terms belonging to the secon(l group
utll be derived eitlu:r from the equilibrium of the whole system Isolated from its supports or from the eqnilil,lum tJ/ that or anothe-r portion

of

thi~ sy~tem.

.;, l.1. Slrtf i~nl M el li or/ of lJelel"m.i rtiliK

the

Cor../ficient.l tn [h1knounu (10\.1

Thl.':se equations will have the general form

'i.J'-= ()
:ll:'

Tho uitoct.ion or axis 1' will he selected wilh a viaw of si mplifying mueh as possible tha l;Uhsoqu(lnt computations.

{ ~:( :

.. lif,}
~

Pig. 20 ..13

Jho followiug coHvenlion of signs will be adop~cd: the rtac.tive forces ltnd lHmdiniJ moments will be reckoned pnsttwe when they .follow the d~rection of the angular rotations a.nd of tlw dejlf.'ctlons adopted .for the ]Otnt under consideration.
l'roblt\m . Dotormiuc t iL,-, cocfhcionts ~~ the unknow tl!'. an<\ tho fror~ tonns ontl.'riTig the :;imllltane>u s Ott\lations of the slope and. dtlkr: thm ~ m~t.hotl for tlw f.l<lflal frurn t' givr>n in Fig. 18.13. Solutton. Start lry determimng the rcact.ive momt.\nls 7l 1p , r11 anrl r 12 The .P deve]<Jped by tho imagilwry c.onstrniut uppu, ng 1.l1e roln tnnrti vo mlmHmt .ll 1
,j~t-l153

13t0

Slop<'- and Deftecttons. Comblued and t.fi:ud Methods

L iou o~ J~J~t 1 :~nd due ~o the applied lo11ds wilJ be obtained isolating tl11.t e.lorcsmd jQtnt nod assummg that tbe system is subjected solely t o the netion

(;; v ~t
(a)

'h 8

Extended fibres
fa)
/
/

1--~'['
'0
I,[J

r,

I 0 / ~ af ~

'

h
(b)
(C)

~Q:"~/,
ill

:P
hi
o'J

'

'

I
1

I I
I

r11
I
I

I
I

(C)
J'ig. 21.18

Fig. 22. 1iJ.

of l flnl<~ P (~tnto PI ( F igs. 20.1a11 and 2Ll3a). Tho o.Jnilihl'iun:o -ol jrwt 1 r<.,~ q u ire.. ~ liHtt

wh<:'l'('frow

z, in a clockwise dircetion will be dorivod from the oquilihri um cqnntiun of 1-hn

The rouc. ~i vc worrwnt rll nl the ~ame joint dltc to its own u n it rotntioa

~aid joint corresponding to tho cn!itl und er cousiclcraUon (!'>tutc' I, FiiJS. 20.1 ::\1;

!i.J;J. Stnlir.a l ,l;fcthod of /Jr-trrminin;: thr. Cncf(ictcnts tn Unlmoums

Gl f

ami 2U3b)

whenfrom
ru=--y-+~;

SEJ

4EJ

As for the rcac-Li VE' moment r 12 d&vCllopod by tho same cons traint whon joint 2 sbiit" toward s thtl right over n distanc-e Z:z = 1. its voh~e will be obtained from tho oquilibriurn oquat.ion of jointl p..rlnlning to state 11 ( Figs. 20. t3e nnd 21.13c)
r12 -

-liZ

GJ!J

Next compu to tltt' reactive forces Rz,p. r21 and r22 d~vcl oped by the Imaginary support opposing the dofiPCtiiJn or joint 2. The reaction Rzr due to the act'ual loadR will be found passing section I-I which isollltes the upper part of the s tructure (Figs. 20.18a and 22 .13o:). Tlu~ projec-ti on of all the forces appli cl~ to tllis portion on the horhlont.al givos

'LX=P+R2 11 - : =0
p

Rzp = -zThe Ul'!Plivl' valuo fou nd for this 1eactivo force indicates that it is opposite in diroc t.Jon to tho deflec tion of joint 2 which was assumed to move from left to right. Tht ronctivf.' force r 21 cort'espondiog Lo stato I will he again obtained pos~ing section 1 -I u~ indlc.at~:>d in Fig. 22.13b ani! projN~ Ling all tho forces on the luJrizontal whence
-'4

' 'X == 6EJ II.~ 7

r21 =

'~t -

-Jij:

6EJ

1t will be observod that r 21 = r1 2 '!'his relat.ion existing between two ooconI'OIIction.~ is similnr in aU respects to the relation exis ting bet.woon two I'OCOntlary di::<JJiacemonls of the m uth od of forces (~m.n = ~nm); proof nf the 11lwve will bP. gi\' Nl in Art. 6.1ii. The reactive lorce r 22 will be obtaint>d pa..."SiJ1g S<>ct.ion 1 1 as in Fig. 2:!. t 3e and assum in~:t that the stresses in the syslom of redundant bMms are d~e solely lo tho unit deflection of joint 2 (st.a te J 1). Projecting nil t.he forces on the z-uis Wl\ obtain

dary

whorefnnu

lll2

Swpe and Uefl'-ttons. Combined and M i:red ilfdhodr

Vic have thus ohtained the values of all the coofficionts to the unknowns and of all the free terms ~nteriug the syst.em o[ simult.alttlolls equations. Tho method 11scd f:or the determination of these values will be called hereafter the static method.

!U3.

DET E RMINATIO N 01<' TH.E COE FFICIENTS T O T HR

U?\KNOWNS AND OF THI:: FREE TERMS BY TilE METHOD

OF GT\APH llfULTJPLlCATlON

Tn a large number of cases the reactive moments and !orcos developtld tho imaginary constrain!~ will bo easily obtained multip lying- one by tbc otlwr the corn... '!pondi ng bending rnotnent ~raphs.

uy

Fig. 29.19

This method could be used ad van Lngeously for tbe analysis of the structure shown in Fig. 23.13. The use of the static method would

\
\

\
I

F ig 2-/.1!:1

loacl to c-er-tain complications for in the rase under c.on:;ide1 ation the proj<'ctions on tho x-nxis would c.ontain both shearing forces and normn I sLrcsse:-;. Let us c-onsid<:'r two clifferent unit state!'! n and m of an arbitrary conjugate system of redundant hoams (Fig. 24.13). The work Anm

t;. J3. Dettrmlnatiorl of Lite

Coejfic~nts

to the Fnkno1Nu

r>13

performed by the external loads of state n along the displacements oi stute m may he expressed in terms of the bending moments using expression (12.8) given in Art. 4.8. A ~ (' MmM1,ds
Mll

rnw . 1

= t:.J J

BJ

wherefrom

The theorem of rocipnwa.l works stating t.hat the wor.k produced by the loads of s late n along the displaccment.s of state m is eqnal to the wor.k accomplished by the lontls of sl:nle m along the displacem(>nl~ of state n, wo may write
Anm=Amn

but and therefore

Tnm

= rmn.

T h is theorem called the theorem of rectprocal reactions can be formulated as follows: the reactive force due to a unit displacement of constraint m along the direction n equals the reactive force fnduced by

the unit displacement of constraint n along the direction m.

Problem. Dctt1rrnino. the c.oe(licionts t o tlt<! unknowns r 12 and rzz for tllo portal frame of Fig. :t0.13. Solution. Thl1 mulliplication of the :f11 gra ph by the il-fz graph leads to
112 -

. -- :r, ~ ,;;:[,i1f2 ds = ...!!:...._ [ 2 ( _ 6EJ

JSJ

6EJ

h'l. X T

2/JJ _ f>EJ

h2 X

4EJ) h

X 4EJ -1- 6/U X 2F./] = _ 6/U + 13/U 7 h h2 h h:

which coincides Mactly with the value obtained in Art. 5.13 using the statical roothod. Tho main uniL reacti011 r 22 will bo ohtaincd ruising t.ho Jl:. graph to Lhe second power
r:2
=

"-' .)

~ ~ Mfds= h [ 2 (36(F.:J)2
EJ

ifEJ

h4

X-

, _ S6 (E /)2)]+
h4

+ h2 X 2 X :i X fi'! =

h3EJ

31?1

t5EJ
---;i'.l

It is ~en that this value coincides again with lhe one obtained previously.

Tho reactions duo Lo the ap plied loads may he obtained considering two different states of the conjugate s ys tem of redundant beams, Lhe

614

Slope rmd De{let:tlo rls. Cumbmed and Mtxed Methods

first of these states corresponding to the application of the actual loads and th o other being some unit state, say, state n of r'ig. 25.1 3.

Flg. 2.'i.l

Pig. 26.19

The work accomplished hy t he L uads of state P along the displacements of state n is given by
Apn

=P6 1,n -1- Rnp' t

At the same t ime the work nccomplished by the external forc.es of state n along the displacements of state P equals Ar. p=O Tho theorem of rec iprocal works states Lhat
Apn = A np

and therefore

Rnp= -Popn
In this expression Sp,. is the rleflection of thl' load point in n along the directiou of the load P. If P = 1 tho above expression becomes r 111 -8pn (().13) The latter expression establishes the relation between the unit reactions and the corresponding unit displacements. The value of 8p, will be obtained using the bending moment diagram corresponding to a beam built in at its right-haJtd extremity and supporting one wncentrated lond P 1 acting along the direction of the desired deflection (see Articles 6.8 and 8.8). T his diagrnm denoted hereafter by M~ is given in F ig. 25.13c.
~tate

,=

--~-l~~-__l)}_err:_ttnnliorz

of

fi~/'. Cot.fficfr.nl$

to thr T.:nkno>rn<

6-J!\

Mult.iplying this diagram by that for Nl,. we obtain

$);

Vpn

='<'\vM,ds
"-'.)1p

El

Introducing thl valuf?t of <~pn thus found in the expri~-<:!Sion ror l'ca<:tion R,.i' we finrl
P">' \ , ., .'lcl,.ds ' 1l"L' = - - ~ lr1P E l

to

which, after simpliJicaLion nud replacement of Pll-1: 1, hy il.f;., le:Hls

_ R np-

,~ \ , M;, ds _..., j 1n E T

(7.13)

ln the laucr expression ;1{~ stands for the ordinatos to tho d.iagram of tho bending moments produced by tho load Pin any simple statically ileterminaLc s tructure obtained by the elimination of red11ndant constraints either of the given st.rueture or of the conjugal;o sy~tem of rf'dundant beams, providod the constraints whose L 'f'a('tion.s are dcsiled are included in t.hostl eliminated . Thus, in order t.o find t he reac.Lion of: the nth coJJstmint du ~;~ to Lhe applied loads we shoul d multipl y the area of the bending moment clt<tgram due to 1.he same loads applied to a st:ltically determinate slrnclure (derived either from tho given stnu~. ture or from t.he conjugaLe systom of redundant beams, provided the nth constraint is among those climirHtted) by the bending 10omcnt. diagram M,, due .to the unit d ispl.acernent of the nth constraint in tho system of rodundaut b()arns. The sign of the product obtaine-d ns described al1ove will he thereafter chQ.nged to the oppoi$ite one.
f l'au) ll a1111lyzed in Art. 5.13. SQluti< n. The conjugato sirnple

Problem. Uequ.i red the re3ctions R 1p and R 2p at the supports of the porLal ,

structure and the graph relnted to thi$ st.ntct.11re aro giHHI in Fig. Z6.1a. Mnlliplying this graph by that for ~lf 1 (l!ce
l-' ig. 21). 1;1/>) we ohtain

Mr

, , M1 ds __ -~ qlZ _!_ 11 tp = _ -V" \ j Jlro EJ 3 X 8 X EJ X 1 3EJ 1

Sillliln rly H 2

X2 X-l-+2 XzXzX2X&Jh = -g+T

M2
tls

Ph

2E J

qlZ

Ph

gruph s (sec 1:' ig.

r.

wil! J~e obtain('d by Llw multiplica\i()ll ,,[ the M~ by t.lw

:w. l ;.lc)
\

fl2p= -~

J l'f-/rM2 EJ= -Z. 2 '2" EJ" 3"Ji:.!= -:f

u ~ing

,_

Ph

6E.J

f>

'l'hes(.> rmmlts coinr..ide ex.actly with those ohtainod in Art. 5.1:{ s ta lie m<'thod.

t.h<

!l UI

Swpt and Otflerltons. Combl nttl and /ofi.:l.;ed Mtthotl.<

7 .1 :3. CHECI<.LNG THE COEI<'PJ GIENTS TO THE UXKNOWNS AND THE FHEE TERMS PERTAINING TO THF: S!MULT.i\1.\EOIJS EQUATIONS OF '!'HI!~ SLOPE AND DEl~LEC'l'lONS METHOD

Chock on t he coefficienLs to the unknowns entering the sysl.em o[ equations used in the s lope and deflections method is quite s imilar to the one described in Art. 5.12. On o !!ltould begin with the t.on ~ tru ctiou of the bending moment diagram M. obtained by U1e algebraic summa Lion of all the ol'd iunles to the unit gtapbs pertain i 11!-\ lo Lhe c.onjugale system of redundant beams
i=n

M ,= Mr+Mz+ + Mn =

~ M;

i -1

This graph when multiplied by each of the unit graphs will give lho values of tho algebraic sums of the coeffrcients to th( unk rwwns b1.1longing to each equation. Thus, t ho product of: the M., gntph by tho lJ, graph equals

= r u +r,ll -r .

+ r 1n

= ~ T1i
i=t

The sum of coefficients r2 $ = ~r21 will be obtainE~d iu l'xncLly the same way. Consequently , the sum of all the coeflicients to Uro unlcnnwns of any equation (say. Eq. i) must equal given by

r,.

Tj

.:.:: ~

~ MIM EJ
ds

- -

(8 .t 3)

Thus, if we wish to check tho values of all the unit roactions (coef:fu: ients to the unknowns} entering the Jirst of tho equations of the slope and deflections method we must compare the sum of these reactions with the vnlno of r18
i=n

i =l

~ r" = ru

(H.13}

OLhec uni t r.ouclions entering other equations will bo checked in exactly the same way. The above proc.odurc perrni ts to c.heck

7.13.

Ch ~>cking

th.r. C<>e/ficients to tile Unknowns and tl1e

Fr~f

1'crm.<

til?

separately the COC'fficiC'nts enl('ring each of the equations. ft is equall y possible to ch eck simultaneously nll lho coefficients eutel'ing a ll thr equnl,ion!). Indeed if we rnise to the SC'cond power th e ;'W. grupJ1 we obt1in _ ,, ~ Mjds _ ,, ~ (M1+M2 ..!... ... +MnlZds _
Tn -- .t.;~

EJ -.t... ,) M

JU

~ ( Y ~ ::W~ ds + '>'

.., J

- .)

1l1~ d! .L
EJ
I

-1- ,, ~ M~ ds)
.:.. .)

E.!

...L

(I.{' .)

M1Xizds -IJiJ

...

_ I. {' Ii2Tt,.ds
I '

EJ

+ . . . } -~

= (rll + r 1z + ... -:- r nn) -1- 2 (r 1z -'- ... + T:n + ... }= I.r
The reactions contained in the f1rsL term in parentho!>os of tlw above (\XprC'..SSions are the principal ones situated along the ma i n diagoual, while:> the second torm in parentheses contains nll the secondary reactions situated below or above tlds main di ugo unl. It is apparent that the square of tho M8 graph equals the algobl'ni c s um of all the unit rlactions (coefflcienLs to the unknowns) COl ltnined in ol.l the s imultaneous equations of the given system, i. c. (10.13) ~r = r,,

wh're

r,# = ~ ~ M! :~
The \lalue_.; of Lhe free t.(Jrms may be checked computing

(11.13)

- ~ {' Ji.H~ds
.)

EJ

(12.'13) .

that is, multiplying the ilf;, diagram by the 1 lf8 diagram. h will 110 romombered that }lilY, is the bending moment induced by the npplietl loads in the members of n simple staticnlly detel'minot:c structure corresponding to t.lto rodundaut structure under consideration. The product obtained as explained above must be equal to t.ltc algebraic; sum of all the free terms of the simultaneous C(fllnt ions
[(

P - -

~ ~ \M1 +1f2+

.)

... + ~ii,) M~dt _

EJ -

= -(~ ~
thai. is

M,M ~ds

El

+ .., ~

"" .)

M2Mi,ds 81

..

+~ ~ Mn;jus ) =Rip+RllP+ . .. + H,. 1,.

{1:1.1 3)1

8. 13. CONSTRUCTION

o THE .1f,

N, AND Q DIAGRA~fS

Whcu the system of simulta neous equations deri ved from the ..;;fo pe a ncl denections rncLhod is solved, in other worc1s, when the nn,Ld o<~ of twist nnd Ute doflcclions of all the joints of tho given n1dundan L structure aro known, one can proceed with tho cons Lruct.ion o.f ull thij stres~ diagrnms pertaining to this structure. T lw onJinate.<; to the rosu l ting bonding moment grn plt M will IH) ohlniucd by tile summation of the ordinates to the Jlr fp ding1.nm willt l,boso lo the unit diagrams , nll the lnttor being prtlviou.sly multiplied by lhe mngniLudo of the unknowns jusL determined

M = Mp+ M ,Z, + M,Z!+ . .. + MnZn

(14 .1 3)

T ho dingl'ltnl thus obtained may be chocked us ing one of Lhe procollurcs described in Art 6.9. lt is worth noting that the con t rol o f l ho cqnilibriam of moments ac.ting at each of the joints be<:omes parlknlarly significant for in the consttuction of all the bending monwnt cli11grams used i n expression (14.13) no referenee was made to t lw ~uid equilibrium condition. If tlw bending moments at one of th e joints do not balanc.e, this menns that some error hits hcon commiUod in c.omputing t,he values of one or more unknowns. The s hear diagram Q is derived from the bending moment diagra m jusl as in Lhc method of forces . The normal stresses may be compu L<>d Ut<:ronfl cr. Tho shear and normal s tress diagrams will l> e chocked as tiL '.'K'r i lJcd in Art. 6.9. Hero tho equilibri um of difiorcnt poltions o t hl' slruc t n t'l' under eonsiden tion bcc.o mrs of partku la r i rn porta nr e.
!U J. CO \it' UTATION OF THHi\JAL STRAIXS flY TH8 S LOPE
A ~ D nr ~FLIL CTIO ;'\S

MWl'HOO

We ltuvo seen previously that a change in temperature e ntai ls liSllally t ho oevelopment of s tresses in red Lmdant strnc LUt'OS. Only
in a rew pnrticulnr <~ases temperature ch anges have no effect on s uch structu res as, ror example, in the case of a rec.tangular frame rc prcscntcd i n Fig. 27 .13. This frame is e xtorually s tatically rloliorminato and Llterefore it can expand or retrac t freely in case a uni!orm chnugc i n temperature of all its me mbers, without any s tresses arisi ng in nny of the latter. Let 11S show that temperature eff ects can be always re:-;olved into -symmcl rical Md a n tisymme trical components. Ass ume tha t bnr AB o[ Fig. 28.13a is of uniform c.ros.<; section and that ~he tomperatlll'l' on its tpper surfnr..c is rttised by n11d on the loW(It on e by "ith t 1 ;.> t 2 'rho effect of this difference in t-emperature is equi vaft,nL to th ~: ~:~ imtll l arlf:'OWl chn uge o[ temperatu re equal to 1 /2 (t. t2) 1 -

or

t;

t;

9.19. \ omputation of Thermal Strains

li19

on both surfaces (symmetrical components, Fig. 28.13b) c.ornbined

wiLh changes of te mperature equal to

+ j. (t

1 -

t 2) on the upper

surfnco and to - {- (t1 - t 2 ) on the lower sul'face (antisymmctrical components, Fig. ~8 . 13c). I t is c.lear that the combination of these
dl'

0 t, ~+-J--- ---- - -- ~t1

r-- ----- ~---- - --,

'
I
I

'I

' : I
I

~,.._--.~......-_..,_ _ -+

Fig. 2713
chang~s

will result in the specified temperature change on each of the two faces

.nncl

nc

tt+tz_ tt-tz = t. 2 2 turning to expression (20.8)

lt+~n lt - 12n u,., =a 2 - ~N +a - h - ~J,i
A

We note that syntmetrical actions will IC!ad to nomta l lotra ius on ly wi th out bonding of tl1e bar because the differonc~ (t. 1- t 2) !'Ouuces in t.ha L cas!:' to zero A lt + t2r'"t lt + 12 l
u nt

=a -

hecausc

Q jV

neutral nxis of lhc bar is not situnted at midheight tho cro..o;s t t 1 -1 2 socii on, - 1 - 2 should be replaced by 12 v whoro y I S the dntancc tn Ll10 2 neu tral axis of the fibro whoso temperature has been raised by 1~.

+ If the

= 1l (l<' ig. 29.13a). *

2-

~'N

=a-

+t

+- , -

or

(j2Q

Slope and Ddluli0116.

Combin~d

and

Mi;&~d

M ethods

On the other hand, when the bar is acted upon by antisyJnmctrical c.orn ponents only, it will bend without any change in Lhe length of its neutral axis. Tho angular rotation between the two end facos of this bar will equaf
11-t2Q 11-12 ~nt =- <X - , .- . M=IX. - h- l

hcca nsc Q:l{ = l (Fig. 2!U.3b).* Consequently. fixed ond bars which constitllt.e all the members of a c.onjugato system of redundant beams will ex.pand or contract

1 111111111111111111111 [111111-t

Fig. 29.J.'f

without bonding when t hey are suhjected to a symmet1 ical thermal effect and will bend without changing their length wh('n tlu~ thermal effect is antisym motrical. The corresponding bending moment graphs may be found in T nbl o 2.13 (lineH r) 11nd 10). The only difrercuce between tho analysis of red11nd:mt structures ca rrying direct loads and those subjected to a temperature ch ange resides in the construction of the diagrams for the bending moments M 1 induced in tbe member$ of the conjugate syRtcm of redundant.
This oxprcssion is

indcpf}rHI,~nt

of the position of Lho neutl'nl axis.

_ _ __ _ _ __ !J_ .J _iJ.

Computati<~

of Tlurm(l/

._~t_,._l_<ll _ s _ __

G21

.boa ms a nd iu the dolcrmination of the freo lerms of the oquotions (tbeso being denoted in that case by Rt 1 B 21 , etc., and reprtJsen ling the reactions of tho imnginaty constrairHs due to the t C'm pc1nture chauge).
l'roblem. ficquiretl tho cowpleh stress analysis uf t.he n onqytometrica l frame shown in Fig. 30.1:io subjoctetl loa tcm pl'raw ro rhnnge. ;\ll \ he t'hIIIOnls of this {carne arc con~tnnt c ro;JS section with ailoxural rigidi t y l'!JUill 1.<1 EJ.

or

tJ

=!..L,;!.;. '

(i)
G t vcn
~ln~tt.. r.~

S;,....rne :n ~ '"tll

l~

!:

tr.e.--.,ai. 9ryu,~'"t

t lo=~t
b~ermcl

C.:..t. V

jtJ t

~"U..~'T11!!tlnctt:

J
{0 1

yrod, q..,
(C)

Fig.

30.1.~

Solrtton. The tcmpernturo increll!ent twill he resolvC>d into two comroncnt:;one symmetrica l nnl equal to a uniform hMting of all tho elllmont~ t' ~ l t t t:! an d tho other antisymmC>tricul t*. Tho rutmbor of unknov.-ns for the con j11gato :sytcm of redu nrlant J1aams given in Fig. 31.13 will equal two.

3
Pi~.

Pig 91.19

32. 1.1

The simull.ancous cquntrons becomo

Z1ru f- Z2rrz ~- Rtt +Rit-

Zrr2t + Z2r2z + li2t l H~ t == ll

1122

Slope tmd Deflections. Combined catd. ~~-i:red ~'Jifplh-'o-'d-'-----

Th(> co(lfftcicnts to tho unknown ~ will he calculatc.J in tl;):nctly tho satOe w:ty as i[ tho structure wero subjected to a systt>m of loads. Each of the .free terms will consist of two reactions R' and R", the first corr0spomling to the symmetrical component and tho second to t.lw antisymmetrical one. The rcnctivt> mont('nt Rt't devl'lopod by t.he imaginary constraint at joint 1 and the reaclivo orcc 1/ it tlevelopcd at t!to imagin:tr-y support will be det(lrmine-tl U."<ing the Mt di:lgram pertaining to t.he system of redundant beams and du() to n ullifor-m c.ltango in tempernturo or all the frame mem hers. Let ns first r a1r..ulate the extension of 11ll these elements duo to a raisl' in tl'IDI't;rnt.ure equal to t' neglec.ting as usual t.he influence of the direct stre~&'li.

&EJ hfLltQ
J

Ftg. 33.1H It will be remembered that tho ant.isymmf.\trical com ponents t" leatl to no cl1ango whatsoever in the length of the bnrs. Tho ox tension uf rueu1ber.s 0-1, 2-3 and 1-2 will thoreforo he given by Ll. 1 = at' h1 : 6. 2 = rx t' h2 ; Lla = at' l

l'l~~rcct.ively {at

t' = t 1

t tz).

Tlw position of all tho joints of tho conjog:Ht' sy~>tl'm o[ h1lams nfter A nnifl)rm:'c hango in temperature is indicated in d<lt.t(;'d lints in Fig. 32.13. It is t~Mily ~eon t.ltnt the relat1ve defiections of lho joi.JJts will equal

Ato=t!.3=a.t'l
tl2f = Ll.z-tlt=at' (hz-h!); ~Z3=0 It is also cl<'nr tlwt. joint 1 of the conjugate syst<:m will sustain no angular rotation, and tl.tereror(l tltt> hcndil1g mcment.s inrlu<:ell b-y t.htl displa.:em.:nts oE tht' joints may h<> oht.ninlld wult.iplymg tho bending ntotmmts duo to unit doOootions (l!co l ine~ 4 and 9 of TaiJle 2.13) by the values of the deflections indicated above. The corresponding diagram together with the valt1es of 'it!; pMtinont ordinates is shown in Fig. 3:1.13. The r!laction Rt't (FJg. iH.13a) will Ito obtained isol ating joint 1

, 6EJ 3EJ l:M 1 =RJt-yt.,0 -!i" tl21=0

I

whllrdro) tn

_ __ __ __ _: 9 ;._ .1~3 ' :........:C~o:..:. ~ rn;..::J~7U~talion oj Therm al S train$

Ail for tho reo.ctiLlu n2t Wig. ll3.13), its vahw will ho found passing:S,!:tiou 1-1 and proJecting on tho hori:~;OJltttl :dl thtl I orccs ucting <>II t bat p111'l-iun

~).JU ( fr
\_.A

R~t

yr
{())

""1/l t:.,o 1
(d}

fl[J

F tg. 34.13
~,, r

tlto frarrw s tt uutt'd ahovtl t!Hl section (Fig. 34.13b). , 12EJ , 1 X=);i! Aw-l Rz, - 0
1

wlcN'f rom

12EJ llu = -~ ..\10

Knowing tho d1op in tPmperature A1 = t 1 -

l\cxL lvt

u~

examine the effect producE!d by the ant.isymmot.l'i cul cHm poneJJlo;. t 2 hetw~on the lnnor 1md ouhr" 1

}'1;:. 95.13
surfaces of cad, clement as well as tho depth of their cross S()()tion k we may easily oh t.:1in t he < liagmm for Mi (Fig. 35.13) using linos 5 <~n<l 10 of 1'ablc 2.1 :.~. 'l'he ord inates to thi!l diagr8m will bl' ~~et off as usuel on tho side of t.ho cxtendoo flh rns or, in other words, on the low temperature si de. 'fhe equUlbrlum of j oint lJ (Fig. 3G. t3a) giveS

:EMt = Rit , EJat:, t-~=0

2h

1\2!

_ _.lOJ_~ and /)t{ll't:lions. Combined

111111

ilHxeJ i\1t'tlwrl11

lltt =~

..

li:Ja!H

l'assnl g S(ICLIIJII 1-1 and prJictt ug oue~: uga iu all thl C uret'! mti ng 011 th o Up()\' r (Jf>rtion of tho frame on the hortzontal (.l'ig. 3ti.13b) We llnol

"''
rrolfll'~l ,

-yo'( =R7

2t

_ 3HJaj.t = . . 2hf'-2 U,

R; = 31\Jc.tlt .I 21th~

When :dl the C(leflkinuts to tile> unkno\\-nS au([ all the f r't'll term~ Rrc tl< t('rwt may (J rfiC.N>d wiUt lh(l solution of lh(' .simultan~><m5 N(U.tti rm~ which ,,iJl yHItl tl w va luul' <f tho uol. uown anglt>.s o twist and dt>OO<'tion'> o the j(Jiut.s.

rtr-,y~~.,
-h -

Rjl.

v fJatl t
(a)
fig. .16.19

JL.l a tJt

2hhz
(b)

Thl' rc:wlling bending momruls acting ot J ilicrcnt e.roJ-S ~tion~ u[ t.he -given redundant struclum may lber!'aftcr be ealculnteJ using tho l'Xpr{'.s.~ion

M=Mi +Mi f-M1Z1+ .W2Za+ Tho lwndlllg mom('nt diagram b~o>ing kMwn. we may p r'ciCO(IU as usual with th<l <'C>lll:lr'IICI.i<>n of tho .!!lwur diagr;\m nnd 1\oolly w"ith thaL fo1 th(l nOI'JnD.I
s trr". ~rs.

10.13. ANALYSIS Ofl SYc\fMWl'lli CAL STRt:C;'l ' l-l\S

Tho llnalysis of symmel.l'ica l slrnc:turt-s mny be. l'aeilitnled if Lite unk no wns arc grouped Lo~othcr in a mnnttor similar l<'l llw om .r scd in the method of: forc,os. This procodoro all ow!> Lo obtaill syrnmclrical or autisymmetl'icnl unit. diagrams, which leads to n subdivision of simultaneous equations inlo two iudrpcndent groups. one c-ontaining onl y tho symmetrical unknowns and t.hc other t he nntisymmetl'ical oues. A s ubstantial simpliftcal-ion of a ll the compul.n lions may ho nchiovod thorolry. As an exa mple l.nkc np the double-span frrA me of Fig. 3i.13. Tho auglo o twist of joint n. may he regnrdNI os coru;i:;Ling of the MUll of two uuknown angles Z1 and Z 2 and the nnglr of twist of joint b as Cons isting of t he dtfTCI'f.\ll CC of the samr angles Z 1 AIH! Z2 (Fig. 38.1 3). T he horizontal d ispln('('mont of tho <'l'Ossbea m may be regnrcled aR nntisymmoLrical l"ot joint l (sec Fil{. 37.1H) moves nwny hom the

H25

axis of sy mm etry while joint a moves towards the same axis ovo1 t.he sa mo distance. In this case the system of three si multaneous oqua/ IIIH.f'C 1111 1111111

l
f.J=Const

"
i-'-n 'p
?')~

1) ,

Fig. 87.13

tions with three unknowns

Z 1r 11 + Z'!rt2 + Z3r13 +1l 1q= 0 Z1 r 21 +Z:r 22 + Z3r 2 3+R2q = 0

Z 1r 31 + Z 2 r3 ~+Z3r3 3+Rsq = C

ralJS

IIIlO ~ two i ndepcndco t groupS

Z 1r 11 + Z 3r 13 + R 1q = 0 Z 1r 31 Z3 r 33 R3q = 0

and
heeause

z,_.. _ a--

Fig. 98.1il

'/'he benui ng moment diagrams duo to the group~ of un it reactions arc represented in Fig. 39.13. The coefllcient.s to the unknowns as we!l as the free terms of the above equations will ])c obtaiucd as
40- 85:1

'ull
'"~

2[]

Fig. 39.19

10.1.~.

Analysis <f Symmetrical Structures

627

follows

ru = h
2 -

4HJ

I -l--=- l

3EJ

3&/
ll

+II
h

4&/

-zl 12F:J

lloHJ

r _ 'JEJ
h

+ 3HJ + 3EJ -t- loEJ ~ 14/

-Ji?:-/iZ" =
= 11'1---z:;--27/U
'17EJ

r ,:J -

~"a"-

GEJ

ORJ

- ~~-

1"33

h hcillg t!qual to l

R!J)=--s-

ql2

Rzp=- if

ql 2

[{3,=0

Fig. 40.1:i re.pnsent.s a pot.al rtame. loaded hy one. single. c.oncentl'ated force, the conjuga te system of redundant beams as well as the
P
- l-

GU

z, ~ r

4[J

71

I,[J

71

~Pl
1'.ePl

Fig. 40.18

ij28

Slow: a.rtd Ue.[lcction. Cvmbl11erl und ,l! i.Led lVf ~thotls

- - - - - -- - - - -- -

bending morrwnt diagrams induced .in the latter by tl1 e sym metrlcnl. 1111d antisylllmet.rical groups of unit reactions and by Lhe app'liecl loads. The readtH' is invited to check both the diagrams and tlte reactions (c.oe[ftcicnts to the 11nlmowns and free t erms of l.he sirnnl lntw<>us equations) given horcundcr
ru= - ,20.t:J
r~z

12EJ - l-

r,a = TJr =-~

12E.r

r3a = ~

24./iJ
--~Hi
~

Rp=

Pt

f t :13. M~ EXAMPLE O.F' Ffli\i\Ui: ANALYSJS l:JY THE SLOPE

AND DEFLECTIONS 1\IETl'IOD Assume ~h;~t it is required t.o c<_>n~t.ruc.t the IH~nding m oment ,. the s!Jo..riug and nunnal s lJe~gos dragrnms fo> tl>t framl'd structure shown rn Fig. 41 . 1:~ . Tlt1~ :;ystetn (\ f l uads, the longth of tho Jlwlllhi.II'S a11d Lho ratit)~ hotW(I(m (.luir lllOIOt>nl;. of in.:ortia an all indicatc1l in t.hl ~nm c llguru.
( t)rt\()5

f
21

If. Om
Fig. fl . 1:1

1. Com tJI rtson of the uum.b<'r of u nlmowns tn. th.-. slope and dejle_ ctions method with tha t in the me.th.od of forces. The degrl'c ollNlun>luncy of tho gtvon sttuctur~ being equal t,,, i = 2 X 3 - l = 5, the numJ1er c,f the unknowns in tht- method of forces would bo equally fivo. Tho number of unknown aJl!llt's o twi.~t n 1 = a and thl' mJJnher of irult>pondent unkrwwn dllflections equals 001.> nud thereforo the total mnnlu)r of rmlmowns in tho slope and <lllflec.ti<ms mct.hod wi ll <!<jnul n, ..L I 3 = .t,. H(!nc o using the JattAlr method we s hall t'<Hlnre t h.' rnuubN or ~it\n>l tnncous equation:;; flom 5 to 4. 2. Choice n.t the conjugate sys tm~. Let u~.; intl'oHluce three imaginar y con~traints opposing Lh e rotation of thl' rigid joints of t.he frame nnd 1mo imngiM ry support Jl!'cventing thG tlispla~.j)mo~t of joint. 1 as inditatl'd in Fig. 42. 1 :~. 'l'ho throo unknown angh)S of twrst w1ll b., clcslgllllWll by Z1 Z 2 and z , lnHI tho unknown d~flcction hy Z~- T ho conjugato systom or rrd nnllant lliHIIDS wiH consist in thnt caso of four hoams flx~d nt hoth l\lld~ t11Hl o f unl" heam fl xl!d at ono end only an<l s imply supported at the ot.hcr.

n, '

11.19. An Example of Frame. Analysis for thr. conjugate system.. The of the sy!:\tcm l>f s im ul tnnenus equatiou:> will ho derived from the bending moment dingnnns indu<~ld hot.h hy tbe applied Joads and by tho unit reactions in nil tho mombors o( thE! <;onjugate s t.ruct1rc. 'fhcse diagtam8 are rt'prt\501\tcd in Fig. lt3.1H. *
~p

:~ . Const ruction o.f /tending m.omwt diag rams c.oe.flici~nts t.o tho unknowns 11nd t.hc free terms

z3

5 . Checkt11~ th e ,_,altus obtained f or accttmcy. The ac.curacy of th~ coefficients to tlw unknown~ and of 1 -he fret' tc.>rms obtained as described alJOvo will be c.hec.lced using tho M$ di,\grarn (Fig. -14.13'1 obtained through tho summnt.ion of the ordinates to Lhe four l.urit diagram~ show11 in Fig. 43.13. Haising tlul al'ca of the :iff8 cl iagram to t.ho s('cond power l!:oe expres~ion (11.13)] wo obtain
r$s

fo . Ca lculation of the coejficien.tx to th~ u n.kno1~'ns and Clf the .free terms. All lhl m~r..<lSSary opmations are carriecl out in whulnr form as indka t.Nl hereunder.

,.., ,, (' -;-2 ~= ._ .) .U, l?J .

[.i (E J)2 . ~.J.. 5 (EJ)Z .. () EJ :/. X 3 X 3 ' fiX 2.5Jtf .. <

!i
2

(2X32+2x3z -2x:~z) + 4 ~!~) (2 x ~x ~ +

S 3 ) 6 (EJ)2 ( 5 5 -z x 2 x 2 -1- fiEJ 2XGX1f+
--

3 :-l +2x 2 x 2

_:_ , .!__ ? .!!._ .!.) zx .!_ 2 x 2 -X 6 x 2

< quais l:r= 711

?]-

116EJ _

8 -12\fE/

On t.hc othor hnnd , tho s um o( all Lhe coeffic-ients gi 11on in Tab le 3. t3

+ '22 + raa + r,,4 -i- 2 (r12+ 'ta+ ~"~~o + r2.1-i' rzr, + 'a4) = . u 5 2) ( 1 1 1 1) =EJ ( .J+ 3 +3+11 + 2EJ 1 -l, O+;r --~z-+ lf+s =
= 116EJ - - 'I?!_ E J !I ... - ()
J

T ho com pu i son of tlw t<1tal thu~ ohtai nod with the rcl'l.llt. ur graph mult-iplication shows that th ey coi nc~ ide and consoquently cond itio n !10.1 31 1s !<1\ti'lfir.d .

and all th e distauc.os arc~ mt>n~mcd in 1netm~.

In thi~ example the values o[ all l oads aud reactions lll'l' l!'iVNl in tons

.... .... ~I""'

~I"'

:;)
II

E ....

~~~

"'"""
II

1>1

~~~
~J<o

" "'~

-foo

... ....
~

..;
'lo

" ~
:;)
~..,:
II

...

t<.

....

to

,.,

II

...
II

~~-~~..,
II

::31">

~~....
~

~~~ ~i.e:

~~

" " ~I-t:

">"S .... ,..

~I""'
"

"' II

~....
~~ ...
II

II

~, ...

ll.UI. An Example of Frame - -- _______ __,;_....::..::.--='-'-"..-=.._.:..._ __

Analysis 631 --"----"--------==-

Lot us proceed \"ith a ch~ck on the accutucy of tho fee t()t'lll~. I'or tll is purpose we shall constl'uct theM; <1iagram whose ordinates reprcsonl tho l.i~nd-

Fig. 41.. 1/J

ing moments ind11c<:<l hy tho gi,on lol!ds in a simplo s lutically rletetminata struct.ure obtained by elimination of all tho redundant l'QIH}tions. This diugram

~qn,Z+P h = ?f'~ 8o=S7tm

Pig. 4.5.13

On tho othl' t' hand, tho Slun of all the frr)c terms gi''cn in T1tblc 3.1 :-1 l.lquals ~R =R 1 p Tl2p + Rap + R4p = 2.25 + 0 +0 + -11.75 = 14.00 The coincidence of the two results shows that condition (13.131 is ."<otislled whic.h means t.hat the c.oulpttt.ations aro correct.

wh~rcfrom

R 8 p=14.

rea~-

Unit

lions

c.o oo Jurate syst"m l08<Ifd br rcllction UIICICr cousld tralfon

1'nblt. 9.13
Rqu ilil.riooot t>quaUou

SJ.:etcb o r jo in t or J >Or-1 tiooo or s truct ure "lllcb mus t ~~~ In equllllorlu m

So:~lu tio ll

or t'qUilitrium

CQ I13lil)ll

Oll l llln~CI

n sull

ru

I
0

I
a

'i'(etl/
~ {J

Iru -2 1 I r21 -

EJ =0

I 'II =-~ 2f.;J + /;.'J = 3E J I ' 2t =

I; J

I'" ,= SF.J I ' 21 = I~'J I rs, ~ O

'zt I
'at I

~ f I

'31-:[J('n-

E J =0

I
ll

lra,=O

Ir31= 0

ru I

n, r 12

?.61
r,,,/("":)lJ .
(
r~,~

- r 41

+--=0 h,
IU =0

};'/

ru = ~=--

F,J

EJ 3

I I

r" -. 3EJ

I
E J

1 r 12 -

lrt2-E/

I '2"" EJ
2/::J '
3
[:' r22 -= -1 Js -

r22

I I
I

r~

'

M
f.!
J

1
<::

~? () w(::. ..:.:.' '}'

. .. -

'22-EI -3""-2EI = 0

2El

'22 = JJ J+~,-

-1 2EJ = 111:'/
r'Z=2-

"E =[ ) _ / '.'1
l

r3l!--z-='
I -'&2T
- 3- ' T
h

Cl

EJ

I'J~..,. EJ 3

'z

-r~ !{_

2/U

J::l

--0

I 2[1 J:J EJ ('z = "IS""IiS=T

I /.'/
r,2-:11-

' sa
'23

(
rZJ ..--

ru =- 0
EJ 2 =ll EJ ,23,......2
~"a3 - -3 -+ EJ =a-

'sa = O

r~~:~

r43

M
'

lJ,

zJ:I

/ r)
.
~ 2FJ

'23 -

I
. !lEI

' 23=- 2-

I::J

1'

u(=i'{.u
3

r.~J --3

2EJ ... - EJ - 0

2EJ

I'Ja='JEJ 3' =-6 EJ

.'

lf

~
I I
'i~

2RJ

- ru+ 3 . 3

+ E/
...- 1)

743 =

Bx 6+ 3x 6= s

2EJ

EJ

F.J I 13

rt4 I
[J

~ \
Ii

/U 't~---s-=0

'24

!l~~'
f"J~C\

7 34

"'"'l Y

'" I

~ ;.

lr!.l- ~J I ~J I-r"' +u
F'.T

=0

I 3 Iru=-6'14 ...

EJ

I
I
, El 4EJ

rl4 zo - EJ 3-

EJ

Iru =-.-.
E.!
'3-1 ...

T;~.I -{J= t)

lr '""' EJ J. (j
EJ
-l..

BJ 6 2P.J

EJ
.

_J_

18'"".

'~=~18 +

2E/

i'H=-ii

+ffl= IJ

+"""1"8 = 13

I::J

1'able J.J3 (COIIliJWed )

Unit ~aC

lions

I
l

ConJ ugatc system loaded by reaction under consideration

Sk<>kh or tolnt or r.<:>r-~ t lon or structure; wlli~li mus ~ lle in equ!!i brhlm

Elqttilil.>rl um equation

Sotulion of ~quillbri onn e 1 untion

Result nl.lained

n,1,
f -~. -

,~m \.
'

_ P81

~ ' , z k~ : 9f :.~ 2. 2St

1

R 1p - --

qhr

=0

qhz 2 X 32 n lfJ - --8 '--s--

\!!,J

= 2.25 ltlJl-m('tr<'s
R2p=O

R,p= = 2.25 tonmetrl'S

R2Jt

\, '
q ZI/m

...

/1

ft.;p ~

R2p=O

Rsp

R3J>=0
p,8t

R:1p = 0

n,) ,

~,,2.2St .

-R 41,+qht-3f8qh, + + 1'=0

+P ~ z x 3 - 3/8 x

-f- qht- 3i8q/l 1 +

x 2 x ::J + 8 = 1'1.75 tons

n,p= tt.i5 t ons

11.18. An E:xamplg of Frame Analysl.s

6. Solu.tlon of the simultaneoua tqua.tions. For thu solution ui the siutulre.~ort shall be made to the abridged motbod described in Art. 6.12. Tho equatio~s negaling tho ex.i stene~ of rMeti cn~ 11f the imaginary eonstraints become in that case

taneous equations

Z 1r 11 +Z2."12+ Z3r13+Z,r,, + Ii 1p = 0 Z1r21 +Z2r2z-t- Z3r23+Z4r24 + R2p =0

Zt~"3t + Z2r32 + Z3r33+ Z4r34 + R3p = 0 Z,ru + Z2r42 + Z3r,a+Z4r4~+R4p =0

Substituting in these equations the numoric&L vnltHlS of tl11~ coefflcictll:'l t o tho unknowns and of the fr<lu terms given in Tabh' 3.13 we obtain
1 3z t + Z 2+

z47, l!e; . 25 I) =

ZI

Jt z . 1 z ' 1 z 0 2.12 3 T l f ''= +g -}z2+ i Z3 + ~ Z~=(

Tlte values indicated In parentheses at the end of each equation reprcxunt the total S of all the eoo!ficients entering tbi~ particular cqunLion. The solution of tho above equations is given In Tal>l u 4 .1!s. Gqnatlon (LV) gives

z~ =
19i
wherefr om

175,740 X 206,280 ." t t5,280EJ x 34,760 = - 118 213 x ET

19 ( 1 ) 9 80EJ

I ntroducing this ya}ue into equation (Ill) we fmd

I20 Z~ + 121) -68 .253 X ET ""' Z3 = +6 . 7t9 X 7IJ

1

l 'rocccding in the same way we find from equation (II) 10 _i T 2+2x G.719 X7fJ +18 ( -

1 1 68 . t)r.3 :; X RJ ~.., X IU ) =7,

whorcfrom

Z2= 0.:i55 X
und from equation (f)

;J
-

3~1+1 X0.355 X ;J + ~ ( -G8.25:~ X l!tl) =

where rom

11~/

Table !1.13
Equation No.

7.1

l2

Z;

7.(

I I

1\(llll.!

pli ers o.sh

(I)

(I

"a= - 1/3
13/3

"'a = O CX.t4 =

9 - 4EJ

= -1/9

r2)
{1) O:t2
( 11)

1'1/3
- 1/3

1/2

1/6

16/ 3

-1/9

I
Ctt.1""

-13/9

0 3 4EJ

10/3

1/2

1/'18

= -3!20

35

r
( (4)

I
-I

=-

o:z~ =

3 4J

1;1i0

s;a
0

if(;

( l) CX. t3

0
- 1{120

/3 0

0
I)

(])) 0:2,1

- 3/40

- 35/60

u
8(1 H/

( Ill )

Hit 120

l!l 120

a,, =
1:1 _ ,.,_TIIT

211)

120

- PJ.1EJ

..
2/\l
8/!)

47

- 41!1
1

(I)

a:"
a: a...
I

- 1/ 27
- 1/lUSO

- 13/27
35

4EJ
-1 - 80/i'J !Jx Hl 80xHil/U

+ 1(11)

- 540

l (!I!) IX3'o 1 i
( IV)

3tH
- 22 92(1

I
I

:HOxHl 120x 1!H

20(i28U

::v. 760

34 700 20ti 2130

175 740

- 15 280E J

-------------------(i)

11.13. An Ezample of Frame Analysis

~--------~----------------

6:17

The values of tho unknowus arc easily checked introducing lh<'ru into

all the simultunrous equations 3Zd -1Z2

+ ~ Z~
~

l- 2.25

dJ =3 X 6.715 ; , +
E~) +
2.25 X

+ 1 x 0.355 X ; , ,

( - G8.25:1X

E~

=0

(2)

1Zd-i; Z2+i-Z;t + {Z4 = iX6.715 ; , +

+
(3)

i;

X 0.35'5

-:b-+ ~ X
, 5z
f

6. 7t0 X

IJ~

+i- (
,,

-68.253 X EtJ) -=0

1 5

55 X y+aX lZz-r-3 3+ G \=z X 0 _.,.,

1,

1z

x 6. 7t9x ,;1
J

+-} (- ti8.25:~x } 1 ) = 0
t

3 z1 +r.Z~+(fZ3+1)Z,+t1.7:~
1 ~15 X Ill { = 3 Xr l, /
1

- 1

Bl =

1 + 6XIJ. i - 3c i + trX). 0 719 )( /!J ::l:J X ET

' -r-

+f (-68 .253 X et/) + tt. 75 X E~ =0

AIL these equations heing satisfu:d 1t may be concluded that no ero has committed in the computations. 7. Ctnltruction of the ben<ltng mom~nt dtagrm. The ordinates to tho resulting IJon rliug moment diagram will be cnlcu latotl using expre.ssion (14.1:-l). f.?ig. 4ti.l3 represents tho diagTnms oiJtnincd through tbu multiJlli.c.ation of tht> ordinates to each tnit dingram l~l' ~'ig. 4~.13) by the magnitude of tho cor respondiug r~>action
LI'IHl

M 1 =MtZ~o

Mz=W2Zz,

.ti3=M~3 and M4 =M4Z4

Sttunning up nll t.bcS(' ordinat-es nntl adding thereto tho ordinntes to the },{1! diagram {see Fig. 43.13) wo obtain theso to tho do..,irl'd result.ing diagrnm which is givell in Fig. 47:13. All the ordlnutes to this di<1gram hnvl' boeu sot ofi <HI th e s ide of tlH> extt> ruled fibres. 1). Checking th~ bending moment diagram.
(a) Stll t lct!l method Let us isol"Le n succ.es..~ion nil Ll< rigid joints of the frame 11nil lot u s sec whcthcr tho oquilihl'itm conclitic.n ~ nro ~atisfted for eadt ono of them (, eo

Fig. -:li.13) J Ollll 1 Joint 2 Joint 4

l:ll-f,= -li.896+6.8fl6=0
Compute the algL'lln1ic sum of tho area~ boundod by the bontllr1g momcut. diagram along memhor~ 32-<1-.'i forming 11 c losod contour. In the general casl!
(L) Me thod of dene,,ttons

t);iS

SlOfJtl 1utd /)tfltcttcm.f. Combin.r.d aml llifl:u-d l'>f ethotls

bhu~ nrt-ns should he dividl'CI by tho rigtday or the corrt-.sponlling Ulember but in tlti< l'art.icnlllr ca:>c all tho rnoment..c of inertill are the sutne antl therefore
(i.

716

0. 710
177

7.4Z5~J
13 785

... ~3.71'1
II. IJ!J

&.896~- -, lj

~ 6.896

7.4ZS ~-..~~~~~~~~~~3

13. 7M

Fig. 47. J,Y

v.t' may simpl y cnlc.nlate t.lt(' valuo of Q,u. Thnso of th~ ar(W' wltich are silnatll<l ln~itl fl tho c.cmtour will be reckoned positivE' ~1 ~ -H.2:l7-H.139 G 6.896-3.7t4X ~t 2 X 2

x 4+ 9. t36 - 6.896x 6= -6.718+6. no~ o 2

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _1:.. .1. . :. :.1__::1 . An. F.xrunple of Fmme A na.ly.!.ts _ _ __

1)39

!1. Construction oj the she11.r diagmm. The ordinates to the Q diagram '4' ii.t he c>htnined using th e tJXpre:'lsion --Qo , 111n -.~fn-1 Q,. n ;l,.

The following aro th(l .shoars at various llross eec.tion>: Section 0 of C<>l umn 0-1

' Q01 = 3
S(!Ction 1 of the snmo column

13.785 + -= 3

7..59r. ,> Lon.s

13. Qto= --r-3 - 2 X 3-!-785 =1 . 59" ;>lOllS

3
Section~

1 and 2 ofitho inc lined bar .7-2 Qtz=Q21 =

13.785_:t-7.425 = -1.242 tons

,)

S(ctions :t and 3 o[ column 2-3

_11 . 139+11.257_.,733 t Q23 = Qzz -- " ons 6

S<>ction~

2_and 1 of crosshMm 2-4

Q24 =Q4z=
Q~s=QM=

3 7 4

1. ~ 6 896 = -2.652
_

ton s

Section~ 4 and 5 of,.column 4-5

fi.8!:l6+9.1.3G

- - 2 . 6 12 tons

These val ue::< have pt>rmit.t.~l t.hc. construction of the shMr di:Jgram givl'n i.u Fjg. 48.13. 10. Checking th.e shear diagr,r.m. Le t us pass a secti1m through the ]o\wr 1\1'\il!'l of th e threo co lumns and let 11s consider t he equi lihl'inm of all horizontal

Ftg. 18. 13

Fig. 49. 18

projcctions of thl' force~ acting on the upper portion of the frame

l:X =2 X 3+ 8-7.595-3. ia3- 2.672=0

11. Con.,trl<ction. of thr. diagram for normal stresses. Th is iliagram will be obtained isolating in succession all t.ho jnints nf the frnmo. 'l'he normal strcs-~r.s acting in all Lho membors will be derived from t.he equilibrium of thes!l

Tflbk 5.13

I
SkNcb " ' JC.Oiul

l!QIIlltltr.um

L~Juall o u

Normal strcsNcs

Nu
0

P8t

l bJ2 1_1
z.m
Nu

l:l-.,..., N4&-!-2.652=0 rx --=N~2 + 2.672-S.o ~ o

N 15 = -2 .652 l)05 -" 4~--.8.0-2. 672= 5.328 tons

l:X = N2 1 sin tz - 4.242 cos a:-f-3. 73:~ -

~p-~ .u ?J "'u

f l.GS2 :.l_ZI

-5.328~0

.v21 =

4.242cosa-;-3.733+5.328 =Sill Ct

!1' -- N23 -2.652+5.175 cos a + +4.24.2 sin et= O

4.242 X 3/5 - 3. 733+5.328 = 4/5 =5.175 l.ons N2-3 = 2.652 - 5. 175 X 3/5-4.242 X 4t5 = = -3 .817 LO!lS

1.~

'fp
INro

~~~

!l' = N 10 -4.21t2cos P-5.175 sin P=O

N 10 =4.24.2X 4; 5 + !J.l75 X3/5 = =6. 'o!'l9 lous

1!4.13. The Mtzcd ""f~thod - -

.-

--

&'tl

Joints. Stresses c1.1using extensions will be mckoned pcsltivc. All tho ncccl!Sary operations are giVt!n in Table 5.13. The dcsirE>d diagrum for normal stre~ses appea rs in Fig. 49.t3. 12. Checking the tli4gram f or normal stresses. Pass a~ previously n section thro1tgh. the Iowor ends of tho columns and writo th.e equilibrium equation of all vertical compunents of forces and reactions appliod to tho upper portion or the structure This equation being sa tisfied, the stress analysis of the frame may be considE>red complete.
12.13. THE MIXED .METHOD

In the method under consideration one part of tho unknowns represents rorcBS {just ns io t he method of forces) and the other part

x.

(b)
(O)

Ftg. 50.13

angle.s of twist and deflections just as in the slope and defl ections method. Thus, t h e unk'1lown forces and the unknown di$placemcnts will he dealt with simultaneously. The application of this method will be explained using as an example the two-storit d frame shown in Fig. 50.13a. L et us first ost.~t blish the degree of redundancy and the number of unlnown angles of twist and deflections for each of the two stories. These data are given in Table 6.13.
Table tJ.19
Numll~r

Story

Degree of redundancy

angtes

lfetlecll lllls

or t wMI
2

or

unknnwu
~ n<l

Lower Upper Total

41-853

9 2

12

1~2

SloM ond /) rflections.

Cumbt~d

attd Jftud Methods

l t. is obvious that the ~lope and defloctioog mcthocl r.an be ndvantagr.o us ly nsed for nnaly~is of the lower story while the method of forr-cs is hotter I H for tho ltpper one. Tho llli.(Od meLhod bused on tho simu.ltaTJeous ll~f;l forc.efl and clisphwcments n.s unknowns was in troduced in tho LJ.S.S.R. by l?ro ft.\<~Sor A. Gvozdev in 1927. Tho appli~lion of this mothod to the 'two-sl.orie-ll [rnme under consideration will )cad to 1\ reauction in ~he number or unknowns to 4 only fr(lm 11 i[ the mto~hod of forces wPrc use(], or from 14 i[ it werc the s lope and d l\ Ot~dion~ mothod. These unknown::; will represent the angles of twi~t of tho lower fl oor onjugat.c joinl;s and tho stresses acling nt th~:~ gnble hiugc. The C mixed stmet;nre ill ropresenled in Pig. 50.13b. 'I' hi::; str'llctnruJ is derived from tl1e given one Lhrough the elimination of Lho c.on:sttnint::; a l, the lop hinge and Lhrougl the introcluotio11 of imaginary CO II"'I.raint.<~ nt t lu jo int:; of tho llrsl floor. Let us orm the s i mulLancou!< rquations of Lhc misoll method. 'l' hcso uquations will ox pre~ Lhat th e reactions of the imHginary COII.Stl.'llin l.s d110 lO the unknown a11gles of lwist Z, nnd Z 2 as well ns thr ntutnal displacements of tho Lwo hrauehos of tho fra me along thu directions of Xa anrl X, are nil

or

Z,r11 -I- Z 2ru + X~r 1 s -~- X 4 r14 .,- R 1.'P - .. (J Z1r2 1 + Z2r22 +Xsrzs + X,r!~ ...J... Rzp= 0
z. a~,

+ z2~s! + X3633 + x4 63~ + t...:tp = o Zt6u + Zz~42 + Xs&43 + X,.6.4 + ~, r> = 0

( 15.13)

A closer examination of Mch of the nhove equations leuds Lo th~ following conc.l usion~. In the firl!t equation: Ztru = rear..tion of tho i maginnry c.onstrain L at joint. 1 due to the rotati on of this joint through < Hi angle Z 1 Z 2r 12 =reaction of l.he same cons traint duo to tho rola lion o f joint 2 t hrongh a n anglo Z 2 X 3r , 3 = reaction of lho sa me cons tmint du o to t h e npplication o[ the forro X 3 a t the t.op hi uge X 1 r11 = r~ar..tion of t ho same c.ons trninl duo to the force X, .R,,, = rmH:.lion of th e same cons Lraint dut! to the n,pplied load.

The sum. of a,ll the above. reactions m.ust equal zero for the

con.~traint

introduced at joint 1 is in reality n011e.xtstent and tlu~refor(' HncaplLble of d.eucloping any reactioM whatsornv:r. Thus, the firsL of lbe four cqualions is nn eqniliiJI'illm equa tiou cxpre.ssing that. tho renct.ive moment of the imfl~ti nary constr:lint at joint 1 due to nil t he unknown fo rce~ aud dis plnc.cments as woll a~ to the applied loads r emain~ nil. T he s econd of the simultaneous equ11tions (1:i.1:~) co nv ey~; Lhe sa me idea and tho meaning of all its terms i ~ also exaclly the s11mo

72. 7;1.

Tit~

Mi:red Metlllul
r~:~for

with the on ly clirflrtmee t.hn t t;hey a ll strnint int.rohHArl at jolut. 2.

Lo t he im11ginnry r..on-

Nox t: let us examine the third equation of th is ~I'O ttp. Z 16 31 ~ mutuo.l dcllecLion a lo ng the horizontal of llre two branch es of the conjugate structure caused by t.he rotation %26 32 = d i ;;pl acement a lon~r l. h e ~~~me d i rec.tion llue to th o rotnLiou Z 2 X a6 3 ~ = a c nect.ion alo11g the sn me direc t.io n duo lo t.ho unknown

z,

gl'nup of forco><

X~

Hsl?lf

X 415 34 = ddl&cliou along tho same direction due t o lht> unknown gnJIIP of forc.es X, u 37, = defll'clion due to the applied loads The sum of flll these de.flectton.~ must be nil far lM e.n~tmg hinge
prer;mls all 1/LI.ttua.l dlsplo.cmumts of the two branches nf the f rame.

p,g.

:;.z.u

Consequeutl y, L ho third equntion exptrssts l h<' idea tha t th u displacements of a COI'Lnin p oin t l'Cllln in nil which nwam; Lhnl lhis equation is a kinematic ono. The follt'th oquolion of Lho simu l taneous ~yst.em (15 .1 3) o.xpr~ses exactly tho sam~ idea witlt refctenco to Lhe mutual vel'tieal displacomen1. of t:he twn lHanc.hcs o[ lhl' frn rn e at Lho top lliJlgll, The coefti cicn t.s to the unknowns entering tlwse equations 1Jelong to fo nr dirrcrent g roups : 1 . Goeffrl~i ent'i rcpr l'scnting reru:tions due to unit deflections or tu,i.st.~ a;; for insl.ance r 12 2. Coeff1cion1.~ representing reactions due to 11.nit .forces ot moments as for instanc.c ru. ~. Coerr.c.ients representing deflection.~ Of' tll)ist.~ due to unit displacements HS fo r infitancc 6 31 q_ Coeffir.ient.s roprcsl'nLing dejl~ctioms or twists due Lo unit forces

or moments ns for inslanet' 6~ All tlu~se cocfr.cicnts will be co mpu ted as described i n the corresponding Hrtic.les of the present. and previous chapter~ .
41*

It should be noted that for the conjugate structure shown in Fig. 50.1 3b only one pair of coeffJr.,ients to the unknowns entering equations (15.1:i), namely 6:H and 43 reduce to zero, the unknowns X 3 being symmetrical and the unknowns X 4 antisymmetrieal. T h e free terms R 1p. D. 31, and D. 4p will bo also nil for the loads acting on tho upper part of the frame are nil themselves. Even if tho lower part of the (came were nonsymmetrical 6 34 and &43 would remain nil, their values being determined by the multiplication of bending moment diagrams induced in t he di!Terent members of the upper portion of the frame. Were the unknown angles of twist replaced by their symmetric.al and antisymmetrical components (Fig. 51.13), a greater number of coefficients to the u nknowns would become nil and the system of simultaneous equ!ltions (15.13} would itself fall into two independent groups, Lht> first containing symmetrical unknowns Ztr11 Xsr13 Rtp = 0 Z16a 1 X~33 + .13r = 0 (if L\ep =I= 0) and th~ second containing tho antisymmottical onP!I

+ +

Z2ru+X4r24 +Rep = 0 Z21.\u +X6u D., p = 0 (if. A 4 p =F 0) The principles of reciprocal w01ks and dif!placmnents provide for Lhe following relations between the secondary coeffici ents ~o Lhe unknown~ of the mixed method

rmn =rnm

6mn=On.m rnlll= -8n.m

(16. 13)

J' a oblem. l<'orm the system of canonical equations for the ft~trru;. gl\cll in Fig. 52.13 <md determ ine the coeffkicn~l! to all the unku O\'Yus u.qing that

Redundant ctrucwre

i''-?i. . .~.u..u..........~

I
Fig. G2.13

Fig. 53.18

mot110d which leads to tho minimum number of unknowns. It is assumed that tbn cross sect ions (I( all tho members of the frame remain constant throughout.

Jt.J3. The Mi:ced Method

645

SoluUr m. The choioo of tho Toethod will ho hn~tl on T able 7 .13. This tablo 1>hows immodint.oly thut. the mixod method will lead to the best results. Indeed wcro this mut.hod adopt~c'l. the number of unknowns would equnl two, while Ll\c nH\Lhod of forrus would lead to four lmknowns and the slopE! and tlcficctions method-to seven unlwowns.

Table 7.7.9
Port ion or
sLrurtur~

of red unaonoy
1

l"eg--r'!,.

Numlwr of urtlcn0\\1\ twist.5 and dtflecUuna

Loft-hand Hight-hanc.J

3
4

6 1
7

'l'otnl

The eonjug:Ho system wlueh should he adopted is given in Fig. 53 .1.3. All the values aro cxpres...~d in tons and metres. The simultaneous equaLions permit-

Ftg. 5!/.. Jll

Fig. 55.13

ting the oieterminlltion of the unknowns XJ nod Z2 become in t.hat)aso

Xt6u+Zz6tz+ ~tp = 0 X1r2s+~r22+R2p=H

The coefficient ~ 11 represents the displac~:~meut due to n unit force and wil l ht> d<)tcrmllll'!d raising to the second power the M, diagram giv<:n in Fig. 51t.13
~II "" EJ

[4 5 2 +2X83 + 2X4X8}+8X2 X 8 .,. 192 - X-5 x 2 x4+'6(2X4 I!J 2 3

The coefficient 612 which represents a displacement duo ~o another d isplllecment wil1 be derived from tho geomotry of the structure a11 shown in Fig. 55.13

rl4ij

.! i_:!rr (lnd P~fl~ciU/11$. ('omblni'd_ cmd M iud !llt:lhods__ _ _ _ __

T he <tngl~ of t.wist < t lwiug c :qual lo I and l t o 8, tho va lue of w~f ficicnt b12 bec.1mcs cqua to uigbl. * 'l'he cli:;pl;~ ce wcnL 612 wtl1 be reckoucd JlO~>itivc fo r it foll ows l hl diroctiou of tile reaction X 1 '!'Itt> cuorficiunt rz1 reprost>uts l hc t'O lle\iou of l hu consLrlunt introduced at joint 2 duo to a unit forco X 1 Tho va l utl of thi!! coofliciont ffi<W he> derived from tht Cttuilibrium u[ this joint (Plg. 57.13)

wlwrofr<>rn
'2 t =

- 8

Mtno ,l magti Htul~.> of th is coc.-rflc iont c :ctuhl bo olJLaiulcl rlircctl~ from lh< t'eill l tOII r 111 n ~ -t\un T hr cocflichmt r 22 rllJlrl'scnt~ the re>..action of the ~:amu con:> lr:tint to n uni L rol~Hion Zz 11f join t. f! (suo Fig. 55.13). Hl'nc.c, thi ~ coofrtciont may he de term ined

' l'!tr

:
2
Jl ig.
u~i11~ tlw
{j(j.J 3

F ig . 'i7.19

/1

ig. fjll . ./9

oqui1ibrium equution Cor the same juint actPd upon as shown

EJ !.M2 =r22 - - --EJ = 0 2

in rig. 58. 13

wheref rom

'22""f 'J
i\s fot the (rca toruos ~~P ami T? 2P, their valucs in the prc:!enL Ctl.So wi ll be given by

all I.'L ipulatcd in lho 11Jlpropriato li ne!! of Tnllle 2.13.

13.13. THE COMBNED tiiETHOD

The cornhinod meLhod is !test. suited for the analysis of ~y mrneLri cnl redundant slruclures acted upon by non!$ymmet ricnl loads. The
!'llnlo magnituole of thi s ~111Hidcnt would he olttrlined hy tlo o mnlhod d oscrih~d in .t\rt. 15.8. Tho anghl of twist o( joint f2 should be roprN;c nled by''

nw

V()t'llc:nl \'ecl ot ( F ig. 5li:1 31 arLi ng ll t th i~ j <>int. The moment of this v ec tor

nltoot j oint .1 will cqu1l11 X g = ~ = o, 2

]lJ.J.Y.

The Comblned ]lifRi hod

f-47

usc of Lhis method will be explained using as au exa rnpJo tho portul frnw e shown in Fig. 59.1R. J\eplac.ing the applied lond P by its $Y IIlll\otrical and a ntisymrnetrical components (Fig. (i0.10a. swd b) we auivo at two differont loading cases for eaeh of which lhtj numlwr of. unknowns can he Aasily determ i.aed. Thus, .in case one c.orresponding to Lhe symmclrical loadin~ the d isplacement o[ thll crosshcnm 1-2 will rern11i11 nil and tho angles of t.wis l of the lwo joints 1 and 2 will .-- - - ---. z be equal iu amount and opposite i n s igu, hence Z 3 = 0 and Z1 = Z 2 P p {Fig. 61.13a) . It follows t.hnt if we 2 2 applied tho slope and del1ec.Lions method we would ohtuin in l;hnt 1:1\.SO ont equation w:i lh one unknowH 01\ly. If, on tlw contrary, we ~u1pl oyed tho mclhod o forces f aJ \l~ing the simp le structure o f
lr------~ z

~~
~

tl'
( b)

~i
J.' ig. 59.1/J

Ftf!. (10 ..13

Pig. 61 .'13b we would arrive at two equations with two unknowns (the shearing stre......s X 3 being obviously nil). Hence, the slope and deflections method is the one to be adopted in tlu: case of symmetrical loading. Next, let us consider tho c.a/:ie of antisymmetrical loads, using as conjugate slructme the one shown in Fig. U2.13a. It is readily seen that tho number of unknowns will in this case equal two: the fhsL representing the angle of twist of: joints 1 and 2 (whi1;h nrc oqua l both in amount and (lirection) and the second one rejHcsenliug lhe hori1.ont.a) dcflcclion of these two joints. Cousequently, tho slopl.\ and deflections mothod in Lhe case of antisymmetrical loading will lead to a system of two sim ultaneous equations ''.riLh two unknowns. On the other hand , if lhe method of forces were used we could adopt the s imple stalicnlly determinate structure g ivcu in Fig. 62.13b,

G48

Slop~: .-.nd

DeJlecttons. Combined a.rtd Mized Methods

" hich would lead to one unknown only, tl1is unknown representing the shear X3 , both normal stress X 1 and bending moment X2 being

Ptg. 61. 18

nil. 'fhu:> we could once again obt..ain one equation only with one unknown. Therefore the method of forces should be adcpted in the case of antisyrnmrtrical loading.

( b)

Fig. 62.19

'l'n ble 8.13 represents in a concise form tho results obtained above. Thus, the combined Trwthod will consist in th o simultaneous application of two different methods as desrrilJed above to two different cases of loading of one and tho same s tructure.
Tablt. 8.13
NumbM ll! e(/unttons
L oading

Slope and

o.r roreu

MethOd

11ons method

dtllec-

:MetllOd to be ustd

Symrnetrlcal Ar1tisymml!tric.al

2
1.

1
2

SI<Jpe

and

do: O~.,-cti ln s

method Method of forcos

14.13. Construction of Influence L tnc

64!)

14.13.

CONSTRUCTION OF INFLUENCE LINE BY THE SLOPE AND DEFLECTIONS METHOD

The construction of inO.uence lin~s for stresses acting at any section of a redundant structure as woll ns for tho ang)os of twist and deflections can be carried out using the slope and deflections method, provided tho influence lines for the displacements adopted as unknowns arc constructed in the first place. Let us study the construction of these influence lines using as an example the structure represented in Fig. 63.13 all tho members of which aro of uniform cross section. The standard equation corresponding to the conjugate system of redundant beams shown in Fig. 64.1:1 becomes

wherefrom

since
rtp=

-Om

Hence the shape of the influence line for tho anglo of twist will coinc.ide with Lhat of the diagram of vertical deflections & 1>1 caused by a unit rotation of the imaginary constraint through an anglo Z t = 1. 'Vheu the load unity P travels along t he right span (Fig. 65.13} we have
T1

p=-;

v(1-v2)

and when Lbe same load is situated within the left span (Fig. 66.13} the same expression becomes
r 1v=
L +2 v (1-v
2 )

The magnitudo of ru will bo derived from the unit hending moment diagram Jlf, (Fig. 67.13)
Ttt-

3El
l

+ 3EJ + 4/U = l I

10EJ
l

In the above expression the values of v and u may vary only from 0 to 1, these two letters representing the ratio between t h& distance to the load point and the span length. The values of r 1 p. in terms of v are given in Table 9.13.

651)

Slope and De.flecti.flrt s. ClJmbinnl and 1tfi:tP.d Melhods

IP=T

'71;;:..

z,
ul

IP
I

Fig. 6<1.18

F tg. G5.13

Ftg. fifJ.19

/T
Fig. 67 ..18

2J

14.13. Conslmctton of /r;flu(mce

f, iru~

(;51
Table 9.19

Span

,.!/1

OnJ IMte ZL I. J,.

Sl'JOII

l I
v

tp

Hight

:1
1).8

0
~~

L<.~ ~

(.1

-0. 144 l +0. 0144 EJ

0.8 r 0. 1441 -0.0141 /U

f2

0.1)

-0. HJ2l +0.1)192

~~
[2

0.6 -!-O.Hl21

-1),1)

. "19'> l2 - f!J
12>

OA - 0. 168 l -f-0.0108 Ul
0.2 -0.0!161 +0.0096 EJ 0
I)

0./t + O.Hi81 - O.I.H68 t ;J

Z2

0.2 -t-O . tlOfo l

0 0

-O.OO~lfi ,:~
I)

T he same table contains the values of the ordinates 1.0 t.he influence line for Z 1 g iven by the exptessiou
Z1=--ru
rt p

The completed influence line is represented in Fig. 68.13. The influence line for t he bending moments at an arbitrary section k siLua.ted within the le(t span will be based on the following oxptes
lnfluonce line for Z1

%[~~~~~~~
\!:>
~

<:5 <:::;

<::>

<:::;

Fig. 68.18

Ftg. 69.1.'J

siou as long as the load unity remains within the same span
3EJ Z M k = M" 11. ----rr- 1ah
111~

In th is expression = Lending moment at section k of a conjugate redundant boam whoso righ l end is fixed and the 1oft one si rn ply support,ed (Fig. 69.13}

652
alt

Slope and Deflections.

Combin~d

and Mixed Methods

= distance frolft the cross section under consideration to the

left-hand support

~1 =reaction at the left (roller) support due to a unit rota-

tion of the imaginary constraint at joint a through an angle Z1 = 1. The influence line for the shearing force at the same cross section can be deduced from the equation
Q~t= Q"
3EJ z, h - zr

Wben load unity P shifts to the rigbL of the central support the above expressions are sirnpliiied and llocome

M11. = -

f/ Z,a,.;

Qx = - ~ Z 1
3 1

Let us construct the influence line for the bending moments and the sheariog forces acting at a cross section situated a distance 0.4 l from the left end of the first span. When the load unity travels along the first span the expression for M,. becomos 3EJ Z 0 ;.z = M 0 1.2BJ - Z, J~~ .. ~t= M1>.= ,x 0... h- -

- zr

Let us find the values of 111l and Q for the conjugate redundan t beam of Fig. 69.13. As long as load unity P remains within the first span to the right of section k, i.e., wl1en u ~ O.G (sec Table 2.13) n uZ 3-u). 0 4l; Q" u2 '3 - u.) 1.fk=y( "=z(.
of section k , i.e., when

When the load uniLy is within the sa.me span but to the left u > 0.6 " uz ' 0 4 M 11 = 2 (3-u) . l - (0.4l- vl) = uz (3 - u) 0 A.l - (u - 0 . 6)l 2
~ Qt< =

u2(3- u)
2

The values of the ordinates to the J'V/~ and Q~ diagrams computed using the above expressions are given in Table 10.13.
Tal1le 10.13
Lood point in terms or 1J.

I
0 0 .02241 0.08321 0.17281 0 0.056 0.208 0.432

T-oad JlOint In terms of u

I
0.17281 0.08161 0

(I

0.6
0 .8
1.0

0.2 0.4
O.tl

-0.568 - 0.296

14.1.~.

Construc tion of !nfl.uenGe L i ne

1>53

. M~t

When the load point shifts to the second span the ordinates to the and Qk ir1fiuence lines become equal ~o those for the influence

I "

.....

,~

o.at
I I

I
I I

(b l
{b)

I I

Ftg. 70.13

Fig. 71.13

line for Z1 (see Fig. 68.13) multi plied by the following factors respectively
(3EJ and ( p ak = _:2..!_ p X 0 . 4l = _1 .2EJ) l
3EJ) p

Figs. 70.13b and c and 71.13b and c represent the influence lines for the different terms entering the expressions of M~t and Qh. The completed influence lines for MIt and Q" shown in Figs. 70.13d and 71.13d have been obtained through the summation of the ordinates to the influence lines just mentioned.

14.

APPROXIMATE METHOD OF STRESS ANALYSIS FOR REDUNDANT FRAMES

1 .11. CLASSlF1 CI\TION OF AI'l'HOXI.\fATE }fETHODS

Thl' nnlysis of c.ompl ic-ntcd frame.'! usi ng one of the oxal~t mt>thods described above (method of forces, slope and deflections method, the mixed one, etc.) often remains exceedingly lahour consuming cvon when all the possibilities of simplifying the equations have heeu profited by. In such cases resort should be made to approximate molhods which may he subdivided into two main groups. Melbods belonging to the first of these groups procecd by successive approximations (iterative methods) and therefore the precision of the ftna'l results mny be ns great as desired. After a suflic.ionL number of approximations these results will for all practical puq)oses ho equivalent to those obtained using ono of tho exact methods. 'l'he methods belonging to the second group are hased on simpliftc.atious iutrocl uced both in the arrangeme11t of structural members nnd in the distribution of loads. The simplified system tl n1$ obtained may thereafter be aualy1.0d using either one of: the exact or one of the approximnte methods. The simpliftcations introduced in lo one and the same sy!'lern may vary cousidernhly and each of the~l\ simplifications will influence tbu final results t.o a different degree. Consequently, one must learn t.ochoo:>(' tho simplest way of analyr.ing t.he strucfutc with due rogal'd to tlw dcsir~d precisioJl of the flllal results. In oflor to he nblc to doso ono must tlndcrstand very c.lcarly the work of lhe entiro structure and at t.hl same time one must be wt~ll versed in all Lbc exact methods of stres!l nnalvsis. 1\ppr.oximnto mctbolls are partic.llarly useful when choosing croK'J-scctionaJ dimensions f ( ll' preliminary estimales, when comTlllring nltcrnn livc layouts of one and the same sLrudure or when designing ancillary or temporuy huilclin!!S. As no analysis whether exact or approximat~ of a redundant structure can be underlaken as long as th~ cros~-seclional dimensions and rigidities of its members remain unknown, ~he same methods nro frequently resorted to in the pr.eliminnry choice of such dimensions.

2.1!1. Tll.f' Method 11/

Mt>mt~~l

D islrtbulit>n

(155

Approximate methods oro seldomly used in the design o[ simpl!~

f:rn111es, exact solutions being roadily available in appop1into engincel'ing handbooks.

2.H..

THE METHOD OF MOMENT DISTRHlUTION

Tho method of moment distribution belongs to the first grouJl of nJJproximato methods c.onstituti.ng in fact a. particular appHc.ntion of tlt-- slopt~ and deflec.tjons me.thod described in t.hl' prct:t!dl ng r.Jraptor. Il lenCis to a very subsl.antinl reduction in the numlJCl' of oquutionl'; Md in t.l1~ case of strucl.ures , whose joints Nl'n ~uslain au~;u lnr t.wists alone but cannot. be. de.flccted. the we.thod undet considP.raLion permiL~ to n.void completely tho solution of $irnultn.ncnus equaLions with sevcral unknowns. 1-'or tJtc fir-s t l.i me. this method was suggest.('{! in 1929 by N. Dernatsky and a few months Inter, early in 1930 , a detailcd dcS(ript.ioll of. practic-ally the same method was given hy l:>ror. Hardy Crol>s. The moment distribution method could he usP.J fot th~. a,JtoJy~is of all redundant framed stntcturt>s hut in practic.c i t is applied OJlly to co ntinuous beams aud complic.ated rrarucs whose joints are nol. dcJlec.terl by the applied loads . A maximum of one. OJ' two i(ldcpcuderrt defle~,;tio:ns of joints may htl tolerated. The mornf\nt distribution method is particularly weH fit; rol' the analysis of multi-story building frames and closed frames of lrydraulic plnnts, whlrc its application resul ts in a very c.onsiderabl~ reduttion of computation work. The convention of sign~ adoptcd previously for bending moments and shearing forces remains uncbangE>d and 1he conjugate system of redundant beams is obtained in cxactly the some way liS in the slope and deflectiOJlS mcthod. Tlw re.activ~ mom en Ls acting at the ends of tho bars arc collsidcred positivo whcn t.hcy ac.t clockwi8e, the shears when they t!:'Hrl to rotlltc cloc.kwi~e the portion of the bar under consideration about its far l\lld. The re.ac1ive momc.nts are usually denote,d by tht- lcttC1-r ftf with t.hrco lower indices lhe first two giving the numbers of joinLs h!!tweon which the bttr Js i n~ortcd aJld the third, separated frotrt tile fir~>t two by a c.omma, indic.ates tile. cause giving rise to that part.icular moment. The end of the bar at which the reactjvo moment is developed is n lway~S indicated by the very first of the indic.cs. Thus, for example, MiJ,, p will repr.esent the reactive momMt develop!'.tl at end i of bar i-k, under the infiuonce of load P.
I ANALYSeS OF ~l'llUCTURES W('l'li II' I XED IOtNl'S

Let us 'xnminc the structure. shown in Fig. 1.14a. In this !':tructuro joint 1 alone t'an sustain an angular rotation nnd no single joint may he deflected. The conjugate syst.em of redundant hcams slrown

656

Approximate Method of Stress Analysls for fledur<dant Frames

in Fig. 1.14b is obtained by the introduction of an imaginary constraint preventing the rotation of joint 1. The reactive moment developed by this constraint will equal
Mu,p= _P~u = - ~t

This momont wiU be reckoned negative for it acts in an counterdockwise direction. Tho moment produced at this joint by the loading of bar 1-4 tends to rotate this joint in a clockwise direction and

(cl

Ptz 1lf

PL

:Fig. 1.14

as soon as tho imaginary constraint is removed the angle of twist or this joint will become equal to rp 1 . This rotation will result in the appoaranco of the following moments at both ends of all the bars converging at joint 1 (see Table 2J3) M 2E/ 12 M 12.t
21,1 =lt2 <pt =-2 -

Mal. t =O
..

IVf

4t,s=~<p~=--

2EJ14

Mu,

2.11. 'l.'he Jl-fptf.od

t>/

j ltl c mumt Distn/.utton

In ~hl':;c cxpre~;Rions J"lif12 , 1 is the reactive moowot inducer) a t tHtd 1 of bar 1-2 by the roLat ion o[ join~ 1 th rough an angl~ <p1 ; E./ 1 ~ is thf' flox.uml n gidiLy of bar 1-2; l 12 is the length of the same har. nnd so ft) t'tlt. ft is qnno obvions that tho auglo of twis t cp1 of joinL l must. bn suc:.h Lha t 1he ~u m o.f all tho roacti vc momenl;s a~:.ting at the nco r ends of the bnrfl convcr!!ing at this joint s hould bocomo nil. This ca n bo cx. pros.t~od by the t!quation

Mn, 1 + M J3, 1 +11-114,1 + Mu, v= O

This oq11ntion is in no resptJc.t different from tlte one uscl.l in llw s lope a tul dttflcct.ions method. Since all the bars mCt1ti1lg nt joint 1 a1e Lwts teu t hrough the some angle we may write ,lt,fl'l., I : J1-f13, I: AfH. I = il2: i l3 : i,4

<r

WhCl'O

. !U 12 &1'! - - - - ;
l t2

Ita =

Cl.15EJ 1 ~

ta

' ;

Lt4= - L14

E J 14

The terms i given above Hrc frequcnt.Jy called Lhe !!ltffness factqrs of tho frnmo mcm bc~rs. I n case of bars fixed at both ends t.hc s tiffness factor i:; equal to their llex\lral rigidity per unit le.ngth and for those ' rhe bending moments due to t.ho twis t of joint 1 becomo oqual to
'"' 1~,1 =
11'f
'i2 lt2 ~1 . +t + 1i 4 b14,p=-J.t.12Jkf14,p 13

hnv.in~ orw end built-in and the other freely supported this foetor oq 11nl~ 0. 75 of their fl exural r igidity per Ullit length.*

;lfl3,
}\114 I

=
-

ia.:! t
t,2~

las -i '
i 14

t,l

Jl!fl.

"'

p=
p

- "tM~.
r- ""
l' ..

~.

P
p

I =

..

lta T ,,,. Mt~ ,

= -t,./11,,
.

'1.'1 i 12 Ita iu lC va I 11rs o f J.1.12 = :r.t,; f..l.t 3= El l; r.tu=r.t

unba lanced moment applied to the join~ which is taken up by the c.orrospontling framo member. HeronJter Lhese valuas will bo eall ed d istribution factor.~. It is c.k ar tlat for each individual joinl tho sum of all the d is~ribuLion factors must equal one. Tho nlgebraic s um of moments iuduccd by the twis t ()f. joi nL l with tile reactive moments induced by tho applied loads in tho bt~:tms or the conjugnto system will yield t.he value or th9 resultittg lllomcnts a.cLin~ ut the join ts of the given ~;t ,.ucture

tn d.tMtel1 tnt pnrt() f f;hc

.llfn = f..l.I2T;

CPT I:lt tc nnthor~ attrihttlc th e nnm esttjjl1est fn ctor to tlcc r'nlifl { dt>notml hy t.ho loHtlr f(. ln our opirrion. It lits l>cti.N tho t01m t.- rr.
1, 2-8~3

..

Pl

Ms:~ =lls3T;

Pl

M" = ).l.ug--s- = - {1- ltt4)T

PI

PL

f>l

n~11u lly

M1~ Pl M 2t=?: =f.l.t:w;

Ms, =

Mu = IJ.J4~ +!!:._ = (1 + ~) Pl 1G 8 2 8
These moments must satis fy the followiug relation

M12 + Jl1,3

+ M1, = 0

The diagram of the rosulting moments is represented in Fig. 1.14c. Th e anal ysi~ of redu ndan t structures by the method : undt)r cousideration cons ists of the foJiowing operations: 1. Jn the llr~t plac.e t he reactive mom ents induced in the bt!IHII S of the conjugat e redundant system are determined u.sing Table 2.1 3. 2. ~ext, equilibrium cquatious for each joint aro formed ap plyingto tho joints balancing moments equal in amount uud oppo:;ite in sign to the rcnctive moments, these balancing moments hoi ng rl istribnt.ed among tho me mbers cmnrerging at tho conr.sponding joints. in cl irec.t proportion to their stiffness factor. 3. Half tho amount of the distributed mo111ont is transferred (carried ovur) to th e~ far end of the bar prov ided l.his cud is also r igidly ffxod. ln tho event tho far enu of the bar is provided wiLh n hingB lho cany-ovijr momeut must be niL 4 . :\fow ' cou ulorbalnn('ing mol!lenLs are applied to each joint t hrown out of halanc.o hy the cnr-y-over moments. T11 order to accelerate the work several no neon tignous joint~ may he dealt with simultaneously. The opontion is repented until th~ vallll'S of unbalanced momen ts beroml' so sma ll tbut th ey may uedisrtgnrded. The fiun1 nll uc of t.he hending momouls acti u ~ nl t he cuds of each rnembl'r of a structure a re obtained ~ ummi'ng up tilt~ valufsof tho fixed enrl rnoments wil.h Uw vnlnos of the distributed aud ~~:my -ovor mo111enlS, due considllratiou being giYl'n lo lhcir r<>spec.L i\' t'
~;igns.

All tho COill]JUtat.ions shou ld be carried ou l. in tubular form. Th& table to he 11sed 8hon'Jd consist; of a certain numbtH ' of colllmas. lll JCl li.nos. each colum n r.orrcsponding to one cud o( each TUOmber of tho structure. The.o.;(l col umns arc grouped joint by joint t~~.;orv ing. if necessary, extra t:oJumn8 for cxtern11 l momo uts. The exac.t r>rocochn:e to bt~ followed when no joint of the structue mny he deOcrted will be described i n clotail in the follow ing prohle u1.
!'to i.Jlcm 1. Required tho bending moment cl iagrunl for nil tho m~:mh('rl> of n roof trtli!S with .-igld joints l'cpresentcd in Fig. 2 .Ha . The lllngth of all the har~. tho rel ativ1.1 values of tho momentrs of inerlHt aTHl Uu~ loads Ul'l' c llarly iod i!'att!d in the E nmn flgUJ'e. Solution. Sinco all t he joints of the g i\'OIJ trUS.'! 1\r(' completely I il!itl u..~ factors of all the bars will nrnouut to I

stiffn~ss

~ ~~. As~umi ug tl~:tt E- t

2.1(/. TIM 111ethod of M ommtl DiRirilmtion

tl5~

aud refcrri ug a ll the m oments o{ iuc:-rt.ia t o J 0 we. may writ.c. l

= ~~- 'fhc vnlues

Ta blt 1.14

or the l'LifTuc:~s factors t.hus ob tained (or to lie moro arc givcct in the t. !Jicu liue of Table 1. 14.

preciS~\,

t.hcir rclat.ive values)

J nJot

~ o .

I
1-2
ili .1 -J

1
1- iJ 3-: 1 133

l:licr No.

Il-l I
1:13

4-2 tl7

I I
I
1),6(1

3- 2

2-3
81)

12-412-1
67
(ii

!>tiffncss ructlr t

133

133

89

Di:otr1!Ju t.ion 0.333 O.tlU7 OAO (,ector I' Fi xed

0.20

(l.ltO

0.40

0. 40 0 .30 0 30

nd

- 1.40 1.4<)

Jnii U\Q IIlS,

ton - m<~-

- 1.40 1. 1j0

trc>;

1
:J

11~71 ~'13
-

1 1.47

"''""'" l
j ui llt'

ing

o) f

1 2
1

_ ,) Ot --t1,t'c2 -0.11 1 _,) , 1)2 - (U II

-It --

-lU~. 1

-0.1!2

-0.

0.01

-~ -~
- 0.
~1)1

- Io ~i ~1)2 0~ 1 0. 01 -

1\<sulting hcn<ling

O.!o7 -0. 47 1.85 -0.01 - 1.84

(1. ('If>

- 0.55 - 0. 26 0.01 0.25

wnrno nts
H ov ing d oturm incd the stiffm~s fuc lur~t pruc.('od with the c.olc ulat ion of the di st.l'ibulion factor!;, as ind icawd hcrcunder for j oi11 l 4

660
mu~t

Approxlmatr Jhthod of Strn~ Analysis /11r nedzmda{l.l Frame$

lt should ho nlways kept in mind that the sum of uU the dis lribulitlll factor~ be nlways equn l to one. 1'be f1xcd end moments correspond ing to thc r<dundant bNimS o[ the conjugatt sy~l.-rn nro givcu by
iiIg, p -J\11~ 0 p""' - M~t. p = _,,f.~,.,
11 =

-12 ""

ql2

1.2 X 3.7SZ ... - 'O ..,n-mct.res ~ 1'' 12

znomt>n\~ should be on tcrl'd into th(' fifth lin< of Tabl<l 1.11\. All the above entrio5 huving been mndo, we 1nuy proc.<>1.d with tl1o bolnncing of the mnmont acting nt joints 1 nnd 8 of the truss, joints 2 nnl 4 rcruaiuing

These

in equilibrium for tho limo bt>ing.

ass

ass

{b)

Ftg. 2./4
At joint 1 the unbalanced flxE'd ond moment \ :14 ,p equal.~ -1.'10 ton-metres, this uHxuen t being dirccloo C<lunlcrclockwi.s<!. 'J'his mnml'nt will !on taken u11 by Lht'l bending moments ncting at the ends of oil the bar::: converging at tho joint under c.nnsidcrnt.ilu. t.hero hrnding mc1monts being ClllculoHecl n~ follows M 12, 1 = 0.::133 X i.t\0 = 0..1.7 ton-metro M 14 , 1 =0.()67 X 1..1.0=0.93 L<>n-metro

The carry-Ov('r molllcuts which must to trausrcrn!<l LQ Lbc rar ends of these two hnrs "'ill nrnount tu M 21 , 1 =O.GO X 0.47 ~ 0.21 ton -metro llfu. 1 =0.50 X 0.!!3 ~ 0.1.7 ton-metre Pussinlt lo joinl 3 wo not~ that this joint is Hcted \Jpon by an unbol:mced moment 11-134 , P amounting to 1.10 1on-1net1c:; uc ting cl oc-kwise. 'l'!J is rnomcnt must bo distributed n~ follow8 M:14 ~ -,. -0.60 X 1. 'lO =~ --0.84 tm-m<>trc M~.2. 3 ~ -O. .W X 1.40= -0.56 tuu-met.ro Tho carry-<ovcr rroom<.'u ts nrc c(jllnl lo
M~~. ~"' -0.50 X 0.81 = - 0.42 to-melr!l ,,.12.~. a" -!),!';0 X O.Sil'"' -0.28 ton -m~Lro

2.J,J.

Th~

Methcd of

Mo~ta

Dutr.bulwn

661

Balancing JOint_-; 1 aml 8 as described ahovo we havo d isturhoo the e<Juil ihrium of Joint s 2 and d. The unhalnnco<l moment at joint 1. amount.s now to
M~ ~Mu, 1 +:11~3.a= 0.47-0.4.2=0.0!5 ton-motrt)

Distributing this moment among t.he three bars convorging ut joiut 4 we oltniu .'11u,, ~ -0.40 X 0.05= -0.02 ton-mBtro M 42. 4 ..., -ti.20 X 0.05 = -0.01 ton-mct.re M u. 4 = -0.40 X 0.05 ::a -0.02 tun-metre Oun baH vr cac.h of thel!ll moments will be again carritxl over to tho far end of each of tho bnrs 111u., = -0.5 X 0.02 = - O.tH tou-mutro M2 4., = -0.5 X 0.01 = -0.005 ton-metro .1134, 4 = -0.5 X 0.02= -0.01 ton-motre P roceeding iu exactly the same way for JOint 2 we shall tlnd that the u n bala nced momllnt. transmitted to joint I (Mu.,l cqunls only -O.tll. This unbalanced momcnL i~; very much smaller than tho ono found prtwiou~ly, its vu lue being practically no gtoater than the degree of precision of all our comput.ati ons. Con~>equently, no further approxlmntions ar> necessary for the amounts o ulJ tho unhalnnced moments which will have to be dealt with will bo smallt!r than 0.01 t.ou-metro. The computations given in Tablo 1.14 ropresont all tlc operations Jlocessary t.o ~hc thC' proh'lem. Tho bPuding tnom('nt dingram consLtucted with tluo regard to the sign conco tion 11<lopted is shown in Fig. :t .11tb.

2. ANALYSIS OF STnUCTUR.ES WITH OEFLI!:CTEil JOJNTS

'l'lw: annlysb of structures whose. joints may be deflected requires thnt in addiLion to constraints opposing tho twist of these joints iJHagiuary supports should be inttoduced preventin~ all indepen don L dellcc.tiom;. Schematically these supports may he replaced by a correspond ing number of supporting bars. As previously, the band ing rnomeuts induced at the ends of nil tho redundant beams of the conjugate system should be calculated using appropriate ready mude formulas or tables. Next all the joints should be balanced by a series of successive approximations. Finally tho corrections taking car e. of joint deOec.tions should he introduced. The exact sequonc.e of operations will he shown in the following exam ple.
Prubk m 2. Uettuired the bending nwment tliagrams for all tho members of a double-span framo shcn~,l in Fig. 3.14a. OnJy ono join\ uf this frame can sustain un inrlcpcndent deflection. .. Solu tton. The stiffness factors for all tho m('mbers of the framl' are computed
a R follow~

_ o.75Jt2 _o.7.'i x 3
lt2lt2lo -

<!

= 1'25

662

Approximate M('lhod of S t.ress A naly$l5 lor R P.dundant

0. i5J36 0. 75 X 4 , 13e=-- - = - - - =v. 7i) l3sJ o 4
145

Frarne.~

.
.

J 45 8. 0 1 ~) l4slo =s.33= . J I
J 3!.

'J~= laJo =4.o=2.2;,

27 0 = 4.50 G.O Knowing these va I ues wo may easily obtain the distribution factors as

9.0

i2a = ..!..B._ =
l~3J 0

q =J. IJt./171

{d)

Fig. 3.14

2.14. Tht! MethotJ of Moment Distribution

663

Tlu> fixed t>nd momt>nts I or the rroundant bl.>.atus of tit~! C.()njugato syslt>ms shown in Fig. 3.14b arc qli. 0.36 X 5.332 \[ 1 4~. ,,;:;. -;lfM.p= =--- ~= -O.Bv ton-wetro

12

lv/31,, r> = - M 48 , 71 =
M'l.J,p=

- 1'2 = - ~= -4.00
---y2
3X
6~

q1l~4

3 X 12

t.<m-motres

-1':!--l 2ql~

qli~

Qab2
2>

22 X 4. X 22

02

= -18.8 ton-metres
ton-mctre.s

Ma2.p=

1 ~~+

Qa2b

tis

8x62 22X4Zx2 =--r:r-+ {)l =28.5

The l'f{Uililll'ium of :tll the joints pertaining to the system whost> defltlctions <U'I' JH'lWI'nted ltr tho imaginary support at the level of the crossheam is ~nsnred hy suc1~o.<~ivn approximations as shown in tho upper part of. Ttlhle 2.14. The COI'rt!t:tions taking c.are of joint deflc1~tions will be obtained ~>.xpressing thnt lh () total reacti1m of tho imaginary support due both to tho applied loads .and til the horizontal deflection zf is nil, viz.
R 1 p+r11 Z1 =0

<lf

Z1 induced by the external loads, .lnd ru i >< t.lt(\ n;u:tion :lioug the same direction due to the unit displac<.>ment Z 1 = 1. HQnct.inu H1p will be derived from the shearing str~.sses at the low~r ends
till~ ~~nlnrnns

He~ lltp i~> the riJaction along

(Fig. 3.14c)

Qtz. p =

M21 2119 , - z;z= - 5.99 2 . 0 = - ";)tons

Mae 3.71 QBa. p=-z;--= 4 . =0.925 ton

Q54 '

p=

M,,;+ i'l-1 54 l~5

q 1 L 4~ _

y-

0 O.oJ0+1.3ft
5.33

0.36x5.33 , .. 2 = - 23 .ton:;

-:;upport~. requiring that

Tho equilibrium of the upper portion of the framl} st-parated from its l:X =0, wo havo
-Q12. p-Qe3, p-Q54, p

-qtlt.s+Rtp =0

"ltt>rofrom

2.!195-0.952+1.23-0.36 X 5.33+11tp =0
aucl c.onscquently
Rip= -1.38 tons As for rnuc.ti011 r 11 it \\'ill bt-. found assuming that tbc. horizon Lui hMm of tit e . m111jugnte sy:;ctt>m moves townrlls tho r ight ovor a distanc.e Z 1 = 1 (Fig. 3.1,fd) . 'Th<) >hnal'ing forllf)S which would bo developed in that c.aso at tho lower onds <f lho c.oltunns c'rlividNI by El u) would amount to 3Jn 3X3 Qt2, t = Jol'J, = 1.125

--v
3x4

Q63, t

= Jolle =43 =0.1875

3J3o

12J45 12 X 8 9 Qs,, J= Jolla= 5333 =0.63-5

1 It~~" shearing forcc.s are shown in Fig. 3.1.4d.

(lt)ft

Al' flrO:rlmatc Mrtllod e>/ Stress Analysis jot ll edttndl/.nt Frames

Ta ble 2.11
Joint No.

2-1 2-3 t L12S 4.50 Di.stribuLiuu falct.or Jl 0.20 0.80 Jlix<'d ('IJd momcmts, -t8.8 L<J tHllt'lres 2 3.76 1!i .04
Ilur No.
St.iflll\'~S fvcLol'

9-2

3-6

3-1
2. 2!;

'.1-3
:.!.25 11. 1)11

,l1

1 2

1.!)2

3 - 1.3) - 2.1i0 - 0.43 - 1.31 2 and 0.26 1.04 0.52 0.20

U:duuciug

O.GO 0.10 o.ao 28.50 -4. 00 LOii - 0.86 7.52 - !I. Gl -1\1.2 -3.20 - !:l.ti1 - 11.80 0.5() 1.00 O.(ici -

4.50

0.7:i

1.-5 fJ-4 l.SO I .5(1 O.loO -

ti.SG

7.69

3.84

- -O.fj5
lt :~~~
0

0.2(;

0. i;l:i -

o.ta

or
I

4
.~

JOiut:s

-0.21 -0.13 - 0.07 - 0.22 -11.11

(1.04

0.112

2
4 8 2

anu 0.0'.

0.17

0.08

o.r)a

0.07

0.01

,r)7 ~ .(M - {o

-0.01 -0.0.1 -1.1.1)1

L:-14

nnd

0.03
-

0.01
- 0.02

0.01

0.01

4 3

5.[)9

0. iO

Prcl intinary value of oondsng 'llJments. tou-motrNI

-5 .~1~)

18.1.<'. -3.71 14.'13 - 1'1.1(1

Ucnding moments duo -2.2:i to unit dcDrction Z1

-0. 75

- 1.60 -

1 .tj\l

Bal~ncing

iutnt.s

.I
t

and
4 iJ 4

0.15

1.80

tUJt)

(1.50

J.(IJ

O . G~

O.:Yt

0.04

-0.20 -1.1.:;9 - 0.0() - 0 .21) - 0.10

O.f6 0 .08

0.04

0.112

j 2und

0.03

11.(.16

2.1;1, 7'he M elfHJd of Jforneut T>islrib11tion

Table 2J4 (conduclcd)

JC'I Inl No.

Bu luut ill!(
jol11lii

Llf

I.~,,
8

(1. ()1

- 0 .1)1,

- 0.07 -0.01 --!.1. 03 -0 .01

0.03

O.Ot
- 1).01

U. 01

Cor rect iO n correspond- - J. 75 1. 75 0.52 - 0.82 0 . 30 !ng t o Z 1= I Cor rcclionc orrcsponu- -1. 60 1.60 0 .1,7 -0 .71, 0.27 ing to Z 1 = 0.~i.2 Finul vn\uts of bond- 4.3!! -4. 3() 18. 61 -4.45 -14.16 lug morn,n t, tonmoLrtS

0.\)7 -O.tn -t.J:

0.88 -0.88 -1..21

0 . 78 - 0.78

o. ta

Thl' f1xod C!nd moments caused by the e11mo displaconwnt or llw beam llqun l ,iJ2l.t = -1.125 X 2-=- 2.25

h<>l i ~outn l

J?3<1. t = -0. 1875 X It= - 0.75

iJ~;.t =M54,1 =

-U.tS325 ;,. 'd'J = -1..6\l 2

The Lending momenls a t tho joints_ of tho given redundan t s tructure du( to the Sllmc unit displac.ement Z 1 = 1 will be obtained balll.Ilcing th o joints as indicated in the lower part of Table 2.14o Knowing these bonding momcut,.,; we may tinll the corrt'sponding sha3rlng [orces at tho l owar onds of the colmnns n~ woll ItS tho reaction r 11 which equrus tl10 algebraic sum of shearing forcusncting at th u top of these c<>lumns. Those shears and th tl r<.>ac.tion r 11 equul

-, Q )2, I -

_lii;~-~ l iz 2 =

o 87'v
0

-Q.

J i 1;. = Oo82 0 205 &3ol=-1;8 r- o

0

Q~ 4 1 =

M~. + M~ 4

~~~

... C t.97..L 1. 33 _

5.33

- 0 . 33

~.

ru =Qi:. 1 +Q~ 3 , 1 +QM. 1 -0.875 +0.20S+0.433=1.513

We may uow iinJ tLI! actual vahJC of the deflection of the upper part the fraJtltl

or

1i(il)

t!t' l'roximatr, M ethod of

Str(>N.~

AnalysiS for Redutdant Frame$

Tlw pvsiLive !lif:(n < > f th i~ dtllecti<m indicat~.>i! that it~ di te~:t.ion cuincidts with tit(> one ndo(>ttd. Th~c>. t'<H'I'cc.tions which must bo introduced on thtl hcnd ing tlltlllWIJts will now he easily nht:1ined multiplying tile magniturlos of the momcmts clue 1.11 ;1 unit tlt,Ot!cC.ion loy Lito aetual v:luc of this deOcJction whir.h e<Juals {1.9J2. ,\tlcling thtst rornu;.tod moment~ t() those obtained in tho upper part ti l tho l.ahlc tlisrc1gartling thtl hodzontnl doflP.rt.inn o[ th~:~ crossheam Wt> ohtai n lhc lin.cl v.cluO-s of Lhe roquift!d moments (,Fig. 3 .14e).

soveral indHpoudont deflections could occur in the given strucwould bot:-omo necessary to introduce separat.ely the vOI'r91;.lious duo tu onc.h of t hose deflections ou the vn luos of bending moments ohtairwd for the non-deflec.ted structure. The real value of each or \.heso deflections would be derived from a sysLcm of simulLaneons equations. The numJler of these equations would be oqual lo Lite numhor of independent deflections and therefore woulrl rcmaiu Vllry mueh smaller f.han the numbet of equal;ions used in any of tho exact muthods. Thus, if there are Lwo independent joint. llcfler:.Lions, regardless of tho number of nnknown angles ol1 twist, we shall have lo solve o11ly t\\'O equations with two unknowns given h ereunder
tui'O il:

rr

r 11 Z,

r2,Z1 + r22Zz + R 2p = 0

+ r 12Z2 + R 1p =0

15.

MODERN DESIGN METHODS

l.J 5.

BASIC .P.ll i NClPLES

U ntil quito recoHUy tho design of' all en~i necriug sLructure.s was J)ased on permissible stresses. '~'h is moans that tho inLernal forces (bending 1noments, shearing and normnl forces) in differont mem~ors of tho structure were determi.ned using the methods developed in lhe Theory of Structures nsso ming that the whole . structure . w,rrks as a perfectly elastic body. The selection of the cro~sor r tiorwl ilimonsions of these members was based on formulas u.stablishcd in treatises on the strengtlt of matorials and was ai med at keeping t he design unit. stresses in t.h ese members within the permissiblo one.<~. As tor tho perm issibl e stresses themselves they were taken equal either to the ultimate strength of the materials or to l11c stres..<scs corresponding to t heir yield poinL divided by n certa in f:lr..t.or of safety. J n accordance with this method tho gane.ral ex(lrl'ssion ensuring the strength of the sLruc.ture coHlcl be wriLI:en as

follows
(J . 11ult ~

... K -

l 11 this expr1:ssion (] is t he design slrllss. fJuu is l.tw ultimate .streugth or yield strength of tho materia l, and 1( is the safety fa1 :tor (K> 1). Howevet, it hecamc soon appatent that for concrete, reinford c11ncrcle and masonry structures results obtained using tho method ~[ permissible stresses were frequently in contradiction wiLh data hasl'd on observation or on experimental work. Th is has led to the creation of a new method of computation usunll y known ns the "'ultimnLo loads method". l n this mothod the safety factor is no longer rofcned to the maximum unit s tresses arising at different

6US

;\1odt:rn DtJSigrt

iWetho1l.~

points of the structure but to tho ultimate bearing capacity o[ the cross section of a member ot of the structure as a whole. In this method the general expression ensuring the sl:longth of the momber or structure under consideration becomes

,;;;: Sv,tt S~ K
:Here S is the in tornnl force acting in the member undor consideration, Sv. 11 is tho ultimate load which the same member is CllJlabl~ to c.arry (by ultimate load we mean a load just sul'iicient to cans~ its failure), and K is the safety fac.tor. As a general rule the ult imate load~ are cal(julated with duo considcraLion of possible uonolastic deformations. Both methods mentioned above suffered frorn one and the snmedrawba.ek: the value of the safety factor remained eonst.nnt whil~ in reality it should depend on a number of circumstances conneeted wHh the structure under C.()nsideration. At the present Lime the U.S.S.H. Buildiug Code:; ~equire thnt

a ll ! .he cngjnpprjng Sli[UCtures should he desjgoeQ is accarAaucC. with the method of ultimate states developed by a group of Soviet. scientists under tho direction of Acad. V. Keldysh and Prof. N,. Strelotsky. The term ultimate state refers to such a state of the stl'ucture or of ono of its members which makes further service of. this strueturoimpossihle , whether due to insnfflcient headng c.apadt.y, or to tho appeara11ce of excessive deflections and deformations or fmally t() the development of some local defects. In the general c.nso the following three ultimate states should be taken into consideration: i. The ultimate state characterized by the loss of hearing capac.il,y due either to lack of strength. to loss of stability or to faliguo (iu tho case of repeated loading). ~. Tho ullirnate state characterized by tbe developmen t of excessive deformations such as deflections, twists, etc. 3. 'l'he ultimate state (jbaracterized by L he formation an(l opening of cracks, or the appearance of other local defcc.ts proventing ful'tbor use of the structure, as. for instance, loss of impermeability in a. reservoir, etc. J~ach of the above ultimate staws rnay develop under the influence of Ilumeious factors, the main bciug (1) the type and intensity of external loads and ot,her actions; (2) the strength and other mechanical properties of building materials; (3} the conditions under whic.b the stmcturc has been erected and will have to work.

1.15.

Ba.~

Prlmtp/es

lifl!l

The dcsigu must ensure that during the service life of the structure none of these ultimate states witl be allowed to occur aL the samo time pre-venting the overexpcnditnrc of building materials. 'The prohlom may be approached frorn three different angles: 1. It may be necessary to determine the ultimate load for a ;given structure, in other words, to find tho magniLude of the loMls w.hich will lead to the development of any one of the ultimnlO

states. 2. One may he required to choose the mi.nimum cross-soctionnl <.limtmsious of all the structural memhers which would ensure against tho appearance or any of the ultimate states under a given loading,
.acting under a given sol of conditions. H. One may be required to find the real safety factor of a given .st.ructuro under a given sysLom of loads or, in other words, to fmd thCo! ratio between the ult imate load and Lhe applied one. ln the method of u ltimate states the single sarety factor usod in tho l wo methods mentioned previously is replaced by n :;ct of diffore!ltiatcd (actors. 'fhus, the design loads (both ]ivo and dead) used in all tho c.omputalions nro obtained multiplying t ho service or normctl loads by n ractor n called the overload factor. This factor i~> inLl1ndcd to take care of any possible increase of Lhe app lied loads over ~tnd .above the magnitude of the normal service loads (wlum the work <>f tho structure becomes aggravated by a reduction of c.ertain loads, tho overload factor must take care of this eventuality). T he <>verload factor will necessarily vary depending on the l oading. Thus. for instance, the overload factor for dead loads and hydros tatic pressures adopted by the U .S.S.H. Building Code~ is quite :small and tqual~ only 1.1, while tho some fac.tor for liV(' loads carried by the noors of dwelling houses reaches 1.4. For wind prossute tho overload factor equals 1.2, for snow 1.4 and for the pressure ~xorted by gr.anular materials it should he taken equal to at least 1.2. When c.ertain special or exceptional combinntions of loutling .arc token into consideration an additional factor called the colnbtnaLlons factor should be introduced on all live loads, t h is factor accounting for the extremely low probability of all l ive loads reachi ng their maximum valtws simultaneously. Tho numerical value of Lhi~ factor tlsually ranges fl'om 0.8 to 0.9. The design strettgt.h of m,auTtals is obtained multiplying thoir normal strength (the latter being stipul!ltcd hy appropriate standards or obtained by dir~ct testing) b y a uniformity factor k, this factor taking care of any possible drop in the strength of tho material used (as co mpared with the aforesaicl normal strength) c.aused by some flucl:uation i n its mechanical properties. This factor will therefore dtJpond sokly on tho propctties oi the o1ntorial nndor consi

(',70

M odrrn DI'Sign. .Ml'thod s

de ration. Tho numerical values of t his factor adopted by th& U .S.S. H. Building Codes arc: for structural low carbon steels from 0.8 to 0.9 for limber working in bending and for ma~onry work 0.4 for t~oncrotes with cube streng1;h between 250 and 600 kg pe.sq em approximately 0.55 . The U.S.S.R. Building Codes contain the values of uniformity factors k for numerous building materials with due reg<Hd to manufac.turing procedures and the usc fo t which thc.go materials. are intoiidcd . Pec.uliaritit\s of working conditions such as l;ho presence of aggressive media, st.rm;s conccnt.rations, the dangnr of brittle failure as well as auy other circumstances alleviating or aggravating the work of the structure must be taken care of hy lhe working condttions factor m , whose value may b~1come bo~h smaller or grcal<.\r than mtily. '.l'hus, for instanee, the working conditions faetor fot riveted jointk ,ados from 0.6 to 1.0 dep(mding on the typo of rive-t.<; and on the use lo whieh those joints arc put; for wooden boams whose minimum cro~s-sec.tiona l dim o nsion~ do not Inll bolow 14 e.m tbe working cumlitions factor is taken equal to L1fJ , aud fot certain precast reinforced concrete <.lemonts tlte Building Corle~ authorize to adopt m. = 1.1. T he wo1king conditions factor is applied to the ultimate loner and consequently a decrease in tho value of tl\iS factor is tJquivak ut; to an increase in the value of the overall safety fact;or. When the design is based on tho first uHiiHnte state the genora] expression HHsuring that tho structnte complies with the st.rengt.h. rcquirOJil(\nts t.akCfl lhc shl\pC of the following inO(llllility
S ..;.~: S,zt

whore S is the inlornal rorr..c developed in the momber under c.ou!';idHration in the even1. or the most unfavourable tombinntion of dAsign loads (service loads mul tiplied by the overload factor} , and Suu is the 11ltimal:!> hL>aring capadty of this partic.ular member cOllll)U ted in tc>.rms of its <~ross-scc.lional di meusions, of t he design strength oE the mate l'ia l (obtained by multiplying itg ac.tual :>t:rt\ngth. lry the appropriate uniformity fad.or) and with due regarrl to Lhe working eonditions factor. In a number of t~n8e~ t he building code~; UtLthorizc the clcsign of fltrttctures on the assumption that failure will OC\:111' well aftet" the appoarancc of nonelastic deronnations. This LL~ads to more ec.onomical use of building mnte.rials, ndvantagc heing talwn in lhis case of tlto reserve of sl!'cngth existi ng beyond the elu.<;tic li mit. Tho ~trains and deflections are u:>ually computed assuming Lhat the <.1 lastk limit o the mntel'ial is never exceeded and roducing t<)

2. 15. o~slgn II/ Staticall!l D ctertltltlnl(' JJcam

uni ty a ll the overload factors. T he following sections will bo devoted to o. brief ontlino of modern design methods ensuring tlle ~trongth of (rnmed structures, these methods taking due account of }>lasti<.'" deformations peculiar to building m a terial~.
2.15. DESiGN OF STATICALLY DETEllMlNA1'E UBAMS

For simplicit:y tho real stress-strain curvG o nn cla!'l.oplast.ic mo.torial is replacad by tho simpliJicrl ructi linear diagrnltl givM i n Fig. 1.1!i. This diagram co nsist~ of an inc.lincil line rop-o&.nting the elastic strain:; and of u horizontal line c.onc~ponrling \.()

Cotnpres~ion

plns Lic. strains. Tho values of y ield s trnsRtlS in 1-t~n~iu n (cry) 1\Cu.l ir~ com}>res.sion (a~) mny differ permi t ting t hereby a hotter rtp rc~enln tiou of the real properties of certain materials surh HS < :<>ncrotc, a:>bc~tos ccmont and certain plastics. It is u.sually u:;.sumod LLat plastic strains f;tit in without any Lransition perioc l as soo11 ns the stress in thu material has c:\.N:cdcd its yit,ld poi nt. For design purpose~; yield s trmsscs rr,, and aiJ art~ repl aced by tho dosign streng th of the matorial R OJ' n' a ll tho caso may be, the l a tter J1eing olltaincd multipl ying yield strosses by t.hl c.or rt>s ponding uniformity factors. Jt is assumed t.hat plastic cleformntions of tho rnatorinls rna y eonlinuc indefinitely a nd that the in<;rcaso in strength due~ t.o s traiu h ardening nHry Le ncglt>cled . S trictly speaking, the sirn p1ilicd diagram can he used only in tho event t.hc plnsl.k doformal.iuus s ustained by the muterinl do not exceed llw l1orhont.a l portion or t.lw

Mc>dtrn Dtsl.gn Methods

l'l'll l

strtlss-strni n cur vu corresponding to th e yield point. For cer-

t.u in building matorials such as rolled steel, this hol"it.ontal s tretch

mny ho quite short.

Failuw of rcinforcucl concreto clements usually occurs wh.o n both tlw rci!lforccrnent and t ho concrete itself havo onterecl the :r.onc of pl a~tic deformations and therefore tho simplified diagram of l"ig. 1.15 remains to a certain exten t applicable. To nll cases where brittle fa ilurtl rnny be expeded the diagram of Fig. 1.15 becomes tota lly unacceptable. Lot us now examine Lhe cross suction of a statically determ inate boam symrMlrknl about it.c; verti<.o. .'l l axis and working in ptttc bending {Fig. 2.15a). For simplicity wo shall assume criJ = ay.

f,

(0'

( b)

( C)

(d)

(e)

(f)

($)

Fi:;. 2.15

As .long as tho stressos at all tho points of this ctoss section reru ai n below tho e lastic limit of tho material (th(~ olaslic l imit coi n"Ciding on tho simplif10d diag-ram wilh tho yield point) tho s tress -diagram for the cross section under cOLSideration will consist of two triangles shown in fig. 2 J 5b. If tho bending u1ome nt is increa.!<od, the stresses in the cross socLion w ill increaso also 1111d tho outt>r f1bres will evc.lntua lly rcacl1 the yie ld point (Fig. 2.15c). At this moment the ptlruly olasLic work of Lho beam comes to an ond, plastic strains beginning Lo develop wil.hin the oxtrcmc ftbros of t ho cross section. 'J.hc method of permissible str<~sscs is based on the assu mption that the bearing capacity of an clement becomes ('Omplotoly exhausted as soon as nonelasti1; strains appear in Lhc outer librt!s of the cross 8Cction. H owever in reality tho st resses in all t ho ftbrcs located d o!5Cr to the neutral axis remain well balo w the yiclrl point of the malol'ial and therc(ore tho loads and bonding m o ments may be fuTthcr increasod without cnt.'liling t.he immediatt~ failuro of the beam.

2. 15. Design of Statlcall!f Determinate Beams

G73

For th ol>H of the f1 bres where the yiel d point h as been already (IXCeHded t.h L> sLres~;es will remain constant while for the Jost of the fibres situatl'd closer to the neutral axis they will c.ont.inue incrensing with a gradual decrease in the depth of the elastic zone (Fig. 2.i5d). If the bending moment is further increased the stress diagram will tend to t hat of Pig. 2.1.5e at which moment the bt>aring capacity of tho beam will become completely exhausted aud a pla~ stic hinge will appear. Such n plastic hinge diffe.rs from an ideal ono lry the fact that. it will function onl y it two couples acLing in opposite directions are applied to this hinge. each ot these couples being equal to tho ultimat-e resisting moment c-orresponding to tho seetion. TbH plastic hinge disappear:; as soon as tha beam is unJoadNl or if the bending mrnnent changes sign. In both ('.ascs t he beam reverts to an elastic. state. The bending moment at the plastic hinge which characterizes tllO rcnl bearing capacity of boam is considerably greater than the hencling moment entailing tho appearance of y ield stresses in the external ftbres of this beam. Tho magnitude of this beonding moment n1ay he obtained in t he following way. On tho formation of a plastie h inge a11 tlte poi nts of tl10 extended portion of a c.ross S(ction arc stressed to au while all the points of the compressed portion are stressed to = 1J.lGu Since the normal force in a cross section working ill pure be.nding equals ~ero, the resultant of all the u nit stresses acting over the extended portion must equal the resultant. of a ll the unit stresse:s acl:iHg over the compressed portion, in other words

av

whercfl'om
L'

'!lauF1 = a0 F 2
I' t = T = '1>-r- 1
F2 F .
t

F
2=

..P +t

F is tho total cross section of the beam.

This equation permit8 the i mmediate detormination of the neut ral axis which may no l onger coincide with th0 horizontal axis of symmetry for the given section. The real hearillg capacity o( the beam, charac.terizcd by t he ultimate bending mome.nt , may be now obtained taking the moment of All the stresses acting at this cro~s section abo11t the neutral axis just obtained. Replacing (.he yield !\tresses a 11 by the design ones R and introduci ng the working condit ions factor m we obtain

.tl,.tt =mR [ 'ljl

sy dF + sY<JdF
1 1

2]

=mfl(,~S 1 +S 2 ) = m RW 11

F1

F:

dF1 and dF 2 (these areas being si tuated in the upper a nd lower

o-S53

where y 1 and y 2 represent the distances of tho elementary areas

fi74

portion of Lhe cross section. respecthely) t.o the neutral axis . auu and s2 a rc tho statica l momentg of t.hcsc two portions about the so.me axis. Ttw term NS 1 S 2) re presents t he plastic resisting motnt:nl of the cross section a nd will bt~ h4ill'eunder desig na L ed hy ~.V ,. T he magnitude of t.he ultimate resisti 11g momeu t wotllcl ronw in unchanged if tho Jltoments the internal forous were refer red to the gravity axis jnstead of tho neutral oot.. J?or ll rectangular cross section tho p lastic resist ing moment bct~onws 1V ~ b ( h" }=\ ~' bh~ . Jl = 'I> 1 L 2 = 2 '~ i + t~ =!. 2 ('jl + 1)

s,

or

s+
h
j

wht>re b nnd h rl'prcsent respectively the widt h. aud llw dr>plh

of tht~ <:ros~ set~Li ou, and

'ljl - '[

h.,
I

~2 --., t~ -f- 1

~h

\Vben '~ ~ 1 , a s i ~ the case for structural !\tC<'l, W P equals T consequently

bf12

Hnd

w Tl w

bh2 . bh'l !, .

6 -

15
.

W roptesonling as usua l t.he elustic res is ting momen t of th~ croKS sectiou. When 'I> """ 2 as in the case for asbesto!! cctnen t we obtain

W p= T

bh2

and -w- = 2.0

w1>

Tt follows that the bearing capaci ty of structural clements may be increased quite COillliderabJy if d ue account. is taken Of the plastic s trains which may develop.
For H-b~1a m s and 1-beams the ratio 1/ equnl!> apt>roximntely 1.15 (prMidcd 'lj) = 1) and in thaL c.ase the plastic. design becomes lt,ss attractive. For those of tho mat-erials whose -tV fac.tor is the grontest tho economy derived from plast i~: design becomes very noticeable for it becomes possibl ~ to increase the service loads twice or oven more . Tho distribution of stresses and plas tic zones along Lho !>part of the IJca m is ~nLire l y dependent on t he handjng mo ment diagram. During unloading tho strai n$ decrease along a s lrai~;ht line (dottttl li ne iu Fig. 1.15) parallel to the one represe nti ng their i ncrease during loading wh ile the hody ~; t ill works a!l a rt elns Lic one. Honee during unload ing t ho material behaves ag-a i n as n purely clastic one and tho stresses a t any parti<:ular slage of this opP. ratio u will be givtln by the shaded portion of the diag ram o bta i ned by !;ltperposition and given in F ig . 2.15/.

n'

9.1.'i. lJtstgn of Statically /ndt'tuminatt Beams

675

When the lwanl is c.om p1~tcly unlonded the stress diagram will tako the shapo indicated in Fig. 2.15g. The moment due U> the internal forces musL vanish for upon com plete unloading t.ho hcndi ng moment hecomos equal to zero itself. Jt should bo JlOt.ed that the hearing cRpacily of beams cunying transversal loads mny be reduced considerably due to tho inn uence o( shonring stres~s. which bec.ome particularly dangerous when the olustic limit is exce~dod.
Ptuhlf'.m. n~.quirc!d to st:lec.t llw c.ros!-!;etl-ional dimensirm~ o[ a simply bt!am 6 m long maclo of lt~w carLon s tct>l, t-hl' dead load 011 the het1m cq1wlling 2 ton.~ pol' nHtrc ancl a conc.entrated liv(l load of 5.0 t.ons being llPJllietl nt mlclspan. Tb41 ovcrllnd factMs CQ\lnl rc~rcctlvoly 1.1 for tho dead loud and J .4 for t-ht live lo:uJ; lh l' working comlit.ion.~ fnctor m equnls 0.!)0. T ho de~ign SIJ'I'ogtll 11f ]ow c.arhon doe] R will be taken !'qlllll t.o 2;100 kg por fq ern. Solu tion. The tl Mign moment at m iclspnu is
-ll[lpor~otl

.lt

=s- -:r-=

11q1Jl 2

npPl

1.1 x2.0xG~

1.. 4X5x6

= 9. 9

+1t1.5 = 20.4

t.

ton-metres= 2,040,t)00 kg em

'fll' bearing cupaciLY or a steel beam working in bending is given hy Muu =m.Ull'p=0.9 X 2,100W p = 1,890lV 1,

LeL us adopt. an 1-beam whoso plastic resisting moment w,, ... t.!5W . ttl(lllling tht: <le.sign hondi ng mom~nt to thu ultimate res isting moment or tho benm we finil
lfuct = 1,8UOW p

"hiclt loads to
1,8~0

X 1.15W = 2,().10,000

where from

lf'=!l40

em~

\V(' shall dwosr. n 36c I -be.am (the c.s.s .". Stute Sl.undattl) with II resisti ng mornnt oJ !l62 cma. Were the snme bt:am designed using the pemdssiblu !'tros..<es met hod we shou ld hn,e to use a IIOc 1- hel!m .

3.15.

DES IGN OF STATICAI.LY INDETERMINATE BEAMS

Th~ <'Omplet.e ~xhaust:ion of the;~ bearing capacity of certain redundant mcntbers of a structure will not entail iLs foilurc provided the romai1l iJ1g members continue to form a geomotricaJly stable system capable of c.arrying tho applied load. Plastic defo-rmations o f the overloaded m~c~mbers will lead lcJ a redistribution of stresses whkh will increase tho bearing powt~r of the structure as a whole. Complete failure of the latter will occur only when the num ber of members whose b earing capacity has been exhausted beco mes equal to the numl>er oi redundant constraints inc-reased by 1. Thll plastic design of statically indeterminate s tructures may be carried oi1t 43*

67G

Modem Design

Method.~

using the method of plastic hinges which, in its more general form, is known in tho U.S.S.R. under the name of the method of ultimate equilibrium. Both the static and the kinematic procedures may be utilized. Tho kinematic procedme requires the knowledge of lines or points of failure, permitting the formation of equilibrium equations portaining to the mechanism into whic.h the struc.turo will be converted once its bearing power has been exhausted. It is usually assumed that all external loads increa:;e simultaneously and in the same proportion and that thoir points of application, directions and signs remain unchanged. It is also assumed that the pattern of tho actual failure will be the one corresponding to the minilllum value of tho ultimate load. J~quations of ultimate equilibrium may he based either on statics or on the principle of virtual displacements. In the latter case it is assumed that infwitesimal displacements occur; those displacements remaining c.onsistcnt with the constraints subsisting after the transformation of tho structure into a mechanism. Tho $tatie procedme requires that the internal forces should be distributed in the redundant structure in such a way that togethet with tho initial or inherent stresses they should lead to its failure. For this purpose some distribution of internal forces ill equilibrium with the applied loads is chosen and thereafter a number of additional systems of: internal forces, each of these systems being balanced, i.e., corresponding to zero loads, arc added thereto. The number of these additional systems must be equal to the number of redundant constraints of the given structure. Tho ultimate equilibrium is roached when the hearing capaciLy of certain members of the s truc.ture becomes l:\Xhausted. The real distribution of int.ernal forces will corrcspoud to the maximum breaking load possible under the given conditions. Both tho static and the kinematic procedures if applied to the samo redund ant structure will a lways lead to the same results. Ju a number of cases resort may be made to the so-called melhod of moment equalization, derived from the ldnematic procedure. The appearance of each plastic hinge in a continuous beam always corresponds to the elimination of one constraint and therefore red uces by one the degree of redundancy o the given beam. Hence the bearing power of the beam will lJe completely exhausted as soon as the number of p lastic hinges has hecomo equal to the degree of redundancy of the heam plus one. It should be remembered however that the hearing capacity of each single span will be also exhausted as soon as three hinges appear within its length. For this reason every span of a continuous beam must be also considered separately.

9.15. Desil(tt a.f Stat ically Indeterm inate Beam r

677

Let u.s take the continuous beam showu in Fig. 3.15a whose bearing cap acity is required for the gi\eo distribu tion of loads. First let us replace t.he given beam hy a conjugate statically determinate structure consisting of a series of end-supported beams as indicaled in Fig. 3.1.5b and let us construct separately for each of tlaese bt<ams t he diagrams o.f bending moments induced, on tbe

Fig. 3.15

one hand, by the ultimate moment which may b(>, developed at each of the supports (Fig. 3.15c)* and, on the other hand, by thll bondillg momen ts duo to the ultimate loads whose points of application ancl directions al'e given but whose magnitudes remain unknown (Fig. 3.15d). It is clear tha t tho ordinates at tho supports to the diagram of bending moments entailing the formation of plastic hinges at the said supports will repre!\ent the ulti matt! ben ring power of the correspondillg cross sections of the bB arn

M1 , u.lt; Mz, ult; i\1s. ull; il1,, ult The resulting bending moment diagram will be obtained by superposition of the negative bending moment diagram duo to t he
This di ogram hos heon constructed on tlLC nssumpti<m lhat tho ultimate Stl'cngth of the beam varil'S from syppor~ to support.

(i78

Modern Dtslttn Mtl/tods

aforesaid moments at tho supports with the diagra1n of positive bending moment,s induced by the applied loads iu oad1 span of t he conjugate ~;impl e s tr ucture. T he scales of the~;e two dingrn ms will be so selected that in each span the maximu m positive ordinates to the diagram of the resu lting moments should represent the bcadng cnpacity of corres ponding cross sections (Fig. 3.15e}. 'l'he numerica l value of the uLtimate load for each span will be found l'qun ting t.he maximum ordinate to the bending moment diagram pertaining to the eonjugatc end-supportod beam to the sum (in absolute values) or tho maximum ordinate to t he resulting diagram within the span under consideration with tho ordinate at tho same cross section due to the a pplication of ultimate mornent.'! at the supports. Thus, for in!':tance, in the first span from loft to right we shall have
P 1 u.uab _ ;lf 1, 11 ua
l, --11-

+ M A,ult

wherefrom p Since #11 , ull = wh erefrom

+ llfB. ult) q2, ul/ = 8(M,, uu li
M~. ull
_Mt.ult ...J... MA,ut.tlt 1, ult b , ali

for the sec-ond span we shall have:>

q2,uttU M 8- = 1 t,
u.lt

+M 11. ult

Similarly for tho fourth span we shall have

P 4 , 1atl4 = ---gi'da. nil +2M,, u.lt ::1 :1

+M

D, u/1

wherefrom P 4 , ult

= Ms. uu+2M,,14utt+3Mo,

u.lt

Knowing th~ va lues of the u ltimate resisting moments we can easily determine the ultimate loads for endt l!-pan which will lead to the value of the ultimate load for the beam as a whole. When t he ultimate re~isting moment of the continuous beam remains constant. the determination of ultimate loads becomes particu larly simple. Indeed in that case the desired result will he achieved if the maximum ordinates to the re~uLting bending moment diagram within t he spans are made equal to those at the supports (Fig. 4..15). When it is desired to solve the inverse problem or, in other words, Lo fmd t he necessary cross-sectional dimensions corresponding to a given loading, one should start by the construction of bending

_ _ _ _ _ _:J :...: .::.J..;.; 'i.~ fJ.::.e.s:.:i!!..gl.::.'...:o.!..f..:S ..:. t.:.:.: nt .:.:.: lc :...: a .:.:.: Ll ::. Y-.:l :..:n.:.:.d :.:.el:..:.t.;.; rn.:.:.~..:.ln:.:.:a:..:te ;...JJ~eo=n:.:.'s =------_.::..; (;7!1

moment diagra ms for each of t he spans regarded as a separate ends uppol' l:ed boam . This heing dono, the values of maximum bend ing moments in the span and at the su ppor ts should be c.hoson in such a way that their ratio should be tho samo as the ratio or lhe resisting moments at the corresponding cross sections. This latter ratio should be adopted beforeha nd fo r otherwise an i nfinite ly groat number of solutions woald become possible. Assume, J'or insta nce, that it is required to construct the diagram of tht' design bonding momont for the continuous hoam of Fig. 4.171, a ll the loads be ing knowtl both in amount and in direction.

Fig. 4.15

Assuming tl1at the desig n momen ts IHO equivalen t t o the ultimate ones the desired diagr am .for each span will be obta inod in tho sam> way as tho ultimate moment diagram. First tho bending mo~ ment diagrams induced by the given loading in all the coJtjugate end-supported beams wil1 be c.onstructod a nll the per tinent ordina tes to these diagrams computed. Thereafter one may proceed with the proli minary equalization of tlle beuding moment diagrams for each span a:; indicated in Fig. ) .15b. If the cross section of the beam is to remai n constant throughouL, Hs dimensions are chosen to rogjst the maximum bending mome nt . Jn t ho case under consideration tho bonding moment. acting in t he first span is the groatcst of nll. I t is o bvious that no plastic h inges will appear in any of the other spans under the given loading. If it were mquirod to construct the diagram of bendi ng roo rnen ts leadiug to t ho fo rmation of plastic hinges in all the loaded spans one should proceed with the e qualization of moments acting immediately to t he left and immediately to the right of each support. In doing so, one should a lways start with the spans carrying the

(;80

Motkrn Vesf[(n

l~fethuds

srnall!.'r loads passing tbeteafter to th& spans characterized b y gradua lly increasing maximum bending moment.s. Thus , in the example under cousidoration one should start with tho second span [or which the preliminary beading momen t diagram will he adopted as tho f10al ono. The diagram for the firs t span wiU

Ftg. 5.15

be obtained immediately since the bend ing moment at the tightha!td s upport is already known (Fig. 5.15a) a nd tho one at the lefthand s upport is nil. Theteafter one should pass t o the foutth span which is p1oc.eded by tho unloaclcd span 3 . Hence the pre liminary bending moment diagram for span 4 can also he adopted as t he final one . The diag ram for the third span will be obtained connec.ting by a straight IillO the ordi nates over supports 2 and 3 which are already known. The resulting bending moment diagram is represented in Fig. 5.15c. This diagram may he usod for the determination of cross-sect ional d ime nsions both over the supports and v.;thiu the spans . It is clear t,hat theso dimensions wil[ diffel' from suppor1; to :.upport and from span to span but the beam wil1 be of equal resistance for the given system of loads. Other solutions could be found if the ratios b('tween the resisting momenl,s At the supports and in the spans were taken differ-

3.15. IJI!sigtt of Slnttcally lndetcr mtna.tc Beams

ti81

eut from unity. If a beam of equal resistance were not specilied still more St1lutions to the same problem could be obtained. OnCI could also use the bending moment diagram obtained fot an el11stic r.ont.inuous beam. The cross-sectional dimensions would be bll.Sild in t.h ;ll c.asc on tho valu es of bending moments obtained through th e N)ualizntion of t hose at the supports with those in tho spnn!>. f n Cel't.ain C!ISl'S it beeOtnCS OCC9S~ary to ftnd the safety factor for a ~ i ven continuous beam carrying a well-defmed system of loads. I n that case one must dl:ltermine the bearing cap acity of ear.h spau . whkl should be done as indicate.d in Figs. 3 .15 and /. d :) equalizing the ordinates to tho b ending momcnt diagrams nt the supports nnd within the spans with the only difference that Lhe beariug cnpacities of different cross secLions should be now com puted disr-t~garding the working conditions factors. The latter will he calculated for each span soparaLely, d ividing the magnitude of tho ul Limatc load obtained by the amoont of tho loads actually
applit:~d.

Tho sa me poblem c.ould he dealt with in a somewhat diffcn1t t One could start by tho construction of the diagram for the oqualized bonding moments as in Fig. 5.15, dC~ri ve therefrom the req uired cross-sec.tional dimensions for each span and theroaftl"r compare the b earing capacit ies corresponding to the dimensions found with those of th e given beam. This proc.edure will pe mit again the determination of the actual values of the working conditions factor.>. Up lo the presen t we have assumed that plastic h iuges will ap pear either at the suppor ts or at those cross sec.tions where the bending moments pass t hrough thl:lir maximum. I n actual practicu beams whose beari ng capacity varies sharply from section to se.ction are freqnently encountered (for instance, reinforced concrote beams). In those cases it is impossible to determine beforehand the loCiltion of plastic h inges. To find them one must ftrst t race tho diagram representing the variation of tho bearing capacity nlong each span (Fig. 6.15). Such a diagram will usually consist of a positive and a negative brouch . since each cross section is capabl e of resisting both positive and negative bending moments, evt'n though their magnitudes may differ considerably. Th e bonding moment diagram should thereafter bo inscribed into the diagram mentioned above (the ultimate resisting moment diagram) in such a way t.bat the t wo should have at least t hree common points. The location oE these points will indic.ate tho position of the plastic hinges. Assume, for instance, that the diagram for the resisting moments along the first span of t he beam given in F ig. 4.15 is represented
m~ n Mr.

682

Modern Destgn Methods

by the broken lines shown in Fig. 6.15. I nscribing into the lnt.ter the bending moment diagram for the same span we shall lind that a
b

Fig. 6.15

the plas~ic. hinges will appear in cross sections A and E. The ttltimat:e value for load P will he determined on the basis of l:hes!) two

Ftg. 7.15

diagrams, its val ue being equal to

_
t. ult -

,lfE, ult

bl

+ MA,ult(a+bt\ abt

In the case of a continuous beam of varying bearing capacity plastic hinges may appear at different points as indicated in Fig. 7.15. Each different set of these plastic hinges will lead to a

3 .1/$. Design. of Statically lndetl'rminate JJcams

difh~rcnt

li83

value of the ultimate load and therefore, for design purposes. one should adopt the smallest of tht>se values deduced from the comparison of differen t failure pattel'llS. It is obvious thai; such fa ihue patterrlS which are inconsistent with the stipulation of tlw wohlem should be rejected. When a heam c.arries both dead and live loads which rnay vary in amount llut whose ratio remains constant, the u himate val uE:'l! of these loads will be found using an envelope diagtam for Lite bending moments. The ordinates to this diagram will b~ given iu Lerms of a single parameter determining simultaneously the magnitude of both dead and live loads. Assuming t hat the bean1 rcmnins el asti(~ and having obtained the correspondi11g bending moment diagram. one should proceed with the equaliza Lion of the maxi rn urn bending moments with due consideration to the ultimate re.sisting moment:s of Lhe beam. This being done, the required ultimate Joctds will be easily found . \Vhen both the dead and live load.s are known hefort>.hand the required cross-scctionat resisting moments may he computed equalizing the ordioates to the b onding moment diagram due to the above loads mult iplied by the overload factorl'. All the above leads to the important conclusion that the methnd oi p lastic. hinges permits the design of continuous beams withou t: resorting to equations based on the de.flections of the structure. It is worth mentioning also that the formation of plastic hinges reduces the redundant continuous b eams t-o the st.ate oi a mechan ism, which is completely uneffected by such factors as the settlement of supports. temperature changes, or erection defects. Partly ti.xed ends become equivalent to tho rigidly JJUil t-in
Olll\S ,

Onc.c a c<>ntinuous beam has been loaded beyond its elastic lirniL residual deformations and stresses will appear. These stresses will m>t balance within oach section as was the case with statically detenn inate bearns, fo1 the redundant constraints will develop c.ertain reactions whic-h will not reduce to zero upon withdrawal of the loads. The d eterminat ion of residual stresses is rather complicated hut sin ce these stresses have practically no in-fluence on the bearing capacity of the structure this question will not be studied here.
Pl'u!Jlem. Dotenuine the hoaring Cll)lacity of a continuous I-bt"llffi slwwn in ~ig. 8.15, whose resisting momont W = 237 cm3. TILe herun is mad<) of low carbon steel with a design ~trength of 2 ,100 kg por sq em. D 1e wo1king conditions factor m = t. Solution. The ultimnte moment which can loe developed by the cross S<!Ctlon of t:his 1-bearn working in bending equals

Mutt =mRW p=mR1.15W=i.0 X2,100X 1.15X 237= =573,000 kg-em =~.73 ton-metros

Il!odun Duit:TI Methods Sinco tho bendi og momunt within the span and at th e support must be (!qual '~o shal I havo for tbe first span
whcJ't~ fJ<lll

Pu/.1l1 _ .,~

- - " ' "1 ult 4

8Mult 8x5.73 Pu.u = - - = - -- - c; 9. 18 tous ll ". 0

Fig. 8. J!i

Sim ilurly for th ll socon<l

~pan

we shu II .find

qu~ll = 2J'I'[ ult

v.hererr orn
q,./1 =

16Muu ----q=

t6 X 5. 73 _ 4 02

5. 73 tons per metre

lor tho cantilever

2Muu 2 X 5. 73 ~ q..u = ~r=~ =;,. IO tons pe>r metrt>

4.15. DESlG:N OF REDUNDANT FHAMES AND AT\CHES

Frames and arcbcs are usually St\bjcctcd to the simult.aueous action of bendi ng moments and nol'mal forces and consequently we must study fi rst the combined action of normal and flexural stresses on a cross section working beyond its elastic limit,. Wt:> shall assume that t he u ltimate strengths (or yield stresses as the case may l>e) of tho material in extension (0' 11) and in comp ro..~ion ( 0'~ = '110'11) differ but that the eros.'! section posse...~es a t least one symmetry axis in tho plane of the beiJding moment Mull If in

4.1-'>. De$ign of R eduTida.nt Frames an.d Arches

1185

addition to this moment the c.toss section is also sul1jected to a normal force ;V acting a long its axis (Fig. 9.15), a plastic hinge will appear at this section when the diagram of film.~ stresses will take the shape indicated in Fig. 9.15c. The neutral axis will shift

Fig. 9.15

towards the edge o the cross section. its dista11ce from the c.entre increasing with the reduct.ion of e NMu.u. The magnitude of the

uhimnt.e normal force will equal the resultant of all the fihre stresses acting over the given cross section and will be given by

lJ./t

Nt,u = a 11 ('i'F 1 - Fe) where F 1 and F 2 :ne the areas of the compressed and extended portior1s of a cross section. respectively. Since F 1 ..:... F2 = F we can easily find the areas of both portions j u ~t mentioned which will determine t he position of the nontra I
it XiS

J11 t.his expression N~u = 'l'a yF represents the value of the ultimate normal load for the cross section working in direct c.ompression. The maximum value of the bending moment which may be applied simultaneously with a normal load Nuu will be givan by
Muu = a11 (~>F,Vt F 2!/z) = M~u V \vhcre y 1 alld y 2 are the distances of the centroids of the com pressed and extended pc>rtions to the gravity axis of the whole cross section. a.nd Jl1~ 1 t = a,1 Wp is the ultimate bending moment which r.o11 ld be applied whc.n the element works in pure bending. Henc.o I h o value of v given by
v
'l)lF I!IJ+F2Yz

wP

will reflect the i nfluence of a normal load on the resistance which a cross section may develop to flexural stresses, Wp representing as usual the plastic resisting moment of the same cro$ section .

i'tlour,.,

Dt~tgrl

Methods

T h o ln L ter must be delt>rmin od w ith due con~idera lion to t.h t> di ftcreoc.e het.woon the values o[ the y ield or u1timate stresses iu co mpes.,ion nnd in exl.ension. F or a recta ngular (:ross section whose
v 2JJ
l8 - o c - rfCJrbll 2 n . Mutt .. M, u v ' Mu:!. - Ul+tp) ' Nult - I/JC1ybh

~]

2.0

1 .8

!6

'" 2

""'I" ' ~
.,../ I--

10

i!:'tz

as
O.G

o. z

j 'If J~= l tp=2 ~.J/ ~-4

tpO

~ 1/

t v~~ rtp1
cf'O

v~

C/1'4

I. 6

l4

.\'.\ l/ tp .'(1'\ r: ~"'

tp 'l?, ~ \.\~

/} ~ ~ """\\

!fJJ

l'l
1.0
0.8 0. 6
0.~

I 0 -0. 8 -O.G

I II

~~
~ N,l(

I~ ~

O'l.

-0. 't .- 0 2

D'l

Dlr

D G 0. 8

10

btenston

CompressiOn

Flj!. Jfi. J,'.

width n11d depth arc given h y b nud h respectively and whose rc. . wP = Z(l ~:-bh2 fi d SJSLtng moment + '~\ we ITI
h - ( 'l.-!...1; N ''" 1=1 -I- 'If

'

't

N~/1

11) .'

ht = ~
-r 'l.>

(1 - N~,t N u.u)

v ~ (1flh11!2 +h1h2) (I + II') -= ( 1 1J>h2

+ \j; Nuu )
Ntll

( 1 _ N,,lt ) N~, 11

Tn Fig . 10 .15 we have .repre8Emted graphically the values of v in Lenns of: t he at;io N~u for d iff erent vahJ!!S of q>. Sim ilar graphs
Nu lt

4.1[/. D e$tgn of Redrmdant Framr.s a11d Arclu:.s

(l87

cou1d bo obtained for reinforced concrete members. The examination of: those curves shows that when the yield point or ultimate strength of the material in compression and in ex.tensioll remains equal ('II'= 1) tho value of vis always smaller than unity. On tho othet hand, when the said ultimate stresses or yield points cliffer ('ljl =I= 1 ), the value of v may be.c.ome gl'e,ater than unity. It f<lllows that in the latter case the ultimate resistance which may ho developed by the given momhHr to .Dexm:al loadf; will he increased by the application of a normal. load. The case when 1p = 0 is purely theoretical and therefore devoid of prac.tic.al 'interest. .For design putposos Cfy should be n~placed by the product mRext or, in other worrls, hy the 1l esign tensile ~trength of tlae mltterial. \Vhen des igning redundant arc.bes and fnurws lhe main dirftcult.y will always r..vn!'i$;t in the determination of tho po!':itiou of plast.ic hinges or, in other wol'dS. in the prediction of the failure paU.ei'Jl i'or tho gi vf\n structure. Ju a number of cases preliminary analysis of tho struc.tnre as <'Ill elastic body may he quite helpful, for it may be assumed lhaL plastic hinges will form at those cross sections where tho bending moments pass through thei maximum. 'l'hf! pattern of. failure for an arch of t.wo hinges will differ depending on the load points. H Ute loads are symmetrical, failure will occur wit.h tho formation of: four pl;.tStic hinges (Fig. H .1f,a), tlwir number falling to thl'ee when the two central hin~-res mtrge (Fig. 11.15b). In the event of non1;ymmetrical loading tlw numb<n of plastic hinges equals two (Fig. 11.15c). It ean be easily shown Lhat the proc.edurc of the eqnalization of rnoximurn ordiuates to the bending moment diagrams remains applicable to the design of two-hinged arches (Fig. 12.15). Ha.viug replaced the gi\r.en redundnnl arch by the c.onjugal,e simple sLruc.l.ure let us construct for the latter the dingr.am of b!.'JH'Iiug moments lv.f, due lo the thrust X 1 as well as the j}-fp diagram for an end-supported rcierenc.e beau1 of the !>ame span acted upon by the same )(lads. Tho di agram for the resul ting mome.nts .Jf will be obtained through the summ.a tion of the ordinates to the M 1 :tnd jlfr1 diagrams with due oonsid eration to their respective signs. It. should he noted that the outline of the 1lif1 diagram follows exnctly the shape or: the ue.ut.ralline o.f the arch. The desired ~;otntion will be obtained choosing the scales .for Lhe two diagrams rnent.iont'd above in such a way that. Lhe maximum ordinates to the resuhiugdingt'IHn at these cross sections where plastic hinges are liable (,n appear should he in tho same ratio as the bearing copacities of the same cross sections. Sinc.e these c.ross sections wor.k both in bonding ond in comp ..essioJl their bearing capacity must lle determined in torrns of v. As

(:88

Modern Destg11 Methods

the normal stresses acting at each c.ross section are still unknown,
it becomes necessary to adopt somo arbitrary value for this c.oef-

ficient. In the first approximation 'II may be taken equal to 1 .0. The resulting bending moment diagram obtained as d ~scribed above will enable us to find the magnitude of the ultimnLc loads using tho relation between the ordinates to this diagrmn in the

Pig. 11.15

Fig. 12.15

same wuy as described in the preceding article for continuous

beams. The location of plastic binges will coincide wi.th the maximum ordinates to t he resulting bending moment diagram. \V~re it necessary to obtain the bending moment diagram due to a given system of loads regarded to bo ul timate. one should start by tbe conslruction of the diagrnm for the reference boant from which the required diagram will be deducted using the moment equAlization method. The pattern of failure of a faxed end symmetrical arch will depend on the loading and may he eithPr symmetrical or nonsymmetricnl. ln thll first case the number of plastic hinges will amount to six or fi vo if tho distance between two central hinges reduces to zero (Fig. 13.15a nod b). In the second cnse failure of the arch will he preceded by the formation of a t least four plasLic hingps as in Fig. 1::S.f5c. In order to determine the ultimate strength of a fixed end arch loL us adopt as conjugate simple structure the one given in Fig. 14.15a and let us constmct the resuHi.ng bending moment diagram MI due to the simultaneous action of tho unknowns X., X 2 and X 3 together with the Mp ditlgrnm due to the loading whose

f . 75. /Jt'slgu vf Ji ~du11dalll Framt's 1wd Arclrn

118!1

intensil.y rcmnins ~lso unkn()wn. The numl!rical values as well us the signs or tho ordinates to the Jl1 r. d ingrn m, M "t. bc~i ng equal to Aft l- M 2 il-fJ re.mnin unknown. T he finn! diagram fot Lite resulting bonding notllCitLs will he obtained addi11g tngetlter the o din~1Les t.o the J l1p nud l.u UHl M>: diH~tams mcnsmed at one and th1 su me cross sec.lions (l'ig. 14.:J5b). SiJH:e the system of loads i ~ nm1sym ruettical, failnro wi II occur

Pig. 18.15

Fig. 11.15

with the formation ur four plastic biuges which will open up nltllrnal.i v~ly-o ne upwa td::: nud 1 ;hc other dow11wards. Tht- maximum ordinutes (in abs.o luto value) to l.bo re.sulting ])cu!liug molllont; diagrnrn Olu!'it coincide with th e l ocation oJ these pln s ti<.~ hinges aud must he nunlericnlly equal l.o the ulLimn l.e strengl h of tha cotre~poncling cross sectic)OS. 1'he signs o( these (ll'dinnt.es will change from hinge to lringe. 1I t hl' lo~tds are known bollt ilt direction and in amount, the ordinates to tho hl'ndiug mornenl diagram for tht- r~fcroncc beam nrc complet.ely dett>rmiued permitting t'omputnlion of tho ordinnhs to tha finnl hendi11g moment diagl'arn for the arc,h. 'J:ht~ influence o[ normal stress~Js will be accounted for in the sa me way as cxplnilled previously for the case of two-hinged arches.
l'roblem. lhlquired til e 1\nnl bending mnruenl diagram for u lixcd-end arch whuN! neutral Jinl.' rollows a paraboln. i'J1o ~pan tho arch l = 12 m, its rise f .., 3 '" and tho nitimato stJtmgt.h or all th o cross eections in bc11ding remains the S~ome. 'rhc arclo is acted upou by a r.oncenlratcd load P,.u = 20 tons uppJicd at thl\ Cl'uwn ( Fig. J5.15tt}. Sotutton. The fmnl hendiug momont dia~ram will bt' obtoincd summing U(l tloe ol'dinntes to tho bendi11g mornont diugralll due t.o the thrust H = X 1 ,

or

44 - i!H

6!10

.Modern Destgn lltfctJwtis

to those indu~d by tho tixed end momont s M,. = M 1l = X 2 and LO tho <me induc.ed by tho load P, nll theso dla~rams rdating to the conjugate sunplo struc turo represented in Fig. 15.15&. Smco failure of a syrnmotrically loaded a<'c.h will occur with tho fotr.nation of tivc plastic hing<~s . Lho final bending momont diagram will have the shape indicated ln Fig. 15.15c.

c
.(a)

'tzt

(b)

x,_~r--+--+
(C)

Ftg. 1.;.1.5

Th(' tlwust will be dclcnninod using tht' following relation d<.>rlucod f1om
thnt diagram

Since

wo obtain
111~ P,_,tl 20 X 12 H = - - = - - = - - - = 20 ton>!

4.!

4X 3

Tho hondiug mocnont a~ c.ross section XD whoso position i~ yel unkuown hut which coincides with the plastic hinge D will be giv<'n by
' f D,uu=i 'f A , <
ult

+i'f" l D-

'! yD=itA,ult+ ,. ,; -Pu.Jt 2

x D - --1' H41Xn l X D) = ~-(= llJA, ult-iOXD+ i

A'b

-1..1.~.

D('$ign of

u~dwulant /<'rD.mes (llld

A rcht!t

691

Thc IK'nd ing mom en~ di agram r;allSinK tit rough its maximum nl th is poin t. tl10 ti r:;t dcrivnti\'o tnusL be n il und CtlllSCtpltmlly
dlfo = - 10+ !EXo= 0
dX11

wlwrdrmn Xv=3 ID<.!l-res. It follow:; thnt

Mo,,.u

= MA, ult-10Xn+i-;q,~-... ,\ { D, 11 11

lifo , uu - 30+ 15

" herd rom

Mo,uft = - 7.':. ton-111etrcs
;\{A,ult =Me. ull ,.,, -

=7.5

tou-mctrcs

Xcxt teL us examine Lhe si mple port11 l frame g i ven ifl Fig. '1 6.t5. Thi~ frame which is subjcc ~ed Lo horizontal uuiform ly di~ttibuted loads will collapse with the f<lrmulion of two plnstic hinges. 1:-"'ig. 16.15 reproseuts the bending momont diagra m for this frame providoo lh e frhro stre!ISI!S re rnain below Uu~ clastic limi t o( the mat.eT ial. The normal stress !n the cros.~ bea ul r.emain ing constant, the loc.a Uon of Ll1t> plus!.i1; hinges will depeHd snlely on the value of bending momonts, and 1 -hOl't>forc- the hinges must be loca ted at C and D whee Lhe said moments reach tloir mn~imum. For 1 -ho same eason Fig. Ui. TS plnsliC hinges in the c.olum ns may rorm oul y at points D' and E. Theoretically the number of possible combination~ uf plastic hingE' -S wi ll equal six but practically this number Jails to four, namely, C and D, C and D', E anrl D , and fwally E au<f D'. T he ult.imat.e strength of tho fram e must be deLcrminNl for each of t hese four possible combinations of plastic hinges, it .s lower value indi<:-ating 1 ;ho one correspondi ug to actual fnilJre. 1n eac.b case tho ultimate strength will be derived from the equilibrium of the llltlchanis m ohtainod by the introduction of two pl a.~ ti c hinges fun c-tio ning under a constant momen t. Tho exac~ plastic design of mulli-story building fnliiH~s remoins still Yery complicated, but a pproxi ma te wethods al'e quito simple. (n Lht$ case of vertical loads a loue esort c.an Le made lo the procednrt.> described in the second paragraph of Ar t. 3.1 4, be-nding momenl s heing equali1.e.d for each Spl1 n separatel y \\-; t.J , due regard Lo t he u ltimate strength of the cross section at tho supports a nd in the spans. In actnal practice furLber si mplincations are frequen tly introduced. 'J'hu~. in determining the b(.lnding moments aL lhc s upports

the load i-ng o f Ute neighbou ring spans is s imply ucglcctcd. This lea..ls to a reduction of <lbout ::15 per cent iu the support rnomenl s when the li ve loads do not exceed f\ve t i mes the dead loads. W he n Lhe hui ld i ng fra me is subjected t.o horizontal lol\ds a cling nL tho joiul.s, a procedure sim ilar to the o ue described in Llle third patugraph of Arl. :-3.1Ll may be used. With due regard to ]Jiastic deform ation (Fig. 17.15) l.his procedure wil l he hused on the fo llowing considerations: al each floor lo\'el thll reRult.uut of 111l horizoutal forc.es t ransmitted from the upper Jloors wi ll oq ual Hw rmmllaut of !>!waring $trt>sses acting across
-~---,.=

-~-----~=-~--~
-+-.JA~t.---ll........d-

-i
/

(0)

{b)
F ig. 17.15

th e top sol:l.ions uf all the columns c,f tho lower floor. h wi ll be that: this resultant is dis t.ributcd among all the columns of thaL pllr't.i cular flvoc in direct proportion to t.h t> rul.io between tbc 1rllimate sLreugt.h of tile col umu CI"OSS section in bending nnd tho del;ign length o t he same column. Wlwn all t ht> col urnns have t.h t> SHmo length, it will be assurned that the re.ullant will he di:>t l'ill\ltl'd among all tho columns in dilcct proportion lo their ultirntLu ~;t.rength. I n thHt ease the maximum !!ending moment at the upper nnd Jowur sccLilius of each c.olumu will lle given by
llSSII!lH\ d

When balancing all the inter mediate joints one must lake care

to distribute l ht- column bending moment .a mong the floor beams also in direct proportion to the ultimate strength o ~he latter. In the first approximalivn the ultimate stl"engtll of t h e floor beams
may he computed disregarding tho infl uence o[ normal stresses.

!). 1.5. Design of R~dttndant Trusses

u93

5.15.

DESIGN OF RDUNDAJ\T TH USSES

Tho plnslic design of rcdundnut trusws is ha:<ed on t ho SSimo con:>idcrati.on os that of the framed strueturos with rigid joilll$ and the main dir!iculty lies once again in the fae.t that lho fuilurc pntlltn i.s not known he[orehand. It may become therefore nt.<cossnry to examine n lar'gl! number o[ rlifforeut possi bil itios. It is clear that act.ual fai l ure will follow the paHEH'Il CMresponclin~ to the ntiuimum vah1e of the ulLimatc load. Lot u:; uxnmine the statically indeterminate ttuss of Fig. 18.1.') provided with a siugle redundant member. Failure of this truss will occur whcu the c lastic limit or the material is exoocrled in at

IQIISt. lwo of its rnomhcrs. Since tho trus.s cont.ains 1 7 hars , nil tho po~iblo combinations of two bars out of 17 must. be exumi ul:'tl.

Even if the i rnpossibte combinations aro tejected, the J'emnining number will be w gt:eat that no practical solution of the prohltlnl could he nt.tSiincd in this way. Consequently, it becomes much e.asi<H' to compt' te all Lhe st.re.-;ses i11 Lho re.d u nda nt Lrn~~; rcgn rd i ng it 11!1 an c lastic body and to fmd the member in which the e lnsl.ic limit will be exceeded in t:bo first place. When this ru embot i~ fouud, the stresses in all the othel' memboJ"s are rccalcu latod ag;dn on the assumptio n that t.ho stre-HS in the first one will remaiu con~ l,ant and P-qual to Nu.u = mRF. In l;hal: way the second bnt in which tho elastic. limit will be again exceeded may be fouud. I L wi ll ht- uccessnry to <:a-ry out similar cornprtations ns mn11y times as lherc are redundant membe1s plus one. Having dctennineil the failure pattern o f the stru cture uuder consideration, tho nltim11to loads will be de.duc.e.d from the equilibrium of l.ht.~ mc~hanis111 iuto which the truss hns been converted. As.':!,lmc, for (\Xample, that the olastic limit will h~ exccc!lt~d at Hr.st in hn.rs 1 and 2 the ultirnnta loacls fo r which are givou by

N1,u.tt=mR.F, aud N2,utt=mRP2

694
h~

ModPm /)eRign 1 1-fethods

The magnitude of Joad P causi11g the failura of tho truss wil l obtained from tho equilibrium of moments about poin t A of all the forc~s acting to tllo loft of t'C<~tion / - / (see Fig. 18.15)

'2.MA =0;
wherefrom

Pultd- N t,ulth- N2,,1tr = 0

d

P ull =

Nt. 11 uh.t.N2. ultr

mR(hPt+rP2)
d

The design of redundant trusses is further complitnled by t.he fact that compre.ssed bars mny loose their stability well bol'oro tho interna l forces become t~qual to the nltima le bearing 1:11pacitios mRF of the c.oue.csponding members. J n that case H bocorne..s necessary to lind the critical loads for all tho compressed element~. Jl is worlh uoling that fl r.cdundant truss cau fail not. only during t he ;\ppli<:atiOII of the Jonds hut also 1lul'ing unloading. ]II tho U.S.S ..J.l. t.his quosl ion has boon studied in dt\tail by Prof. S. flrmstein and Pmf. ~. Stroletsky.
().1 5. JH~DUJ'\DANT STHUCT ri~ES SUrlJECT8D TO nEPI\J\TI!:I)

LOADI NG

The unloading of a redundant st.mcturc stressed beyond its (']astic li miL Jeavos residua.! strains in u number of ils membNJ>. These straiu~ and deformations rnay incroflse with cmch snc.ccssi vB loading load ing il.nally to the failure of the s truc turP.. The question is of l.he greatosl importanc-e for practically all struttmos Hre loaded nn<l unloaded repeatedly during their service life. First, let us see what will happen to a redundant structure if a single load is reJleatedly 11pplied at Lhe s a me place and then romovcd. A.s an example, let us take lb(.l system consisting of nn absolutely rigid hoa m carried by throe olasto-plastic. hungl:'rs (l?ig. 19.15). A s ing le load P is app lied at the centre of the ben m. I n l:<' ig. 20.15 we hnve represented the deflections sustained by lhc system during a sories of successive loadings and unloadings. lf tho magn i tude of the applied load P' is sm11ller t.hau thnt. of the ultirn a tH one, but suffici ently large to provoke plastic defol"mfltion of t ho c.cntral hanger, this hanger will r~tai 11 11pou unloading a residual s train . ThB two other hangers even if t heir elastic limit has ne\'Or heen exceeded will also rouwin strained for they are conooc.tcd to the rentrnl hanger by means or l:he T"igid beam. H onr,) upon unl oading tho twn ouLot lumgers will remain ex hndcd und tho centrnl hanger will be c.ompre~;Sed, t he s um of th(l YC1'tical proj ections of t.hese t hroe forc-es r-cmniniog nil. Thus. the res idual st.rosses will ho holancod within the system iLself. Let. th~o< residual stra i n of three hangers bo equal to b.'. wh.cn tho sLruct nrc is loaded for

6.15. /ledundant Structurns Subjected to Repai.C'd T,onding

605

a second time, compressive stresse,'l will disappear in the aonlral hanger as soon as the load has reached a certain magnitude P. Any additional increase of this load will lead to the appearance of tonsilo stro.sscs iu this hanger whereafter its elastic limit will be exceed-

Pit:r. 19.15

Fig. 20.15

cd once again. However, the magnitude of load P'' will be considOIably greater than at the first loading and tho residual strain 11"- 11' will be smaller. As soon as the applied load is reduce(!

. m IIIra;
{(JJ (CJ

(d)

lpl

,. P

k-------~~L.=

Pz

fP,

---------t:>Pz-""-c.:::l~P

Fig. 21.15

to its former val11e the stress in the central hanger will become again equal to cr,,F while the stresses in the two other hangers will become equal to those developed during the first loading. The additional residual strains in the central hanger will decrease with each loadi1lg and there will be n moment wheJl they will becomo completely stabilized, the system reverting thus to a perfectly elastic state. In that case the magnitude of the load leading to tho failure of the structure will be the same regardless of the number of its applications.*
*[tis assumed;.that the number of loadings is woll below t.hat h1ading to the app!lnrancc of the fatigu() J!henomenon.

(i!IG

ll'lodrrn Desig11 Mtl ilods

Let us examine a lso thl:l case whl:ln dHre1ent loads arc repeated iu succession. The structure will consist of an elastic bcnm suspended lo three hangers Wig. 21.15) and loads P 1 and P 2 will he appl ied in turn, load P 1 lcadiug to the appearance of plastic strains only in lite central hauge1 and load P 2 only iu the ouler ones. As for t he beam i t.seH we shall assume l hat its elastic lirnit rc.>rnains un ~ nr IHtssed. Afto1 tho fust application of loarl P 1 pol'manenl dcfol"malions wi II sot in nnd lhe elast ic beam will hecomo concave upwal'dS ns indicated in Fig. 21.15a. T h e second load ing will lead to lhe i nvelsion of tho cmvatul'e or the beam and after un loading tho heam will remain deflected upwards as indicated in Fig. 21.15/J. Thl' suh:;equent loacfings nud uuloadings will increase t.hc residual sLt<lins of the haugcrs (sec F ig. 21.15c and d) unt.il failure will occur due to cxc:ossivo ~LI'Ilir t!;, The bearing capncit.y of a stntcturc will romniu unoiTectcd by tepeatcd loading only if lhe inctease of residual stmin:; stops completely nfler a certain number nf loadings and unloadings. and provided tho internal forces due both to the upplicatio11 of t.hc lond!; and to the residual s trains remain IJelow the ultirnnt.e slrengt h of the C()l'responding Cl'OSS sectio n. 'J'hc nb()ve c.ondit~i<>n mny ht oxprcssod hy the following inequa lity
S-l-S0 <;.S,.u

where S is the total stl'ess ill the member of the reduudaut !ilrucLure rcgnnlecl as perfectly elastic duo to the applied loads; S 0 is the rosidu11l or initial stress in the same memltor existing in t.ho nhse nee or a ll loads, a nd Suu is the ull.imato st r ougth of the santo member. IL follows Lhat t.hc deformntious of a slructure will remain limited after any numhot of load repetitions only i it is possible to liucJ such a co mh in~t tion of residual (or initial) st.res!>es thnL bheir resultant with Uae stresses duo to tho ghren cxlcl'llal loads npplierl iu :111y succc~l'iOn will remain below the ultimnlo strength of the appropriate members. On lltt> contrary, if suc.b a combination of initial st1esscs aud strcssl's dne t11 the loads is impossibll', t he deformat.ions of the stntrturc will increase indellnitely until fni luro occurs. This principlo lirst eslablishecl hy Blcildl. redm.os the determina tio n of ul timate loads for continuous b oH ms to a sim ple l'qualizntion of maxi mum ordinates to the e nvelope botuling momot curve covering nil possdhle loadings. In t.he U.S.S.H. t.hi::; question has been swrlicd in detail hy Prof. A. G\'ozdev and Pl'of. A. RzhaniL~in.

IHOEX

Angle intcrnnl frictiou, 28:)..4 r~poso, 283 twist., 6tH, 624, 657 Arch(es) bowstring , HS cetltr( Jiuo, f 21J, 128-9, 4711, 525 ftxed Nod , -131, -178, 480-527, 688-91 , SPe ah-o Arch(es), rcdun-

403-<l, 478 , lo81). 528, u87 trus.sl!d , 229-42 , 57~ wi th variable cross sections. 480-1, 528 Arl.iculation, SJI:ICO framed s uucturo, 2<'J3
Dar

1-\vo -hin~ed,

dnnc.

olilect C l)mputation, 521 -7 shrinl;agc, 52()-1 t.em)lorntul'c changes, !H820 flat , 330, 3fi'J , li8i , 487, 528 hing(l ~. 478, ~t also Arch(t>s). lhcd oml mnsomy, 478-9 masimum t!con omv, 128-!l, ti7!1 muaihinged, 236-8 llt!Ulrn l lf nP., .ec Arch(cs) , Ct!nlrt! line onc-hingt>, 478 p:orabolk, 497-503, 520, 521-7 raLillnal t~on llgttratilln. 124 rt>ctllngulat, 481 reduntlalll, 478-528, 578 dc.sigu, 68/o-92 iJ10ucncc !inc.,, 503-18, 52<1-G s li'C$~ annly,s.is, 481-4 nprmxhnat<: methods. 481treinforccd tonc.mLt>, <:\78. 518-2{ rise. fl)4 span, 104 spnnd rl'l. Hl4 stal.icnlly indet('l'lni nate., 479 , sN: alsl) AI'Ch(IJ.S) , l't:dundunt thl'<!o-hinged , 10<1-149, 478-ll parabolic 279-80 stresses, H4-28 support reaction~. i07-1 4
Lird , 14/o-9

r.urv<.'cl, 3'11 ilile. 210 itoclinnd. 595 UUJllher: 20-1. 28. ::10. 192, 2<18-U polygonal. 33il rcctihnl'ar, 338. lo JS-G, 588-\10 suhstilute. 182-4. 1!l(i, 254
cnntilover , fl!l, 87, 3H5-6, 599-GO J inOuen<:e lines, 1,8-!) bending JfiOlliCIIt, -14-il l'caction, a!l-40 shear, 41,-8 ('.Oillinuous, 677-ii' n nnlysi~. 4A78 iu 0nNICe lines, 46G-77, 58.'i-7 hending mllm()nt , 41i8-7G t'1action , 47C-7

Bcam(s)

Gross. 216

Shl!M , lj72-(i

>2'1

curved, 335-li <hllloct ionll, ali<'l degree of redundlluc:y, 79-Sii dotrhlt!-spon, ser ai&<J J3catnlsl ,
l WG-SJiiiD

ceding, 4C.5~i h ingl>tl, 77-8 ltnuginnry, 362-3, 371-2 nuolti!<pau loiuged, 83-5 stAtica lly det<'Jminato, U -5, 71i-95 , 275-ll with overhang, .~u Beamr.sl ,

trns;wd, 229-:-13

cuntiJuver

H!J8

/mlt?X

polygonal, 95, 381-2 ndund11nt, 593-601, !l12-3, lilt!! reference , ~16-7 simply ~upp<H'ted, 35-18. 77, 8(i influcncu lhws. 3fi-52 bonding monent, 4.0-51 reaction. 36-40, 49, 52 shear, 43-9, 51-2 singlo-spuu, 5!)5-9 stnhility, :!5, 8tl stutic.all y determinate, Ui1-5 statically indeterminate, 675-81t tl'llSSI)<J. 406-7 t.\\'0-.:S}Hin, 464 , see also BNun(s), <luuble-spun uniformly loaded, 4Hi-7 wooden. li70 Btlyakov, N., 11! B()nding nomottl.s, 32--1, 40-3, 77 catry-ovcr, 658. 660 ddermination, 53-7, 87-8, 114-7, ali, ;.:1:;, 457-8 diagram, 32, 34, 77-8, 89, 117, 18U. 463, 53:HI. 540-1, 553-4, 582-5. 595-0, 602-4. ll08, (125-6,

(i3i :;umuuuy unit, 543, 552. 5(i2 onV<)IOpll curves, 4tH -(i l'qlilibrium, 36. SG-7, 128-9,
155-6, 193, 225, 240, 6t8 inOuenfA} line!l, see Influence line.s, hondillg monumt maximum. 70-6, 78, 1,65 minimulll, 465 po~itivo, :~1, 33, 1'14 llllhalaJH:.tld, !15~. (itj(H BtnL .stnt.ically dctcrminutt, !)5 lhroo-h ingod, 'l04, 148-\) l3lll'natsky. N.. 655 .Bernst.t,in, S . , fi91, Betty, :-1:1-1 3cr.ukhov. N . . 13 l:Heikh. fo!)(i DolrJtiJi, V., 13 Oridge cantilever. 84 deck. 207 high\vay, 5!>7-71 railway, 478, 577

rotation, 22 instantaneous. 271-a zeto velocity, set Contro. rotation Chain. kinemntic, 37() deformations. 376-8 Chord, tl'USS, 1 fit Coefficient. see also Factot t!wrmaJ expansion, 337. 521. Cohusion, granular materiuls, 284 Concreto. shrinkago , 520-t Const.rai nts imaginary, 65(i rtOCllSSUl'Y, 387-8 number, 248-9, 387 minimum, 24li, 387 provcnting joint dofl~ction, 594-5 redunda11t, 249, 384.-5. 388, 411. 576 eplncement by forc.os, 266-8 Contr:acUon, thermal, stw Strain~. ternpenture Coulomb, 28.'> Cou nterhrnc.e, 1.51 Cross. H .. 655 Curves, envelope, bnnding moment, 1\61-u shearing force. 464 Deflcctior1s, 321-3 graphs, 1\38, 508 join Ls, 594-5 princ.ipal. 391-2 rigid joints, 601 secondnry, 391-3 stnrc.tures . 378-82. 408- fJ, 413-4, 421 ' lt.23-6 due to Lemptlrature c.hange. 519,
()18-24

unit. :'l\11-2 Dcformat.ions, sec also D<Jfloct ions, Strains kinoruatic chain, 37()-8 D iagoual, truss, 21li Diagram 'Maxweli-Crlllltona . 177. 579, see alsu Stress. diagr11m virtual displacomeuts. 264,

thrcoSilan, 567-H
throngh, 207

tcnt.ro
llastic 430, 507

D isplncemen ls computation, 340-82 ~tccuracy control , 542-5 olustic loads method, ;-157-63, '86, 505-18 grnph multi plieation mel hod,

269-73

340-1

Jnd~z

G99

energy met.horl, 355-7 v('.n>shdusgin'!! rnethod, 34155, Sfi3, 485, 489 dtdiuition, 312 dimonsic111alit.y, 327 horizc>ntal. 421 lint>ar, 328 rwgativc, 263, :330 posH-ive, 263, 275. 3;10 se.condnry, 429, 530 u ni t, 489, 499-50! virtual diagram. 264, 2G9-73 principle, 2li1. 2G3 nom o, Schwt>dl<n
Jo~aLh ,

s~rain

of forr~. 124 glastidt.y, theory, J1 l~ lcments, see alS~J .\fember(s) beal'ing C.'lpac.ity, 674 rruluro. 672 secondary. 218. 223 Euorgv, ~ train. 317-21 Equilt1on(sl, see nlso l!' ormula{s) ~quilibrium, t\05. 632-5, 642,

E ccen trid~y

ste l\1 a Lel'ia)s, grmltllar

kinematic, rl4:, s imuJtanMus ;cohtlion, 515-50, li35 coefficiont checking, !i16-8,

:~hridge.d

~58

637

uniformity, UU!I-70 working condltl<lnS, 670 Filonenlco-Boroclidt, ~1.. JS Forco{.s) cxtcmnl, wotk of, i.l10-n innucn<:e lines, ~ea JnRuonce lines inter11al. see. Slr<'-'!St'S maximum. 70-0 normal , 33 determination, 114-7, 363-4, 555-6 dingr.un. 31, 551:, 639-41 positiv!. 31, 113, 114 reactive, 60fi resultant.. 1 ::!3 shMring. :~t-4, lo:-1 determinntion, 53-7, 87-9, 114-7. 5lo5!) diagram , 31. 36, 89. 5~, 639 dircc.t-iou. loi7 onvelopc CUI'VCS, ((I.S, max.imum, 4f>5 m'inimum , loOii negativo, 34 JlOsitive. 31 -2. 31 triangle, 28<l, 288 FormulaCs), s<;e also quation(s) Coulomb's. 28lt Mohr's. 329-31, 337, 3!,5, 355 Zhurav~ky'!!, 314 Frttme(s. St<l! nlto Structurc(sj, framed rlouble-spnn. 550-i. 5Gt-7 , 624-6.
(it')1./)

solution by graph multiplkalion mothocl , 612-5 Ly statical metl1od, 607-12 s train onergy, 373-4 of tltrec moments. 444 tdtimate <>quiJit.rium , 676 E uler . L., i2, 106 )~spansion. thermal. Me Strainll, tcm)lerature Fuc tor di>Mibulim, 1157. 1159-60, 662 rocal. 454-Uf. lol'l-hand. 454-6, 469 l'igh~haud. 456. 469 lond cornbiualion, li69 ovt>doad, f'l('>9 saft>ty, tl!>7-8, 681 scah., 271 , 273-5, 278 s tlffness, 657, 659, 6(1t-2

kneo. :-mll-7, 33!1-t.O, 37fS, 380-1,

G21..1,. poLnt. 330, ::Yts. 3'18-9, 3!l3, 398, 401-3. ll10-5. 417-8. 540, 5~ . 59:-1. ii09-1'1 , 613. (\15, 627. 647, C.91 rec.tangular, 6 18-!l rt>dmu.lont, 684-5 rigid , 3()iJ-Ii symm~trical, 5B2, 5t.O, 550. 7, 561 -7 thre~hinged, 94. 353-'l two-st.ory, S.Si-61, S{lS, li41-2 Frnmowork, su. S\ructuto(s). framed
ll!lS-401, 1,20-1, multisJlllll. 422
uom.~ymmol.ricnl. lo~3-lr,

582

Golprkln. 13 . 1.3 Galiloi, G., H Gauss, I< . 545 Graph

7()1

Jnd~~

nrea, 3~3--4 deRoct.iou, li38

positiou of ctmlJoicl , :~ r, :~-t. G'' 'Jzdov. A. 13. o<\2 , 0111>
Jl lng<!(S)
C .l'U\1 II.

rig ill, ti-8. 37!.1, 590,

denectiou~.

601

c;r.&

.Kcldy~ h . V. , liti~
King-po~t.

:!17

238

Krylov , !1 . 13 Kulihin, I., '106

Lagrnnge, J . 12 Lino c leavag.,, 285 doncction. a63-7. 1171 <! lM;tic 577, 589 i11fiucmct~. see rnnuouce lin~s JlfOl!Stll'\). 12:i-li, 4 79 slip. !l87i

di!ltribut iou .tong ht>lllu, I!IJ--4

doulolc, ilR7

intNtucdial-t. 3811-5
mubile, 83 uurn ber. i!) urdiuury. :%t~-7 plastic. 1\i:l. t\81 -:!, lil:\7. ti91

H yporll<~l<hl, Sllllkhov ':!, :!4:i

I I<>Cok~,

n .. 12

JuOuo ur.e line(sj

bending

L011d(s 1 unt isy mrnelric.al,

~~~11.'.

536-!,2,

64fr7

t:n. 41\R-7t>, 513. u;;t ~~~~ n~ tru c.L i uu kiu<)rnat. ic. rnclhocl, 2\SI-$1\ 'oii I , 1:15-ltiJ. 5811 rnelluul nf inst<lll lnulottS cent!'<' 11f n>tulinn. 26<h'>
llt!U~ral point 144, ~39, 241

IOIIIII(JUl, 'otl-51. !.14-5. tH. :ml~t. -1:11. 43fi:

il,

llll!llwd , 139,

CIIIICCOlrat.cd, 34. ~>2-4, 11S9, ;159, 525, 5!!7 movi ng . 59-1~8 criLi<:al. 1)2 , li7 doat.l, <lii1 -a. li71i dl.'sign. Gli9 <'IMtic. iJ()~-72. 4:-\(1, ~)6-\l, 517 eq ui n1leu~. 70-6 Imaginary, 4:!9

sl<.1pe aud dcR;ctiurl'! wethod ,

tYt\l-5)j
statical motl11~, 431 e<Htl.iuwus blnm~. 'tt!H-ii. 585-7

indirecL applicatiuu. 49-52 li \'I.', 46t -3 must unfav<Htr;l bl11 pnsili1n1, :s.'>,
5H-Il9

11,.1 cl'ilk.nl l>pcx, ()2 nomal fmc.c. 1::\f!-\l, 2 15, :il3 roacliou, 3G--41l, Ml. 52. Ill, 93-4 , t:lll--42, 1-fo;',, 213. 2:H. 2::!8, 2lt I. 4:>:! , ii:IH. 171>-i rtduudohl slriiC~Ur('~, -13 \--40,
C<II'O ln<)fllCIIl,

tlloviug. 34-5. ii7, 4M. 1,7(), 1\79

uniformly disLdlmt<~d . li8-H

positi1u of conl.t'c of gl'llv i~ y. 1,29 priru:i ple nf supN'J)OStli<lll, 35 ropculc.ul . M4-H RlO.Iic.aJ. 310 S)mmelricnl, 5;{H--42
transformatron, 538.1,2
ultimutc. 668-9, l\78 uni(orm, 51,-7, 18!1 , 59(> urtHormly clbtribut<!<l , :l~. 343 Londiflg, s~' L<>tHiisl

f>Q:-\-1 !S ahc<ll'. 41!-!J. :il -:!. !It-:~. 135-7, :w7, 2111, lo<l:! 3. loJ7, 472-6, :il:l. llf2

simihu, 71
Sl.rC$S, j!J!J-211),

n :J-3;-j,

238-\l,

Ll11u.~l, 221, 231, , 2:~R Julcgrul . ,\olohr's. 341, iHI.i-7

277-U

.\ lassos, d11stic , 1o:-1v Muto.rinl~. granular

Jclint.,;
defiecLinrr. !j!)-'\-5, hingcd, 1!S
<)(~I

arlivl.' prl~ure.. 281\-92 augle of internal rictiron nngl<' of repose, l::S3

~3-4

cohesivn, 28'1

number,

2-~8

11nrlk.ul:1t easus of pl't>ssuco compull\ tion, 2!)8 -305

Jndl'z

iOJ
of
i lll (II~I'YiHUI' SO il SHI'IIIOU{l i.CIJ

p<li'OSity. 282

by

Jll'Oport.iC!;, 28i.!-4 . 1\'laxwt>ll . J .. 310. 325 Mornbt>r(sl , 6ft: also Elc:>mClt(l!) idlt>., 249 stiffness fnctur, 657 1.-tllSS, groups of. 21/:l 111 othocl(ll) diSJIIUcl1UIOJlt cowpu tutiou , .~ee Di~:~p1acomcm1s. c.ompnLntion influence Jino const-I'UC -Lion. S<'e I nflucuC~! line, Cllnstru cti ou of mom ent!', ~rRph-aunlyl ica l. 4~5 Ponc<.>lcl ~. 2.10-2 sll'(ISS determ irwl.ion , -~rr.Stross( c.~). clelllnnhwl.ion
.Momnnt.

r oduuuant. 24U, 577-8

wn l.cl', 30<1-5 ugainsL poJ~gmlllll }' shuped surlitCl', 301-3 Willer, ?,05 water sa turut.ccl l.'arlh. 303-4 wiucl, t:G!l Princi ple of SUJlCfJl(ISition, a5, 31\1, 4t il 5,

{)( virtual clisJ>Inccrntnt.s, 2GI ,

430

Prokofyr,-, 1., 13
Pru~kurynl;o,, .

20:i

L., 217

ltabirwvich, 1., IH
n cactietn(~l ,

bending,
C()t'IJ,

&1'1'

Ocndiug nomt>n t

143-4
j

of iuertin. :H!l, 180, 521 , 528

origin, 56

ronctiv e. GO!Hi sla t-il~uJ , ;!t.O

PMwl. f.!J. 1M

Bt.-7, 1o11. 4C.5. OcH-4, sec als" 'Stt)lporls, Jcaetion ubutmtnt-. 240. 371 :IUAI)' lkal lllc.tluo d or d ei.eJ'JUiniug, t07-8 grapl ic.cl rnttlwd C)f determini ng , 1(18-10 hol'i Zoll t.ul C-<llllJIIIlllmt.s. 1<18

imugirlili'Y, 4G6

length , 21 li

P:tjlkuvich. P .. 13 Pilt, shel'l, 282

influouct l ilrt~~. I 11w(si. cacliou redHndarct-, 521-to

UlliL. 111 0-7

,<f!c

tnnut>ncu

Pl;lll t>

PlosUci ty. theory, 11 .1-'Jalc h~ring, 15 J>iu-co nnoclcd . 270-::1 l!inglc. 26!1-76 Poinl foc.1d, -'.511-6 1 ldt-huwl, 1\54-!i l'ight-hond , tl5tl neutral , I :j( -5, 239, 21,1 JHtuttl, <19. 151 Polygon forc-e, 122. 171-7, f79 fun il'uJar. 12:.!

ch!li\'Hgt. 2!:15-6, 2\lr.-5, 302. il07 l:lli fl. 2fs5

vctic:ul cornponont. 108. 2ii(i Rcdund anc.y, dagr<tl, :i83.1.,, 381i

H7.h1Hlit-~iu,

A . , l>!l(l

Ponc.!!ll'l-, 2UO
.Ponumartw, S.,
Prc~urc

Porosi~y.

1~

Scmikulcnov. C .. 77 Shukhov, \' . , tflu Shcor. stt Pore~:. sll{larlug Smirrwv. A .. 13 Snil.ko, N .. 13 Spa1r. tl'ti S.S , 151 St.railll!. set! f/.lso De nec.ttons, DE-foruwtium !>las ti c. 671-:.! tl'ln peatun., :-1\17-40. tiiS-24 Streugtl des ign, fli;!J ul1 imat(), U~1
Str(ISS(csl iu nt'clu~~. '114-28. 481-521, 528 luc '" conct'l' LC llluinkugc. 520-1
cl~.>tc:rmirwtillll !IC~uracy clu\ck, 551~7

of gl'lllllllat matel'illl.\1, 282

t>nr~h.

282. 2R5 activo, 21H-!l2, 295, o05 direct computation cf. 294-8 unit, .296-7, 301-2, 305 hydrostalic, 303-5

analyt.ical rncthc1d. 1 H-21 approxi1nate ml)lhods, loR4 521 . nrv", .(\1\

702 ___________________________I_n_d_e_x ______________________________

<\(lnlhirwu me~hod. 646-8 41iroct mdhod , 182-6 olll~:t.ic centre method. 426-31 foc:.nl p<Jinls mct.hud, 453-61 graphielll method, i22-8, 174-82 mdho<l <Jf har replucement, 2M-6 method or fo)f(:es. 389-9/i, il97-8, 1,()8, 588, li41-2,
()1,7-8

.~ poc.e,

with rigil joint.s, 590 rigidity. in vn~tigatio., by r.ero load uwthod , '1\)2, 249-51} ~imple. 20. 1!11-5, 1!1!1-213, 3!J3-1, 411 -3 uu:dliury. 425 imaginary statc. H2-1.

243-60. 37!!-82

method <Jf joint-~. Hi3-74, tR2, 1n, 204-5, 2s1, 253-5 me thod of rn onwnt distributi Oil, (155-(\0 mel.hod of momeul.8, 155-(i3, rnet.hod

stuhil'ity, 191-9 ~tatically dt>te.nniunte, 182-6

lhreodim~usional, see ture~. fl'nm ed, spac.e

211,

Struc-

182, 200-3, 2W. ~51 -2 4lf rod ucing spaco

~truc~u n .> to plano ones, 256-7, :!59-tiO nwthod of :;l!Ctions, 161-3, 25 1' 257-9 molluHI of shc:~rs. 203-4, 251-3 mixo:d me~hod, 641-6 slope and deflections method, 588-f>53 11iagru m , 177-82, 328-9, 415-23,

thrust devr.loping. 22:~;~3 hing~rl . 358. :~!i6-72 imagir1ary statL. 360-1, < H2-4 largt:-span. lOG masoury. 11!17 multispan. 2J 3

plane, 2t1-30 redundant, 383-5, 388, :HJ3, 426, ri90-3. !\51 . 694-6 au~ lysis. :)\14-408, 529-87.
6 20' 1146-8' f.58-6!\ gr'<Hlpiug of uu kuowns, 5il3-!l U~(' of R~'lfllll(\l.l'y, 529-33 oquilihrimn. 419 influence lio!:s. !t3t--10, sc~ also rnnuence linE'$ sl. re\'~es in, 408-15 reinforced conc.rete. !lii7 sta~ically tl ltJ>r minatt), 21:\-30, 182-fi, 213, 2-18-51, 182 statically indetel'lninate, 2(1-7. 383. 39... ' 423-ii' 581-5 sec also S t.rur.turos, redundant
analy::~i5, ti24-4l through, seP. Structme.s, framed uJt.imn te stn te, fili8-9 Strut, 151. Supports hui!L-in onrl, 17 displnr.tments, 372-6, 410-5 fbcod. 22

58:1, ()18

distrih11tion i ll t.russe.s, 186-91

du l lo oroction defect, 58i in fl'amod struc.turr~s. 182-6, 199210 , 550-75 normal , 143-4, 1..!7 in l'lduudanl ~L.ru ctun~ o luc to 1uovcuwnt of supports, 410- 5 duo lo temperature changes. 408-10, 518-20 in thrN>.- hiuged arches, 114-28 in trusses . 153-82, 217 Strolctsky, N . '1 3, 668, G94

symme.t.ricul, 52V. 538

Sttinger, 4!!
Structure(~)

adequate s trongth. 667-8 doflr.-ctions. i\44-5, 408-0. 413, 421, 423-G deformations , 372-!>2 lesign methods, 61i7 -% dastic. CHntre. 482 framed , 17-30. 150, 404 -6 ana lysis, f>28-4t compl iC{I tcd, 20, 182-6, 105-9, 213-1\, ;~() influence Jines for stresses, 199-216

fixed end. 17
freo, 15 hinged immovable, Rec Supports,

fi.'i'cd end
im aginary, 661 movabl e, 22 movahle rollor, J;i pendnlum, 15 re.at:.t.ion . 15, 17. 26 , 36-!rO. 54, !)5, 105, 107-H, lo45-li, sea also

lnds:r. HcacLiou(s) sctLIE>mcnt, 4 15 space framew<lrk, 245-8 spherica l lixed, 245-6 s pherical movahl11. 245-(i s pherica I roller, 245-6 stable. 23 typl'S, {5-7 Syst.om{s) arched, 12 auxilial'y, 2'16-8 complic.at('d. 250 diaplttr.E>mrnl graph, 358-60 h ing('Connocted, 21, 330 L'ea l stuh, 328

703 _,
Howo, 152, tSR with inclined Sllpport.s, 223-!:1

K-, 153
multiplo, i53

parabolic, 189 parallel chord. 'lr12, 21 U plane. 17, 20, 251 polygor~a) , 152,
Pnsl, 1:,3 Prult, 152, 188, 205-7 redundant, 01!3-4 roof, 153. 658-61 simple, 20, 28. 30, 1 5:~ nurn her of bars, 20-1, 28,30 numbQt' joi nts. 20-1. 28. ;l0 stresses in, 153-82 slalically de!crminntc, 28 ,30.153 llt.nUc:~lly irulcttrtninnl-c, a 42H, 43R, strniu ()0~-rgy cmnputuli ons, 321 with suMividcd panels, 216-23 threo-hinged. 'lil-1 through brid~c . 220, 278-g triangu lar, 1;.~2, 18\), 200-13 unstnlllo, 21-2 uses. 12 , 150

Stllb!c. 20. 22-3, 25-7, 192. -194 252 staticnllv iudolerminnte. 30 tbrce-hingcll , 104-7 trans fotme!l. 182-3 , 195-6 triangulnll.'d. uses, 12

or

statically d<Lorminato. 30, 23H.

m-st. ona

llllity slate, 328 unsl~1hh>. J!l. 2t iuslautaneously, 18. 23, 25, 1Hil-(t. 196, 212

llllyielding, 18, 21, 23

Tn ulc, do~ntod, 252 Theore m

zso, :no.

Wanl.'n, 152, 188 su bdivid ~ 'tl, 217

Wltipplo, 153

Vcrcshchagln. A., 31ol

Vinci,

CasLiUinno's, 355-H 1\laxwell's. 325-7, 375, 391 of L'eciptoCill rE>actions, 613 of rcci.proc al work.~ . 32 1-,'i, 413-5, 613 o( three lliOtllt\Jtls, 44 1-53 Zhuravl!ky'~;, 33, 3:}8, 416-7 Thrust. 115. 226 . 240 Influence line, 224 due lo tem porn ltuo <:-IHtllge., 520 Tic. 151 Trai11, standurd, 72-3 Trusstesl arc-hed , 153, 223 I.Jrir.lge, 153, Vt3, 2i7-!l c::antilP-ver . J 53 . 252 elassific.a tion, 152-3 conti nu ous, 577-8 cresront, 153
douhle, i !)3 dOtlble Wu.-ren , 153 end-sup,t>Ortod , 153, 2(12-3

VlasoY. \ '., 13
Wall (~}

r.. ., i

pile-. 281-2
rctuining

loads, 281
pres>uro on, 282-309,
~e a.lso

ti eoflP.ctions, 345

Pressure st.abili t.y . 287 t.ypcs, 28t -2 \1-Stl!, 12 W odgl'. thoory , 28!>-7, 305 work cl~meulary, 315 of external (Ol'Ces, 3l0-6, 322-S, 614 m omont, g 12. 3!4 of s hearing stresses. 315 i11 torms of internal forces. 322, 328

or

equilihrnun. 28 hmge-jointed , 18 , 28, 23li

Zavriev. K., 13 Zhemochkin, H . , 13 ZhlJravslcy. 33

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