Definition:Layering is a type of asexual plant propagation in which adventitious roots developed on stem which it is attached to parent plant.

After proper rooting, the stem is detached and become a new plant for growing on its own roots. The practice based phenomenon is known as layerage. The stem portion which detached from mother plant is known as layer. The process of rooting is may be naturally or artificial. For commercial production of some plant this is done. By this method, number of plant is produce by less mortality. This practice is common in blackberry, raspberry, runner of strawberry, stolons of bermuda grass. Structures as off-set, suckers and crowns are handled essentially as rooted layers. Layering is an ancient nursery technique which was used extensively by Europeans nurseries from eighteenth century for propagating woody shrub and tree species. Mould and trench layering were developed to mass produce hard to root clonal root stocks for apple. To a large extent, layering is a nursery techniques have been replaced by more modern methods of rooting and container production. Nevertheless, the procedure is highly reliable for hard to root clones and continues to be used in the production of horticulturally important root stocks and other plants which are sufficiently valuable to justify the higher costs and hand labor requirement associated with layering. Fruit crops propagated by justify the higher costs and hand labor requirement associated with layering. Fruit crops propagated by layering include: filbert, Muscadine grape, size controlling apple root stocks, and some tropical fruit plants such as mango and litchi.

Reasoning for the layering success: Maintaining physical attachment of the stem (layer) to the mother plant: This characteristic allow for a continual supply of water, minerals, carbohydrates, and other hormones through the intact xylem and phloem to the rooting area. Leaching of nutrients and metabolites associated with mist systems is avoided.

Increased accumulation of photosynthates and hormones in the rooting area of the stem: During all types of layering, an important factor is rooting success is the ability of the stem to accumulate sugar and auxin from the leaves and shoot tip. However, girding, incision, or bending of the stem may be requiring for maximizing this effect. Rooting may be further enhanced by adding auxins, such a IBA, to the girdled cuts of layers as with cutting propagation.

Reasons for layering success

Layering is a simple technique that induces adventitious roots on a stem while it is attached b the mother plant. It has proven to be a successful way to propagate a variety of plant species that are difficult or impossible to root from cuttings. There are several possible explanation for this increase in regeneration capacity. These include: Maintaining a Physical Attachment of Stem to the Mother Plant This characteristic allows for a continual supply of water, minerals, carbohydrates, and hormones through the intact xylem and phloem to the rooting area. Water stress associated with stem-cutting propagation is avoided during the long rooting period required for hard-to-root genotypes (Raviv, M., 1988).

Leaching of nutrients and metabolites associated with mist systems is avoided. Accumulation of Photosynthates and Hormones in the Rooting Area During all types of layering, an important factor in rooting success is the ability of the stem to accumulate sugar and auxin from the leaves and shoot tip. However, girdling, incision, or bending of the stem may be required to maximize this effect. Rooting may be further enhanced by adding auxins, such as indole butyric acid (IBA) to the girdled cuts of layers as with cutting propagation (Sutton, N. E., 1954). Light Exclusion in the Rooting Zone Exclusion of light from the area of the stem that will eventually form roots is common to all types of layering and is important for the success of propagating difficult-to-root plants from layers. Effect which produced shoot elongates in the absence of light is known as etiolation. Some plants are also able to produce roots on intact stems after blanching. Exclusion of light from the intact intact stem after it has grown is known as blanching. The success of trench layering occurs because approximately 2.5 cm (1 in.) of the base of the layered shoots is never exposed to light. Using PVC black tape to cover the base of shoots has enhanced the rooting of apple. lnvigoration and Possibly Rejuvenation A common procedure used in layering is to cut back stock plants and cover the base of the emerging shoot to exclude light and provide a moist rooting environment. The production of vigorous new shoots (invigoration) from the base of the plants that are in close proximity to the root system is similar to the hedging methods used to rejuvenate stock plants for improved rooting of cuttings.

The cluster of new shoots is referred to as stool shoots and the process as stooling. Rejuvenation may be a key element in inducing roots on layered stems of difficult-to-root plants. Utilizing seasonal effects on rooting:Seasonal patterns are important for root initiation and development on stems during layering. In Most cases, layering is started in the spring with the attached dormant previous season's shoots. Rooting on the shoot may not begin until later in the season and is associated with the accumulation of carbohydrates and other substances toward the latter part of the growth cycle. Management of plants during layering: Layering methods are field nursery operations, which may continue in beds for 10 to 20 once established. The proper choice of the site for good soil, drainage, and climate is essential. Only virus-tested, true-to-type propagation sources should be used. During the rooting period, layers are covered with soil or other rooting media not only to excluding light, but also to provide continuous moisture, allow for good aeration, and help in-R-late the layer from temperature extremes. Special attention needs to be paid to wed. Disease and insect control without good management, layering beds to decline overtime. In general, much hand labor and attention is required, such that layering procedures tend to facilitate expensive. Nevertheless, modem nurseries have developed specific kinds of mechanical devices and machinery to facilitate the management of large layering beds.

Procedure in layering: Simple layering Compound layering Serpentine layering Air layering Mould layering Trench layering Drop layering Simple Layering: Simple layering is the bending of an intact shoot to the ground and covering a single portion of the stem between the base and shoot tip with soil or rooting medium so that adventitious roots form. Historically, European nurseries have established permanent layering beds by planting shrubs 2.4 to 3 m (8 to 10 ft) apart, and growing them in place for several years prior to use. Once the layering beds are established, the new shoots are bent to the ground annually for layering while new shoots develop for the following year. All available shoots are worked with, thus utilizing all of the area surrounding the plant. Layering is usually done in the early spring using flexible, dormant, oneyear-old stems, which can be bent easily. These shoots are bent and "pegged down" at a location 15 to 20 cm (6 to 9 in.) from the tip, forming a "U." Bending, twisting, cutting, or girdling at the bottom of the "U" stimulates rooting at that location. The base of the layer is covered, leaving the tip exposed. This bending process destroys the phloem tissue partially or completely, and retardant movement of food materials manufactured by leaves of the exposed terminal portion. The result is an accumulation of plant food at injured area, and such a food is favorable to development root by layer. Shoots layered in the spring will usually be rooted by the end of the growing season and removed either in the fall or in the next spring before growth starts. Mature shoots layered in summer should be left through the winter and either removed the next spring before growth begins or left until the end

of the second growing season. When the rooted layer is removed from the parent plant, it is treated essentially as a rooted cutting. New shoots growing from the base of the plant during the rooting year are used for layering during the next season. With this system a supply of rooted layers can be produced over a period of years by establishing a layering bed composed of stock plants far enough apart to allow room for all shoots to be layered. When in simple layer only tip portion of bended stem is completely covered in soil is known as tip grafting. This method is used for propagation of many varieties of fruit crops like, blackberries dewberries, and raspberries. This phenomenon is naturally occurs in strawberry. In tip layering, the mother plant do not has lost any branches. Compound Layering Compound layering is similar to simple layering, except that the branch to be layered is horizontally to the ground and numerous shoots for rooting develop from various nodes rather than just one. This method was once used extensively in Europe, but has been replaced by more modem methods of rooting cuttings and growing plants in containers. Permanent layering beds are established with plants spaced 1.8 to 3 m (6 to 10 ft) apart grown for several years to establish a good root system. The vegetative top is then cut back 2.5 cm (1 in.) from the ground and shoots are allowed to grow for the following season. Before the beginning of the season, long shoots are bent over horizontally to the ground and held with wire pegs. Once new shoots grow about 10cm (4 in), the pegs are removed, a shallow trench is dug adjacent to the stem, and the shoots are laid in the bottom of the trench with additional pegs applied to hold them in place. Soil or other media is filled in as the shoots grow. A variation of this method (sometimes called serpentine layering) is used for propagat-plants that have long, flexible shoots: for example, the Muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia) and ornamental vines such as Wisteria and Clematis. The horizontal shoots are alternately and uncovered to produce roots at different nodes.

Air layering (Pot layering, Circumposition, Marcottage, Gootee) Air layering includes wrapping an aerial stem with rooting medium and causing adventitious roots to form. It was an ancient method used to propagate a number of tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs (Jooiner, J. N., 1950), including the litchi (Nephelium) (Young P. J., 1994). longan (Euphoria) (Young P. J., 1994), and the Persian lime (Citrus aurantifolia) (Sutton, N. E., 1954). Today the method is useful for producing a few plants of relatively large size for special purposes. For instance, greenhouse and field production (in subtropical/tropical regions) of Ficus species, Croton, Monstera, and philoden-dron will result in rapid production of large plants (Vieitez, E. 1974). Air layering has been used to root mature pines to obtain clones for research or to produce seed orchards (Barnes, R. D., 1974). By using polyethylene film and aluminum foil to wrap the layers, outdoor air layering is possible with many woody plant species (Grove W. R., 1947). A method used to root branches of upright growing plants that do not sprout or sucker readily is known as air layerage. It is also known as Chinese layerase. This stem is first injured by an method like slicing, notching, ringing, or binding. Care must be exercised not to injure it sufficiently as to cause breakage or death of layer. This can be affected easily by binding with copper wire wrapped tightly about the stem, and it has the same effect on rooting as other treatments. It is common practices to apply a coating of one of the concentrated hormones dusts to the area where root are to form. This is particularly helpful in the rooting of difficult species. The injured area on the stem it then covered with a handful of moist sphagnum, which is tied in place and kept continuously moist by sprinkling. By another method the moss is covered with plastic strips or sheets to retain a constant level of moisture in the area where new roots are to be formed. The film to be used must retain moisture and at the same time be permeable to both oxygen and carbon dioxide.

 A plastic known as polyethylene is a material that meets these requirements. It is available in sheets of various sizes, and it used commonly with air layers. This material is wrapped closely about the moist moss, drawn in tightly at the top and bottom, and tied securely with rubber bands, tape, or string. The film will keep the moss moist for a prolonged period, and the layer does not require further attention until it is rooted. The air layer may be made on stems of one-year wood or older, but the older branches are often slower to root and they become reestablished leys readily when moved. The time required for air layers to develop roots varies with the species of plant being propagated, from a few weeks to a year or longer. When sufficient roots have developed, the layer is severed from the parent plant and replanted in a permanent location or container. When these new plants are detached and transplanted, best results will be obtained if they are kept in a cool, shaded location until they have become established and have renewed their growth. Air layering is used exclusively in the propagation of named varieties of lychee trees. It is alto used successfully in the propagation of bougainvillaeas, hybrid crotons, hybrid hibiscus, dracaenas, panduratas, and many other kinds of ornamental plants. It is frequently used as a novelty method of propagation on plants that can readily lie propagated by other methods.

Layerage as a Preliminary Treatment. Layerage is sometimes used as a

preliminary treatment for the rooting of cuttings. It frequently happens that the layered parts do not form satisfactory root systems in the first season, but the stem pieces with small roots may be separated from the plant and treated as cuttings.

Another use of preliminary layarage is for the purpose of etiolating the stem
so as to induce rooting by cuttings. Work done by several investigators in England shows that, the etiolated portion of the young stem forms a superficial starch sheath and that roots form more readily when this condition occurs. Application of IB A to the exposed wound can be beneficial. One method described for the air layering of Mahonia aquifolium "Compacta" is to insert

a small amount of sphagnum moss soaked with 60 ppm IBA under the wounded flap of tissue (52). Increased utrations up to 2 percent IBA in talc has increased rooting and survival in pecan air layers. (spark, D,.and J. W. Chapman., 1970) Mould layering: Mound layering is a method where the shoots are cut back to the ground and soil or rooting medium is mounded around them to stimulate roots to develop at their bases. This old nursery propagation method was standardized and improved to mass-propagate specific apple clonal rootstocks in England in the early 1900s. The procedure continues to be used commercially to propagate millions of apple, pear, and some other fruit tree roots each year. It is also useful for quince, currants, and gooseberries (Carlson, R. J., 1968). Stooling produces stool shoots, whereas other layering techniques produce "layers". This method is especially satisfactory for the rooting of apple and quince rootstocks and is used in preference to trench layerage when possible, as it involves less trouble and expense. A stock bed is established by setting young plants 2 feet apart in rows 3% feet apart The plants are headed back before growth starts and are allowed to grow for one season. The following winter the plants are cut back within 2 inches of the ground level, with the result that many new shoots arise from the base during the following season. In the case of apples, which root freely from these new shoots, the stools arc allowed to remain uncovered during the early part of the growing season. The greatest number of shoots is produced in this way; after they ore formed and have reached the height of 8 inches they are mounded with 5 to 6 inches of soil. Mounding should be done with moist soil, which should be placed from the center outward, hi order to bend the shoots out and give them better spacing. This spacing seems to give a better rooting, especially with vigorous shoots.

 When plums ore being grown, the procedure is modified and the plants mounded before the new shoots appear. This practice results in the formation of fewer new shoots than the other method, but the shoots that are produced are etiolated and form roots better than those that are produced before mounding. This applies not only to shoots from stools and layers but also to stems used for cuttings, from which better rooting is obtained when their bases have been etiolated during growth. After the plants have been mounded by either method in early spring, they are allowed to grow during the rest of the season, and roots will form on the new shoots along the covered portions of the stems. In early winter the rooted shoots are removed and planted in the nursery row. These plants are set at a depth of about 6 inches. They will be ready to bud during the summer of the following year, or they may be grafted at the end of one season in the nursery. The chrysanthemum forms natural mound layers from the overwintering crown at the beginning of each new growing season. These develop into new plants when they are detached and planted out separately, Quince and Japanese flowering quince have habits of growth that permit them to be propagated from natural layers from the crown of the plant. Varieties of currants and gooseberries that do not grow readily from cuttings are frequently grown from mould layering. Trench Layering: Trench layering is a layering method in which the mother plants are established in a sloping position such that shoots can be layered horizontally in the base of a trench. Soil, bark, sawdust, or other rooting material is filled in around the new shoots as they develop so as to bring about etiolation. The procedure was developed to propagate the bacterial canker-resistant cherry rootstock Mazzard 'F12-1,' which could not be propagated by stooling. Its success was attributed to careful etiolation of the emerging shoots (Garner, J. M., G. J. keever, D. J. Eakes, J. R. Kessler. 1995).

 The method can be used for clones of other woody species that are difficult to root by mound layering (stooling), including quince (Cydonia), apple [Malus), mulberry (Moms), and walnut Uuglans) (McDonald, B. 1986). Type of this layer differs from the compound layer in that the branch is covered for its entire length instead of alternately. This method is adapted to the Propagation of own rooted apple, pear, plum, cherry, and other plants needed for research investigation or other uses. It can also be used on Muscadine and other kinds of grapes that do not root well from cuttings. Essentially trench Layerage consists of placing the main stem of a plant in a trench in a way that will permit young stems to develop from lateral buds and to form roots on the lower portions of these new stems. Plants that produce long vines can can easily be bent to the ground. Others, like apple and pear, must be planted in horizontal position with the roots in proper contact with the soil and the main stem in the trench. Obviously, this would be practicable only with small whiplike plants. In practice three methods are used in covering continuous layers. By one method, the layer is placed in an open trench. New shoots develop from lateral buds, and when they are about 6 inches high, is added to a depth of about 5 inches. Roots develop on the bases of the shoots that are covered with soil. By another practice, about 1 inch of fine soil is added when the layer is first placed in the trench. The new shoots push upward through this layer. As the shoots elongate, more soil is added around them until they are covered to a depth of 5 to 6 inches. The bases of shoots that develop when treated in this manner are etiolated, a condition favorable to ready root formation. By still a third practice, the layer is covered to a depth of about 3 inches with loose soil when it is made. The shoots push upward through this layer and develop roots from the etiolated portion of the stem below ground. In every case, the roots arise adventively from the cambium layer of the new stems. The best season for making continuous layer is in late winter or early spring. The rooted plants are allowed to develop one full growing season before they are removed from the parent layer and replanted. Drop layering: Drop layering is a combination of crown division and layering that has been used for a limited number of shrubby species, such as dwarf ericaceous plants like rhododendrons.

 And some dwarf conifer. such at spruce, barberry (Barberis). and boxwood (boxux) (McDonald, B. 1986.). Well-grown and well branched plants are planted deeply in a hole or trench and covered almost completely with only the tip of the branches exposed. New growth comes from the branch tips, but the older bases of the branches are blanched and roots form. At the end of season the entire plant is dug and divided into all of its rooted parts, each used as rooted liners. Advantages of layering: It is an effective means propagating species that usually do not root easily by as in mango, kumquat, fibberts and litchi. It is the best method of propagation of plants which are produce naturally by layering, blackberry, black raspberry. It does not require precise control on water, relative humidity, or temperature as in require other methods of propagation. It is easy to perform and does not require much facility. It is possible to produce large size plant with layering within a short time. Layering is useful producing relatively a smaller number of plants of good size with minimum propagation facilities.

Disadvantages of layering: It is costlier techniques in area where labor availability is problem. It is not possible to produce large number of plant within a short time from small scale orchard. The plants produced from layering have usually small brittle roots, that can be create a problem of establishment in orchard. In layering, if we use plant as a sock, it is not possible to derive beneficial characteristic of stock to scion through grafting. The mortality rate is more in layering, if climate change for long time or detaching is done at a proper time.